History of Electromagnetic

• Thales - Reported attractive forces of magnetite.

• William Gilbert, 1600, term electricity appeared in
print.
• Charles Francois Du Fay, 1733, introduced concept
that electricity has one positive and negative
charge.
• Benjamin Franklin, 1752, demonstrated lightning is
a form of electricity.
• Charles Augustin De Columb, 1785, mathematically
formulated electric force b/w charges.
 History of Electromagnetic
• Alessandro Volta, 1820, developed first battery.
• Joseph Henry, developed electric motor.
• Michael Faraday –Electric Generator,
• James Clerk Maxwell, 1873 –Introduced
Maxwell’s equation, foundation of
Electromagnetic Theory
• Heinrich Hertz – verified the Maxwell’s equation.
• Wilhelm Roentgen, 1895, discovered X ray
 History of Electromagnetic
Nikola Tesla – AC motor
J.J. Thomson,1897, Identified and Quantified
fundamental particles of electric charge and
electron
Maxplanck- formulation of Quantum theory
Albert Einstein- Photovoltaic effect
 What is Electromagnetism ?
 The fundamental forces of nature that connect Matter and Energy can
be defined by the interactions of elementary particles.

Standard Model of
Physics

Gravitational Electromagnetic

Strong Nuclear Weak Nuclear

 Electromagnetics is the study of forces between elementary charged

particles and their manifestation (fields, energy)
What is Electromagnetics?
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Difference between Circuit theory and EM theory
Circuit Theory-
• deals with electrical circuit
• An engineer can predict the performance of complicated electrical networks with the help
of circuit theory
Limitations
• This theory is unsuccessful in explaining the radiation of electromagnetic waves into space
in radio communications.
• It cannot be used to analyze or design a complete communication system. Example: Radio
Communication System.
Electromagnetic Field Theory-
• Although electromagnetic Field Theory (EMFT) is complex in comparison with circuit
theory but EMFT is simplified by using appropriate mathematics.
• This theory deals with E and H vectors, whereas circuit theory deals with voltages and
currents.
Advantages-
• It is also applicable in free space
• It is useful at all frequencies, particularly at high frequencies,
• The radiation effect can be considered
• This theory can be used to design and analyze a complete communication system. Example
– Wireless communication and Radio communication
Electromagnetic Applications
Electromagnetic Applications, Contd.
Electromagnetic Applications, Contd.
Electromagnetic Applications, Cont’d
 Some Applications of EM Fields
 Biological effects of Mobile Phones analysed using a Human Model.
 Some Applications of EM Fields
 At system level, Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) among highly
dense electronic packages is a very crucial problem
 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) forms a major area of
interest in Chip Industry, Power Transmission, Wireless Networks
etc.
 Some Applications of EM Fields
 Studying lightning strike and its effects on electrical systems and
navigational aids carried on an aircraft
 Some Applications of EM Fields

 Radiation from a dielectric lens antenna for industrial radar

 Some Applications of EM Fields
 Plane wave hitting various objects. We study plane wave propagation in
this course. This forms basis for studying Radar, Antennas etc
 Research Areas of Electromagnetics
• Antenas
• Microwaves
• Computational Electromagnetics
• Electromagnetic Scattering
• Electromagnetic Propagation
• Radars
• Optics
• etc …
Why Study Electromagnetics?
Syllabus
Syllabus
Books
Books
 Grading Policy
S. No Component for Grading Marks Weightage

1. CAT- I (19th - 27th Aug 17) 50 15%

2. CAT- II (30th Sep – 8th Oct 17) 50 15%

3. DA1 (16th Aug 17) 10 10%

4. DA2 (20th Sep 17) 10 10%

5. DA3 (25th Oct) 10 10%

6. FAT (From 13th Nov 2017) 100 40%

Total 100
 Prelude to EM Field Theory
 The Electromagnetic Field Theory consists of variables that not only
have a magnitude, but also show the effects in a particular direction.
To understand these effects, it is necessary to learn vector calculus

 What is a Scalar ? A quantity that has magnitude

Examples : Mass, Temperature, Distance, Speed, Entropy etc
Chennai is 142 Km from Vellore
How is it Denoted ? Small or Capital Letters (italics) such as a, A

