Chap I

EET 3255: ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Course Content
Vector Analysis: Vector algebra, Coordinate systems, Component scalars and

vectors, Dot product, Cross product, Coordinate and unit vector definitions.
Vector definitions and coordinate transformations, Separation distances,
Constant coordinate surfaces, Differential lengths, surfaces and volumes.
Electrostatics: Coulomb's Law; electric field intensity, electric potential;
electric dipole; Gaus's Law; potential energy; spherical, linear, planar charge
distribution.
Conductors and dielectrics: Current and current density, Continuity
equation, Polarization, Boundary conditions, Method of images, Resistance of
a conductor, Capacitance, Parallel plate, Coaxial and Spherical capacitors,
Boundary conditions for perfect dielectric materials, Solution of Laplace
equation, Application of Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations.
Magnetostatics: solution of magnetic fields; Biot-Savart Law; force between
current-carrying conductors; magnetic induction; Ampere's law; toroid;
solenoid.
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Core Reading Material
1. William Hayt and John A. Buck, Engineering Electromagnetics, Seventh

Edition, 2006, McGraw-Hill, ISBN: 0073104639.
2. Dipak L. S., Valdis V. L., (2012). Applied Electromagnetic and Electromagnetic
Compatibility, John Wiley, New Delhi, India. ISBN: 978-0-471-16549-1
3. Daniel F., (2012). A Student’s Guide to Maxwell’s Equations, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge ISBN-10: 0521701473 / ISBN-13: 978-
0521701471
4. Julius A. S., (2013). Electromagnetic Theory (Pure & Applied Physics), 1st Ed.,
ISBN-13: 978-0070621503, ISBN-10: 0070621500
Recommended Reference Material
1. Bhag S. G., Hüseyin R. H., (2012). Electromagnetic Field Theory

Fundamentals, 2nd Ed, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 10:
0521830168 / ISBN 13: 9780521830164
2. F. T. Ulaby, E. Michielssen, U. Ravaioli, Fundamentals of Applied
Electromagnetics, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2010
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CHAPTER ONE: VECTOR ANALYSIS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
 Electromagnetic theory is a discipline concerned with the study of charges
at rest and in motion. Electromagnetic principles are fundamental to the
study of electrical engineering and physics.
 Electromagnetic theory is also indispensable to the understanding,
analysis and design of various electrical, electromechanical and electronic
systems.
 Some of the branches of study where electromagnetic principles find
application are: RF communication, Microwave Engineering, Antennas,
Electrical Machines, Satellite Communication, Atomic and nuclear
research, Radar Technology, Remote sensing, EMI EMC, Quantum
Electronics.
What is a field?
 Consider a magnet. It has its own effect a region surrounding the magnet,
there exists a particular value for that physical function, at every point
describing the effect of the magnet. So field can be defined as the region
in which, at each point there exists a corresponding value of some
physical function. If the field produced is due to a magnetic effect it’s
called magnetic field
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 There are two types of electric charges, positive and negative. Such an
electric charge produces a field surrounding it which is called an electric
field
 Moving charges produce current and current carrying conductor produces
a magnetic field. In such cases electric and magnetic fields are related to
each other. Such a field is called electromagnetic field. Such fields may
be time varying or time independent.
 Electromagnetic theory deals directly with the electric and magnetic field
vectors whereas circuit theory deals with the voltages and currents.
Voltages and currents are integrated effects of electric and magnetic fields
respectively.
 Electromagnetic field problems involve three space variables along with
the time variable and hence the solution tends to become correspondingly
complex. Vector analysis is a mathematical tool with which
electromagnetic concepts are more conveniently expressed and best
comprehended.
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 Since use of vector analysis in the study of electromagnetic field theory
results in real economy of time and thought, we first introduce the concept
of vector analysis.
1.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS

The various quantities involved in the study of engineering electromagnetics
can be classified as
2. Scalars
3. vectors
SCALAR
 The scalar is a quantity whose value may be represented by a single real
number, which maybe positive or negative. The direction is not at all
required in describing a scalar.
 Thus a scalar is a quantity which is normally characterized by its
magnitude. Example; temperature, mass, volume and density
VECTOR
 A quantity which has both a magnitude and a specific direction in space
is called a vector. In electromagnetics vectors defined in two and three
dimensional spaces are required but vectors may be defined in n-
dimensional space.
 A vector is a quantity which is characterized by both magnitude and a
direction, e.g. force, velocity displacement, electric field intensity,
acceleration etc.
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SCALAR FIELD:
The distribution of a scalar quantity with a definite position in a space is
called scalar field.
Example;
 Temperature of atmosphere
 Height of surface of earth above sea level
 Sound intensity in an auditorium.
 Light intensity in a room
 Atmospheric pressure in a given region
VECTOR FIELD
If a quantity which is specified in a region to define a field is a vector, then the
corresponding field is called a vector field
Examples;
 Gravitational force on a mass in space is called vector field (This force has
a value at various points in a space and always has a specific direction.)
 Velocity of particles in a moving fluid
 Wind velocity of the atmosphere
 Voltage gradient in a cable
 Displacement of a flying bird in space.
 Magnetic field existing in from north to south pole