A quantity that has magnitude and

 What is a Vector ?
direction
Examples : Weight, Displacement, Velocity, Force etc
Chennai is 142 Km East of Vellore

 Capital Letters (Boldface) such as a, A

How is it Denoted ? Small or
or with an arrow overhead A
 Unit Vector
A quantity that has magnitude of
 What is a Unit Vector ? unity and direction as the
original vector
If A = Ax X+Ay Y+Az Z is a vector in Cartesian coordinates then the
magnitude of A = A = (Ax2+Ay2+Az2)
A Ax X  AyY  Az Z
Then Unit Vector aˆ    â  = 1
A 2 2
Ax  Ay  Az
2

A
Ax â
Ay
Y
Az

Z
 Vector Multiplication
 The Scalar or Dot Product of two vectors A and B is geometrically
defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of
smaller angle between them
 
A  B  A B cos  AB
If A = Ax X+Ay Y+Az Z , B = Bx X+By Y+Bz Z

AB = AxBx +AyBy +AzBz

 For Scalar or Dot Product XX and YY and ZZ = 1, whereas XY or
YZ or XZ = 0
 By Law of Sines
B
A B C a c
  C
sin a sin b sin c b
A
 Vector Multiplication
 If C = A – B , then by Law of Cosines
CC = (A – B)  (A – B) = A2 + B2 – 2 AB Cos

A
AB = AB A AB = 0
B
B

 The Cross Product of two vectors A and B is A  B = AB Sin n̂

n̂ n̂

B B

A A
 Vector Multiplication
 The Right Hand Rule is employed to find the direction of the normal
to the surface enclosing A and B (or remember the direction a screw
moves, when rotated clockwise or anti-clockwise)

 For Cross Product i i and j j and k k = 0, whereas

i j = -j i = k
j k = -k j = i
k i = -i k = j
 What is Symmetry ?
 A physical quantity is said to be symmetric if it remains invariant
under transformations such as reflection, rotation, translation with
respect to a reference point or axis.

Reflectional

Rotational

Translational
 Why is Symmetry Important ? A physical problem can be reduced to
simple, known, geometrical forms and solutions obtained with fewer
mathematical steps.
 For a problem space having axi-symmetry, the solution obtained at a
point can be cascaded along the symmetrical axis.
 Common Symmetrical Forms

 All practical problems in physical world can be reduced to one of the

above symmetries.

 Other structures of symmetry are elliptical cylindrical, conical,

spheroidal, ellipsoidal etc.

2
Orthogonal Right Handed Coordinate System
 Rectangular or Cartesian Coordinates
 Coordinates that follow rectangular symmetry are called rectangular or
Cartesian coordinate system (after Rene Descartes).
 The three orthogonal coordinates are widely represented as x, y, z.
Range of coordinate variables are

 A vector in Cartesian coordinate can be written as

(Ax , Ay, Az)
(or)
  
Ax ax  A a y  A ax
y z
 Rectangular or Cartesian Coordinates
 An infinitesimally small displacement in this coordinate system can be
represented as dl  dxaˆ x  dyaˆ y  dzaˆ z

Where dx, dy and dz are

magnitudes of the vector dl in
x, y, z directions

 An ensemble of points in any two

dimensions is termed as a surface. Where an
infinitesimally small surface with normal
lying in x, y, z directions can be written as,

dS x  dydzaˆ x dS y  dxdz aˆ y dSz  dxdyaˆ z

 In a similar way, an infinitesimally small volume can be written as dv

= dx dy dz
 Cylindrical Coordinates
 Coordinates that follow cylindrical symmetry are called cylindrical
coordinate system
 The three orthogonal coordinates are widely represented as , , z

ρ = radius of the cylinder

= azimuthal angle, is measured from x- axis in xy plane
z = height

Ranges are
 z
Cylindrical Coordinates
• Differential displacement


• Differential area  y
x
dS z  ddaˆ z
dS  ddzaˆ
d
dz dv  dddz

d dS  ddzaˆ 
• Differential volume
 Spherical Coordinates
The three orthogonal coordinates of spherical or polar coordinate system are r,
, . Where r = radius of sphere, θ = angle between z- axis and position
vector called colatitude,  = same as azimuthal. The ranges are :
 Spherical Coordinates
Differential displacement