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REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR
In two dimensional, a vector can be
represented by a straight line with an
arrow in a plane. The length of the
segment is the magnitude of a vector
while the arrow indicates the
direction of the vector The vector
shown in the figure is symbolically
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
denoted as 𝑂𝐴
Its length is called as magnitude,
which is R for the vector OA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |=R
It is represented as |𝑂𝐴
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UNIT VECTOR
A unit vector has a function to indicate the direction. Its magnitude is always
unity, irrespective of its direction. Thus for any vector, to indicate its direction
a unit vector can be used.
Consider a unit vector 𝑎𝑂𝐴 as shown in the figure.
This indicates the direction of 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ but its
magnitude is unity. So vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be
𝑂𝐴
represented completely as its magnitude R and the
direction as indicated by the unit vector along its
direction.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =|𝑂𝐴
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |𝑎𝑂𝐴 = R 𝑎𝑂𝐴
 𝑎𝑂𝐴 is a unit vector along the direction OA and| 𝑎𝑂𝐴 | = 1
 letter a⃗ is used to indicate the unit vector
QUESTION
 Mention the purpose of unit in vector algebra
Incase if a vector is known then the unit vector along that vector can be
obtained by dividing the vector by its magnitude. Thus unit vector can be
expressed as,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴
Unit vector 𝑎𝑂𝐴 =
|𝑂𝐴|
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VECTOR ALGEBRA
SCALING OF VECTOR
 This is multiplication by a scalar to a vector
 This changes the magnitude (length) of a vector but not its direction, when
scalar is positive.
 When scalar =-1, the magnitude remains same but direction of the vector
reverses
ADDITION OF VECTORS
 The vectors which lie on the same plane are coplanar vectors
PARALLELOGRAM RULE:
Complete the parallelogram as shown in the figure. Then the diagonal of the
parallelogram represents the addition of the two vectors.
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HEAD TO TRIAL RULE:
Law Addition Multiplication

by scalar
Commutative ⃗=𝐵
𝐴+𝐵 ⃗ +𝐴 α 𝐴=𝐴 α
Associative 𝐴+(𝐵⃗ +𝐶 )=( 𝐴+𝐵)⃗⃗⃗⃗ +𝐶 B( α𝐴)=( B α)𝐴

Distributive ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =α 𝐴+α𝐵
α ( 𝐴+𝐵) ⃗ (α+B) 𝐴= α 𝐴+𝐵 𝐴
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SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS
⃗ is
The subtraction of vectors can be obtained from the rules of addition. If 𝐵
to be subtracted from 𝐴 then based on addition it can be represented as
⃗)
𝐶 = 𝐴+ (-𝐵
⃗ i.e reverse its direction by multiplying it with (-1)

Thus the reverse the sign 𝐵
and then add it to 𝐴 to obtain subtraction.
Identical vectors:
Two vectors are said to be identical if their difference is zero e.g.
⃗ =0
𝐴-𝐵 ⃗ hence identical
𝐴=𝐵
VECTOR MULTIPLICATION:
Consider two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ .There are two types of products existing
depending upon the result of the multiplication. These two types of products
are
1.Scalar or dot product
2.Vector or cross product
SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT OF VECTORS

 It is denoted by 𝐴.𝐵
⃗
 It is defined as the product of the magnitude of 𝐴 . The magnitude of 𝐵
⃗ and
the cosine of smaller angle between them
 It also can be defined as the product of magnitude of 𝐵 ⃗ and the projection
of 𝐴 onto ⃗ or vice versa.
𝐵
⃗ = |𝐴| |𝐵
𝐴. 𝐵 ⃗ | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝐴𝐵
The result of such a dot product is scalar hence it is also called a scalar
product.
PROPERTIES OF DOT PRODUCT

1 If the two vectors are parallel to each other i.e 𝜃 = 0 then cos 𝜃AB=1 Thus
⃗⃗⃗ =|𝐴| |𝐵
𝐴.𝐵 ⃗ | for parallel vectors
2 If two vectors are perpendicular to each other i.e θ=900 then cos 𝜃AB= 00
Thus
⃗⃗⃗ = 0 for perpendicular vectors.
𝐴.𝐵
3 If the dot product of vector with itself is performed, the result is square of
the magnitude of that vector.
𝐴.𝐴 = | 𝐴| |𝐴| cos 𝜃 =| 𝐴| 2
4 Any unit vector dotted with itself is unity
𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑥 = 1 = 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑧
5 The dot product obeys commutative and distributive law

⃗ =𝐵
𝐴.𝐵 ⃗ .𝐴
⃗ +𝐶 )= 𝐴.𝐵
𝐴.(𝐵 ⃗ .𝐶
Question
Given two vectors how to identify whether they are perpendicular or parallel to
each other
APPLICATION OF DOT PRODUCT

1 To determine the angle between the two vectors
𝐴.𝐵⃗
θ =cos −1 { ⃗⃗⃗⃗
}
|𝐴| |𝐵|
VECTOR (OR) CROSS PRODUCT OF VECTORS
⃗ then the cross product is denoted as 𝐴× 𝐵

Consider two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ and
defined as the product of the magnitudes of 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ and the sine of the
smaller angle between them.
Cross product is a vector quantity and has direction perpendicular to the

⃗.
plane, containing two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
Mathematically cross product is expressed as

⃗ = |𝐴| |𝐵
𝐴× 𝐵 ⃗ | sin 𝜃 AB𝑎𝑁
PROPERTIES OF CROSS PRODUCT

1 The commutative law is not applicable to the cross product , thus
⃗ ≠𝐵
𝐴× 𝐵 ⃗×𝐴
2 ⃗ , a unit vector
Reversing the order of the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝑎N reverses its direction hence we can write
⃗ = −(𝐵
𝐴× 𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐴)
3 The cross product is not associative thus

⃗ ×𝐶 )≠( 𝐴 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 × (𝐵 𝐵) × 𝐶
4 With respect to addition cross product is distributive. Thus
⃗ +𝐶 )= 𝐴 × 𝐵
𝐴 × (𝐵 ⃗ + ×𝐶
5 If two vectors are parallel to each other i.e they are in the same direction
then θ=0 0 hence the cross product of the two vectors is zero
6 𝐴 × 𝐴 =0 (cross product to itself)
7 Cross product of unit vectors
Consider the unit vectors 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 , 𝑎𝑧 , which are mutually perpendicular
to each other as shown in the figure
Then
𝑎𝑥 × 𝑎𝑦 = |𝑎𝑥 ||𝑎𝑦 | sin 900 𝑎N
In this case 𝑎N=𝑎z

And |𝑎𝑥 | = |𝑎𝑦 | = sin 900 =1
=𝑎𝑥 × 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑧
= 𝑎𝑦 × 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥
=𝑎𝑧 × 𝑎𝑥 =𝑎𝑦
But if the order of unit vectors is reversed the result is negative of the
remaining third unit vector
𝑎𝑦 × 𝑎𝑥 =−𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝑧 × 𝑎𝑦 =−𝑎𝑥
𝑎𝑥 × 𝑎𝑧 =−𝑎𝑦
CROSS PRODUCT IN DETERMINANT FORM
Consider two vectors
𝐴= 𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧
⃗ =𝐵𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑎𝑧
𝐵
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
⃗ =|𝐴𝑥
𝐴× 𝐵 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 |
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
⃗ =(𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 -𝐵𝑦 𝐴𝑧 ) 𝑎𝑥 +(𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 ) 𝑎𝑦 + (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑧

𝐴× 𝐵
PRODUCT OF THREE VECTORS:

⃗ and 𝐶 are the three given vectors . Then the product of these vectors is
Let 𝐴, 𝐵
classified into two ways called,
1. Scalar triple product.
2.Vector triple product
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT
⃗ × 𝐶 )= 𝐵
𝐴.( 𝐵 ⃗ .( 𝐶 × 𝐴)= 𝐶 .( 𝐴 × 𝐵
⃗)
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
⃗ × 𝐶 )=| 𝐵𝑥
𝐴.( 𝐵 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧 |
𝐶𝑥 𝐶𝑧 𝐶𝑧
1 It represents the volume of a parallelepiped
2 If two or three vectors are equal, then the result of the scalar triple product
is zero
3 Cyclic order a, b, c is to be followed. If the order is changed, the sign is
reversed
⃗ × 𝐶 )= − 𝐵
𝐴.( 𝐵 ⃗ .( 𝐴 × 𝐶 )
VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT

The vector triple product of the three vectors is mathematically defined as
⃗ × 𝐶 )= 𝐵
𝐴× ( 𝐵 ⃗ ( ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴. 𝐶 ) −𝐶 .( ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴. 𝐵⃗ ) “bac-cab” rule
Problem
1. Three fields are given by
𝐴 = 2𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑧
⃗ = 2𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 + 2 𝑎𝑧
𝐵
𝐶 = 2𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧
Find the scalar and vector triple product
Solution
Scalar triple product
2 0 −1
⃗ × 𝐶 )=|2 −1 2|
𝐴.( 𝐵
2 −3 1
=14
Vector triple product
𝐴× ( 𝐵 ⃗ ( ⃗𝐴⃗⃗ . 𝐶 ) −𝐶( ⃗𝐴⃗⃗ . 𝐵
⃗ × 𝐶 )= 𝐵 ⃗)
𝐴. 𝐶 = (2)(2) + (0)(−3) + (−1)(1) = 3

⃗ = (2)(2) + (0)(−1) + (−1)(2) = 2
𝐴. 𝐵
⃗ × 𝐶 )= 3𝐵
𝐴× ( 𝐵 ⃗ − 2𝐶
=3(2𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 + 2𝑎𝑧 ) − 2(2𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 )
=2𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑦 + 4𝑎𝑧
1.3 COORDINATE SYSTEM

Three types of coordinate systems are
i. Cartesian or rectangular co-ordinate system
ii. Cylindrical co-ordinate system
iii. Spherical co-ordinate system
1.3.1 CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

 Also called rectangular co-ordinate system
 Three coordinates x, y, z mutually perpendicular to each other
 Intersection of x, y, z is called the origin
There are two types of such systems, they are
i. Right handed system

ii. Left handed system
Right handed system
If x axis is rotated towards y axis through a small angle, thus this rotation
causes an upward movement of right handed screw in ‘z’ axis direction
Left handed system
REPRESENTING A POINT IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS
 A point in rectangular coordinate system is located by three dimensions

namely x, y, z coordinates.
 The point can be reached by moving from origin, the distance x in x direction,
then distance y in y direction and finally z in z direction.
 Consider a point P having co-ordinates x1, y1 and z1. It is represented as P
(x1, y1, z1). The co-ordinates x1, y1, z1 may be positive or negative (Fig (a)). The
point Q (3,-1,-2) can be shown in this system in Fig (b)
POSITION AND DISTANCE VECTORS
Consider a point P (x1, y1, z1) in Cartesian co-ordinate system as shown in Fig
(c) below. Then the position vector of point ‘P’ is represented by the distance
of point P from the origin directed from the origin to point P. This is called
RADIUS VECTOR.
The three components of the position vector 𝑟𝑂𝑃 are three vectors oriented along
the three co-ordinate axes with the magnitude x1, y1 and z1. Thus the position
vector of point P can be represented as
⃗ 𝑶𝑷 = 𝑥1 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦1 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑧1 𝑎𝑧
𝒓
ALTERNATE METHOD TO DEFINE A POINT IN CARTESIAN SYSTEM
Alternate method to consider three surfaces namely x=constant, y=constant

and z=constant. The common intersection of all these three surfaces in the
point to be defined and the constant indicates the coordinates of that point as
shown in figures below
Problem
Given three points in a Cartesian coordinate system as A (3, -2,1), B (-3, -3, 5)
and C (2, 6, -4)
Find
i. the vector from A to C

ii. Unit vector form from 𝐵⃗ to 𝐴
iii. The distance from B to C
iv. The vector from A to the midpoint of the straight line joining B to C
Solution
The position vectors for the given points are
𝐴= 3 𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧
⃗ =-3𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑎𝑦 + 5𝑎𝑧

𝐵
𝐶 =2𝑎𝑥 + 6𝑎𝑦 − 4𝑎𝑧
i. Vector from 𝐴 to 𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 =𝐶 -𝐴 =(2-3) 𝑎𝑥 +(6- -2) 𝑎𝑦 +( -4-(+1)) 𝑎𝑧
= −𝑎𝑥 + 8𝑎𝑦 − 5𝑎𝑧
ii. ⃗ to 𝐴
Unit vector form from 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =𝐴 − 𝐵
𝐵𝐴 ⃗ = 6𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 − 4𝑎𝑧
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = √62 + 12 + 42 =7.2801
|𝐵𝐴|
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 6𝑎⃗𝑥 +𝑎⃗𝑦 −4𝑎⃗𝑧
𝑎𝐵𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = =0.8241𝑎𝑥 +0.1373𝑎𝑦 − 0.5494𝑎𝑧
|𝐵𝐴| 7.2801
iii. ⃗ to 𝐶
The distance from 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐶 -𝐵
𝐵𝐶 ⃗ = 5𝑎𝑥 + 9𝑎𝑦 − 9𝑎𝑧
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |= √92 + 52 + 92 = 13.6747