Differential area

Differential volume
 Relation between Cartesian and Cylindrical coordinate
systems

• Cartesian to Cylindrical

• Cylindrical to Cartesian
 Transformation of a Vector
• Cartesian to Cylindrical

• Cylindrical to Cartesian
 Relation between Cartesian and Spherical coordinate
systems

• Cartesian to Spherical

• Spherical to Cartesian
 Transformation of a Vector
• Cartesian to Spherical

• Spherical to Cartesian
 Complete Coordinate Transformations
 One has to replace ‘r’ with ‘’ in case of cylindrical coordinates

9
 Constant Coordinate Surfaces
y z = constant
z = constant,  to z-axis
x = constant
y = constant,  to y-axis
x = constant,  to x-axis
given
x z = constant, y = constant
Line  to x-axis
z Other planes follow similarly
y = constant
 = constant z
z = constant,  to z-axis
z = constant  = constant,  to -axis
 = constant,  to -axis
given
x z = constant,  = constant
Line  to r-axis
y  = constant
Other planes follow similarly10
 Constant Coordinate Surfaces
z  = constant r = constant,  to r-axis
 = constant,  to -axis
 = constant,  to -axis

r = constant given
r = constant,  = constant
x is semicircle
r = constant,  = constant
is a circle
y  = constant  = constant, = constant
is a line

11
Vector Calculus
• Integration
- Line or Contour Integral
- Surface Integral
- Volume Integral
• Vector Operators
- Gradients (relates to scalar function)
- Divergence (relates to vector function)
- Curl (relates to vector function)
• Theorems
-The Divergence Theorem
- Stokes Theorem 47
 Differential Calculus
 Let us suppose a function F(x), whose variable is x. If we take the
derivative w.r.t. the variable x
 dF 
dF   dx
 dx 

F F

 dF 
 
 dx 
dF
Slope
x x
dx

 The derivative of the function F defines how much and how fast the
function varies with an infinitesimal increment in variable x.
1
 Gradient
 Consider temperature distribution T(x,y,z) inside a box

y Observation 1
From the theorem of partial derivatives

 T   T   T 
dT    dx  
 
 dy   dz
 x   y   z  T

z Observation 2

 T T T 
dT   aˆ x  aˆ y  aˆ z   dxaˆ x  dyaˆ y  dzaˆ z 
 x y z 

 Tdl Del or  is called the gradient of T 3

 Gradient

T is a vector quantity.
Geometrically we can write the dot product as

dT = T  dl = T  dl  cos

If we fix the magnitude dl , then the maximum change in T occurs at  =
0
So dT is greatest when we move in the direction of T

Significance of Del or  operator

  
Gradient or  = ˆ
a x  ˆ
a y  aˆ z is a vector operator that
x y z
gives the direction of maximum increase of the function
Magnitude of F gives the slope or rate of increase of F along the
maximal direction
4
  Operator
 In the three dimensional space, the rate of change of a function in each
dimension can be obtained using ‘Del’ or  operator given in
Cartesian coordinates as
  
  aˆ x  aˆ y  aˆ z
x y z

 In cylindrical coordinate system

 1  
 aˆ   aˆ  aˆ z
   z

 In spherical coordinate system

 1  1 
  aˆ r  aˆ  aˆ
r r  r sin  
2
 Divergence
 Mathematically divergence is the dot product of the Del or  operator
with a given vector, and the result is a scalar
   
  A   aˆ x  aˆ y  aˆ z   Ax aˆ x  Ay aˆ y  Az aˆ z 
 x y z 
 Geometrically it can be defined as a measure of the spread of vector A
from a given point
Divergence of a vector field is the total flux per unit volume

5
 Divergence
 Divergence represent net outward flow per unit volume. Divergence
of a vector in three different coordinate systems are:
 Cartesian coordinates as
Ax Ay Az
. A   
x y z