Distance BC =| 𝐵𝐶
iv. Let B (x1, y1, z1) and C(x2, y2, z2) then coordinates of midpoint of BC are
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2 𝑧1 +𝑧2 −3+2 −3+6 5−4
( , , )= ( , , ) =(-0.5, 1.5 , 0.5)
2 2 2 2 2 2
Hence vector from A to this midpoint is
[-0.5-3] 𝑎𝑥 +[1.5-(-2)] 𝑎𝑦 + [0.5-1] 𝑎𝑧
=-3.5𝑎𝑥 + 3.5𝑎𝑦 − 0.5𝑎𝑧
The magnitude of vectors in terms of three mutually perpendicular components

are given by
⃗⃗⃗
|𝒓𝑶𝑷 | = √(𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒛𝟏 )𝟐
If the point P has co-ordinates (1,2,3) then its position vector is
⃗ 𝑶𝑷 = 𝟏𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑦 + 3𝑎𝑧

𝒓
⃗⃗⃗
|𝒓𝑶𝑷 |= √(𝟏)𝟐 + (𝟐)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 = ⃗⃗⃗
|𝒓𝑶𝑷 | = √𝟏𝟒 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟒𝟏𝟔
Now consider two points in a Cartesian coordinate system, P and Q with the
co-ordinate (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) respectively. The points are shown in Fig1.
The individual position vectors of the points are
⃗⃗ = 𝑥1 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦1 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑧1 𝑎𝑧
𝑷
⃗𝑸
⃗ = 𝑥2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦2 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑧2 𝑎𝑧
Then the distance or displacement from P to Q is represented by a distance

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and is given by
vector 𝑷𝑸
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗𝑸
𝑷𝑸 ⃗ −𝑷
⃗⃗ = [𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ] 𝑎𝑥 + [𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ] 𝑎𝑦 + [𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ] 𝑎𝑧
This is also called separation vectors.
The magnitude of this vector is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝟐 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝟐 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝟐
|𝑷𝑸
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑄
|𝑃𝑄
Unit vector along direction of PQ is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄
𝑎𝑂𝑃 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝑃𝑄
Problem:
Obtain the unit vector in the direction from the origin towards the point P (3, -
3, 2)
Solution
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is
The origin O(0,0,0) while P(3,-3, 2) hence the distance vector 𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3 − 0)𝑎𝑥 + (−3 − 0)𝑎𝑦 + (−2 − 0)𝑎𝑧
𝑂𝑃
= 3𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑧
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √32 + (−3)2 + (−2)2 = 4.6904
|𝑂𝑃
Hence the unit vector along the direction OP is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 3𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝑂𝑃 = =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝑂𝑃 4.6904
= 0.639𝑎𝑥 − 0.6396𝑎𝑦 − 0.4264𝑎𝑧
DIFFERENTIAL ELEMENTS IN CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATOR SYSTEM
Consider a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the rectangular coordinate system. Let us increase

each coordinate by differential amount. A new point ‘P’ will be obtained having
coordinates (𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧). Where:
𝑑𝑥 = Differential length in x direction, 𝑑𝑦 = Differential length in y direction
𝑑𝑧 = Differential length in z direction
Hence differential vector length also called elementary vector length can be
represented as
⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧
⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 is the vector joining P to new point P’
The distance of P` from P is given by magnitude of the differential vector length
⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝑑𝑥)2 + (𝑑𝑦)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2
|𝑑𝑙
Hence the differential volume of the rectangular parallelepiped is given by
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Note: ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 is a vector but 𝑑𝑣 is a scalar
⃗⃗⃗⃗ is
Let us define differential surface areas, the differential surface element 𝑑𝑠
represented as
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑠 𝑎
𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛
Where 𝑑𝑠 = differential surface area of the element
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 = unit vector normal to surace 𝑑𝑠
The vector representation of these three elements is given as,

⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑧 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑠
1.3.2 CYLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM
In this system of coordinates any point in a space is considered as the point of
intersection of the following surfaces
1. Plane of constant z which is parallel to xy plane

2. A cylinder of radius r with z axis as the axis of the cylinder
3. A half plane perpendicular to xy plane and at an angle φ with respect to
xz plane. The angle φ is called azimuthal angel
The range of variables

are:
0≤𝑟≤∞
0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋 } (1)
−∞ ≤ 𝑧 ≤ ∞
The point P is a cylindrical
coordinate system has three
coordinates r, φ and z whose
values lie in the respective
ranges given in (1). The
points 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜑, 𝑧) can be seen
in Fig 4.
Note: φ is expressed in radians and for φ, anticlockwise direction

measurement is treated positive and clockwise direction treated negative
BASE VECTORS
Similar to Cartesian coordinates system, there are three unit vectors in the r,
φ and z directions denoted as 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝜑 and 𝑎𝑧 as shown in figure below. These are
mutually perpendicular to each other.
The 𝑎𝑟 lies in a plane parallel to the

xy plane and is perpendicular to the
surface of the cylinder at a given
point coming gradually outward.
The unit vector 𝑎𝜑 also lies in a plane
parallel to xy plane but it is tangent
to the cylinder, pointing in the
direction of increasing φ
The unit vector 𝑎𝑧 is parallel to z axis
and directed towards increasing z.
𝑃⃗ = 𝑃𝑟 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑃𝜑 𝑎𝜑 + 𝑃𝑧 𝑎𝑧
Where Pr is radius r, Pφ is angle φ, Pz is coordinate of point P

Key note:
In the Cartesian coordinate system, the unit vectors are not dependent on the
coordinates. But in cylindrical coordinate system 𝑎𝑟 , and 𝑎𝜑 are functions of φ
coordinates as their direction changes as φ changes. Hence the differentiation
or integration with respect to component in 𝑎𝑟 and 𝑎𝜑 should not be treated as
constants.
DIFFERENTIAL ELEMENTS IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
Consider a point 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜑 , 𝑧) in a cylindrical coordinate system. Let each

coordinate is increased by the differential amount. The differential increment
in 𝑟, 𝜑, 𝑧 are 𝑑𝑟, 𝑑𝜑, 𝑑𝑧 respectively.
 Now there are two cylinders of length, due to 𝑑𝜑 in φ direction is
radius 𝑟 and 𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝜑 as shown in the figure.
 There are two radial planes at the
angles 𝜑 and 𝜑 + 𝑑𝜑
 Two horizontal planes at the
height z and 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧
 Differential lengths in 𝑟 and 𝑧
directions are 𝑑𝑟 and dz
respectively
 In φ direction 𝑑𝜑 is the change in
angle 𝜑 and is not the differential
length
 Due to this changed 𝑑𝜑 there
exists a differential arc length in
φ direction. This differential
Hence the differential vector length in cylindrical coordinate system is given
by
⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑φ𝑎φ + 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧
The magnitude of the differential length vector is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |= √(𝑑𝑟)2 + (𝑟𝑑φ)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2

|𝑑𝑙
Hence the differential volume of the differential element formed in is given by
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑟 × 𝑟𝑑φ × 𝑑𝑧
The differential surface areas in the three directions are as shown below
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CARTESIAN AND CYLINDRICAL SYSTEMS
Consider a point P whose

Cartesian coordinates are x, y, z
while the cylindrical coordinates
are r, φ, z as shown in the figure.
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑
𝑧=𝑧
It can be seen that r can be
expressed in terms of x, y as:
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
tan 𝜑 =
𝑥
While
Thus the transformation from

Cartesian can be obtained from
the equations
𝑦
𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 , φ=tan−1 𝑥 and 𝒛 = 𝒛
1.3.3 SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
The surfaces which are used to define the spherical coordinate system on the
three Cartesian axes are
 Sphere of radius r, origin as the
center of the sphere
 A right circular cone with its apex
at the origin and its axis as z axis.
Its half angle is θ. It rotates about z
axis and θ varies from 0 to 1800
 A half plane perpendicular to the
𝑥𝑦 plane contains z axis, making
an angle φ with the x z plane
BASE VECTORS
The unit vector 𝑎𝑟 is directed from

the center of the sphere i.e origin of
the given point P. It is directed
radially outward normal to the
sphere. It lies in the cone θ =
constant and plane φ= constant
The unit vector 𝑎θ is tangent to the

sphere and oriented in the direction
of increasing θ. It is normal to the
conical surface.
The third unit vector 𝑎𝜑 is tangent to

the sphere and also tangent to the
conical surface. It is oriented in the .
direction of increasing φ. It is same
Here the vector of point ‘P’ can be
as defined in the cylindrical
represented as
coordinate system.
𝑃⃗ = 𝑝𝑟 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑝θ 𝑎𝜃 + 𝑝𝜑 𝑎𝜑
DIFFERENTIAL ELEMENTS IN SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
dr = differential length in r direction
rdθ = differential length in θ direction
rsinθdφ
= differential length in φ direction
∴ differential vector length
⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎𝜃 + 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑎𝜑
The magnitude of the differential length vector is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |= √(𝑑𝑟)2 + (𝑟𝑑𝜃)2 + (𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑)2

|𝑑𝑙
Hence the differential volume of the differential element formed in spherical