 In cylindrical coordinate system

1  ( A ) 1 A Az
. A   
    z

 In spherical coordinate system


1  r 2 Ar  1  sin A  1  rA 
. A  2  
r r r sin   r sin  
53
 Curl
 Mathematically curl is the cross product of the Del or  operator with
a given vector and the resultant is a vector
aˆ x aˆ y aˆ z
 A    
x y z
Ax Ay Az
 Geometrically it can be defined as a measure of the rotation of a vector
A around a given point

6
 Curl
 Curl is a measure of how much a vector curls around the point. Curl
in three coordinates are:
 In Cartesian coordinates system
aˆ x aˆ y aˆ z
  
 A 
x y z
Ax Ay Az
 In cylindrical coordinate system
aˆ  aˆ aˆ z
1   
 A 
   z
A A Az
 In spherical coordinate system
aˆ r raˆ r sin aˆ
  
 A 
r  
Ar rA r sin A
 Integral Calculus – Line Integral
 The Line or Path integral is the integral of the tangential
components of A along the path L

b dl
  b 
 A  dl   A cos dl
L1 a
c
A
a

d
Where L1 is taken as an integral from a to b. If the path is abcda, then
  b c d a

 A  dl   A cos dl   A cos dl   A cos dl   A cos dl

L a b c d

   
 A  dl 
abcda
 A  dl
adcba
Except when A is conservative
9
 Integral Calculus – Surface Integral
 The Surface or Flux integral is the integral of the vector field A
along the normal of a differential surface dS enclosed by a smooth
surface S

S
A
an
dS 

  
 A  dS   A  aˆn ds   A cos ds
S S s

Signifies the net flux (number of A vectors) through the surface S

10
 Integral Calculus – Volume Integral
 The Volume integral is the integral of the scalar function  inside the
volume V
y
V
 dv
v
 x

A closed surface integral will result in a

volume dV
z

Volume integral of a vector function is


 Adv  xˆ  Ax dx  yˆ  Ay dy  zˆ  Az dz
v

11
Divergence & Stoke’s Theorem
 Fundamental Theorem of Gradient
 Remember the gradient of temperature function ?
dT   T   dl1

 If we sum up all the gradient of the scalar function for each

incremental displacement
b

 T   dl  T b   T a 
a

 It says that the integral of a derivative (gradient) is given by the value

of the function at boundaries (a & b)
b
Corollary 1 :  T   dl
a
is independent of the path taken from a to b

Corollary 2 :
 T   dl  0 since beginning and end points would
be identical
1
 Divergence Theorem
 Divergence or Gauss’s or Green’s Theorem states that the flux of
vector through a closed surface is equal to the integral of the
divergence of the vector taken over the volume enclosed by that
closed surface.

 A  dS     A dv
S v

2
 Curl or Stoke’s Theorem
 Curl or Stoke’s Theorem states that the line integral of a vector over a
closed contour is equal to the surface integral of the curl of that vector
over any arbitrary surface that is bounded by the closed contour.

 A  dl     A   dS
L S

 Integral of the curl over some surface (or flux of the curl through that
surface) gives the total amount of swirl (or the rotation of that vector).
This swirl (or rotation) can be found alternately by going along the
edge (or boundary) of the surface enclosed.

Corollary 1 :    A  dS
S
depends only

On the boundary line

Corollary 2 :    A  dS  0
3
63
dS z  ddaˆ z
dS  ddzaˆ
d
dz dv  dddz

d dS  ddzaˆ 
 Vector Fields

Classification of Fields based on Divergence and Curl

(a) A = 0, A = 0
(b) A  0, A = 0
(c) A = 0, A  0
(d) A  0, A  0

4
 Classification of Vector Fields
Curl--less or Irrotational Fields
Curl   A  0  A  v

From Stoke’s Theorem    A  dS   A  dl  0

S L
Conditions (a) A = 0 everywhere
b a

(b)  A  dl   A  dl , A  dl  0
a b L

Divergenceless or Solenoidal Fields   A  0  A    V

From Divergence Theorem  A  dS     Adv  0

S V
Conditions (a) A = 0 everywhere

(b)  A  dS is independent of the surface for

S any given boundary line
5
67
What controls EM waves?
Location/proximity Frequency
Material properties (reflection/transmission
; conductors/dielctrics) Other EM waves