coordinate system is given by
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
The differential surface areas in the three directions are as shown below
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜃 = 𝑟𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑
𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝜑 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑠
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CARTESIAN AND SPHERICAL SYSTEMS
𝑧
cos 𝜃 = 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑟
Hence the transformation from spherical to Cartesian can be obtained from
the equation
𝑿 = 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋
𝒀 = 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋
𝒛 = 𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
Now r can be expressed as
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜑 + 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 sin2 𝜑 + 𝑟 2 cos 2 𝜃
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 [cos 2 𝜑 + sin2 𝜑] + 𝑟 2 cos 2 𝜃
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 [sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃]
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟2
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑦 𝑧
while tan 𝜑= 𝑧 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑟 and r is known , θ can be obtained.
Thus the transformation from the Cartesian to spherical coordinates system

can be obtained from the following equations
𝒛 𝒚
𝒓 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝛉 = cos−1 [ ] and φ= tan−1 ( )
√𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 +𝒛 𝟐 𝒙
1.4 TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS
1.4.1 TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS FROM CARTESIAN TO

CYLINDRICAL
Consider a vector 𝐴 in a Cartesian coordinate system as
𝐴=𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧
While the same vector in cylindrical coordinate system can be represented as
𝐴=𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧
From the dot product it is known that the component of vector in the
direction of unit vector is it dot product with that unit vector.
Hence the component of 𝐴 in the direction of 𝑎𝑟 is the dot product of 𝐴 with

𝑎𝑟 . This component is nothing but 𝐴𝑟
∴ 𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴 . 𝑎𝑟
= (𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 ). 𝑎𝑟
= 𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑟
𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑟 = (1)(1) cos 𝜑 = cos 𝜑
𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝜑 = (1)(1) cos(90 + 𝜑) = − sin 𝜑
𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑟 = (1)(1) cos(90 − 𝜑) = sin 𝜑
𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝜑 = (1)(1) cos 𝜑 = cos 𝜑
𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝜑 = 0
𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑧 = 1  𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑥 cos 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑦 sin 𝜑
𝐴𝜑 = 𝐴. 𝑎𝜑  𝐴𝜑 = −𝐴𝑥 sin 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑦 cos 𝜑
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴. 𝑎𝑧 = 𝐴𝑧  𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑧
𝑨𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝟎 𝑨𝒙
∴ [ 𝑨𝝋 ] = [− 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝟎] [ 𝑨𝒚 ]
𝑨𝒛 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝑨𝒛
1.4.2 TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS FROM CYLINDRICAL TO

CARTESIAN
Now it is necessary to find the transformation from cylindrical to Cartesian.
Hence we assume 𝐴 is known as cylindrical system.
Thus component of 𝐴 in ax direction is given by
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 . 𝑎𝑥 = (𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 ). 𝑎𝑥
= 𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑥
As dot product is commutative
𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑟
1.4.3 TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS FROM CARTESIAN TO

SPHERICAL
Let
𝐴=𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴 . 𝑎𝑟 = (𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 ). 𝑎𝑟
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑟
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴 . 𝑎𝜃 = (𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 ). 𝑎𝜃
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴𝑥 . 𝑎𝜃 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝜃 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝜃
𝐴𝜑 = 𝐴 . 𝑎𝜑 = (𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 ). 𝑎𝜑
𝐴𝜑 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝜑 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝜑 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝜑
The dot product of spherical unit vectors are given below.
. 𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝜃 𝑎𝜑
𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜑 −sin 𝜑
𝑎𝑦 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑
𝑎𝑧 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 0
𝑨𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝑨𝒙

∴ [ 𝑨𝜽 ] = [𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽] [ 𝑨𝒚 ]
𝑨𝝋 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝟎 𝑨𝒛
1.4.4 TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS FROM SPHERICAL TO
CARTESIAN
𝐴=𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 . 𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 . 𝑎𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴 . 𝑎𝑧 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑧 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝑧 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝑧
𝑨𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝑨𝒓

∴ [𝑨𝒚 ] = [ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 ] [ 𝑨𝜽 ]
𝑨𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝑨𝝋
DISTANCE OF ALL CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 → 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛
𝑑 = √𝑟22 + 𝑟12 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 cos(𝜑2 − 𝜑1 ) + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 → 𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑑 = √𝑟22 + 𝑟12 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 cos 𝜃2 cos 𝜃1 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 sin 𝜃2 sin 𝜃1 cos(𝜑2 − 𝜑1 )

→ 𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
1.4.5 TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS FROM SPHERICAL TO

CYLINDRICAL
Let
𝐴=𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑
𝐴𝜌 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝜌 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝜌 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝜌
𝐴𝜑 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝜑 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝜑 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝜑
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑧 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝑧 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝜌 = sin 𝜃 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝜌 = cos 𝜃 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝜌 = 0
𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝜑 = 0 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝜑 = 0 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝜑 = 1
𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑧 = cos 𝜃 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝑧 = − sin 𝜃 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝑧 = 0
𝑨𝝆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 𝑨𝒓
∴ [𝑨𝝋 ] = [ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏] [ 𝑨𝜽 ]
𝑨𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝑨𝝋
1.4.6 TRANSFORMATION OF VECTORS FROM CYLINDRICAL TO