69
 But why to study Electromagnetic????
• EM principles find applications in various allied disciplines such
as microwaves, antennas, electric machines, satellite
communications, bio-electromagnetics, plasmas, nuclear
research, fiber optics, electromagnetic interference and
compatibility, electromechanical energy conversion, radar
meteorology, and remote sensing.
• In physical medicine, for example, EM power, either in the form
of short waves or microwaves, is used to heat deep tissues and
to stimulate certain physiological responses in order to relieve
certain pathological conditions.
• EM fields are used in induction heaters for melting, forging,
annealing, surface hardening, and soldering operations.
• Dielectric heating equipment uses short waves to join or seal
thin sheets of plastic materials.
• EM energy offers many new and exciting possibilities in
agriculture. It is used, for example, to change vegetable taste by
reducing acidity.
 Geometric and Algebraic Forms of Vectors

 Geometric Vectors can be readily generalized into a three

dimentional space A = Ax X+Ay Y+Az Z

 To generalize vectors to higher-dimensional abstract space, it is

imperative to define Vectors Algebraically
If A = a1X1+a2X2+a3X3+………………+aNXN
N
Then an Algebraic Vector may be defined as A   ai X i
i 1

 Geometric Vector A = V1+V2+V3, where V1 = Ax X, V2 = Ay Y

and V3 = Az Z
3
 Algebraic Vector A   Vi
i1

 The significance of algebraic forms can be appreciated in many

problems of electrodynamics, especially numerical methods using
matrix inversion methods 13
 Position & Displacement Vector
Vector defining position of a
 What is a Position Vector ? point in space with reference to
a fixed point (origin)
X
dx
r x , y , z
dy If (x, y, z) is a point in space then
Y position vector r = x X+y Y+z Z

dz
Z

 An Infinitesimal Displacement Vector from (x, y, z) to (x+dx, y+dy,

z+dz) is dl = dx X+ dy Y+ dz Z

12
 Cylindrical – Cartesian Transformations
How Points Transform ?

2 2  y
1
  x  y ,   tan  , z  z Cartesian to Cylindrical
x
x   cos  , y   sin  , z  z Cylindrical to Cartesian
How Unit Vectors Transform ?
a x  a  cos   a sin   a x  cos   sin  0 a  
a y  a sin   a cos  a    sin  cos  0  a 
 y 
az  az  a z   0 0 1  a z 

a  a x cos   a sin  a    cos  sin  0  a x 

 a    sin  cos  0 a y 
a   a x sin   a y cos    
az  az  a z   0 0 1  a z 
7
 Cartesian – Spherical Transformations
Cartesian to Spherical
 x2  y 2 
r  x  y  z ,  tan 
2 2 2 1 ,   tan 1  y 
 z   x
 
x  r sin  cos  , y  r sin  sin  , z  r cos  Spherical to Cartesian
How Unit Vectors Transform ?
a x  ar sin  cos   a cos  cos   a sin 
a y  ar sin  sin   a cos  sin   a cos 
a z  ar cos   a sin 

ar  a x sin  cos   a y sin  sin   a z cos 

a  a x cos  cos   a y cos  sin   a z sin 
a   a x sin   a y cos 
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 Product Rules
 The two product rules for Gradient
  fg   f g  g f
  A  B   A    B   B    A    A   B  B   A

For Divergence    fA  f   A  A  f 

   A  B   B    A  A    B 
For Curl    fA  f   A  A  f 
   A  B   B   A   A   B  A  B   B   A

Quotient Rules
 f  gf  fg  A  g   A  A  g 
   2
,      2
g
  g g
  g
 A  g   A  A  g 
     2
g
  g 7
 Second Derivatives

Divergence of Gradient   v    2 v

2 2 2
Where 2 is Laplacian Operator 2
 2 2
x y z

Curl of Gradient   v   0

Gradient of Divergence   V  is a vector

Gradient of Divergence is not Laplacian  2V     V    V 

Divergence of Curl     V   0

Curl of Curl     V      V    2V

Where 2 is now Laplacian of a Vector V

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