SPHERICAL
Let
𝐴=𝐴𝜌 𝑎𝜌 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝜌 𝑎𝜌 . 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑟
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴𝜌 𝑎𝜌 . 𝑎𝜃 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝜃 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝜃
𝐴𝜑 = 𝐴𝜌 𝑎𝜌 . 𝑎𝜑 + 𝐴𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝑎𝜑 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝜑
𝑨𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝑨𝝆
∴ [ 𝑨𝜽 ] = [𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽] [𝑨𝝋 ]
𝑨𝝋 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝑨𝒛
1.5 TYPES OF INTEGRAL RELATED TO ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
In electromagnetic theory a charge can exist in point form, line form, surface
form or volume form. Hence for charge distribution analysis, the following
types of integrals are required.
1. Line integral
2. Surface integral
3. Volume integral
1.5.1 LINE INTEGRAL

 A line can exist as a straight line or it can be distance travelled along a
curve.
 From mathematical point of view, a line is a curved path in a space.
 Consider a vector field 𝐹 shown in figure below. The curved path shown in
the field is p-r. This is called path of integration and corresponding integral
can be defined as
𝑟
∫ ⃗F. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∫|𝐹 |𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃
𝐿 𝑃
Where 𝑑𝑙 is the elementary length
This is called line integral of ⃗F around the curved path L. The closed path can
be of two types:
i. Open path as P-r shown in figure

ii. Closed path as P-q-r-s-P
The closed path is also called contour. The corresponding integral is called
contour integral, closed integral (or) circular integral, and mathematical
defined as
∮𝐿 ⃗F. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 =circular integral
If there exists a charge along a line as shown in figure below, then the total
charge obtained by calculating a line integral.
𝑄 = ∫ 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑑𝑙
𝐿
𝜌𝐿 =line charge density (or) charge per unit length (c/m)
1.5.2 SURFACE INTEGRAL

In electromagnetic theory a charge may exist in a distributed from. It may be
spread over a surface as shown in Figure (a) below
Similarly a flux Φ may pass through a surface as shown in figure (b). While
doing analysis of such cases an integral is required called SURAFCE
INTEGRAL, to be carried out over a surface related to a vector field.
For a charge distribution shown in fig (a), we can write total charge existing on
the surface as
𝑐
𝑄 = ∫𝑠 𝜌𝑠 . 𝑑𝑠 𝜌𝑠 → 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 ,
𝑚2
𝑑𝑠 → 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
From fig (b), the total flux density crossing the surface S can be expressed as
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫|F
𝑄 = ∫ ⃗F. 𝑑𝑠 ⃗ |𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃
𝑠 𝑠
If the surface is closed, then it defines a volume and corresponding surface

integral is given by,
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄 = ∮ ⃗F. 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
1.5.3 VOLUME INTEGRAL

If the charge distribution exists in a three dimensional volume form as a shown
in figure below, then a volume integral is required to calculate the total charge
Thus if 𝜌𝑣 is the volume charge density over volume v then the volume integral
is defined as
𝑄 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣 . 𝑑𝑣
𝑉
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1.5.4 DIVERGENCE
It is seen that∮𝑠 F ⃗⃗⃗⃗ gives the flux flowing across the surface s. Then
⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
mathematically divergence is defined as the net outward flow of the flux
per unit volume over a closed incremental surface. It is denoted as div 𝐹
and given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝒔 𝐅.𝒅𝒔
div ⃗𝑭 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ∆𝒗
= divergence of ⃗𝑭
𝚫𝒗→𝟎
symbolically is denoted as
⃗ = divergence of 𝑭
𝛁. 𝑭
∂ 𝜕 𝜕
Where ∇= vector operator = ∂x 𝑎𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑎𝑧
But 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐹𝑧 𝑎𝑧
Therefore, in Cartesian form
∂𝐹𝑥 𝜕𝐹𝑦 𝜕𝐹𝑧
∇. 𝐹 = + +
∂x 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Similarly, Divergence in other coordinates:
Cylindrical:
1∂ 1 𝜕𝐹𝜑 𝜕𝐹𝑧
∇. 𝐹 = ( )
𝑟𝐹 + +
𝑟 ∂r 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧
Spherical:
1 ∂ 2 1 𝜕 1 𝜕𝜑
∇. 𝐹 = 2 ( )
𝑟 𝐹𝑟 + ( )
sin 𝜃𝐹𝜃 +
𝑟 ∂r 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
The vector field having its divergence zero is called solenoidal field
∇. 𝐴 = 0 for 𝐴 to be solenoidal
1.5.5 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR

Consider that in space let w be the unique function of x, y and z coordinates.
In the Cartesian system. This is the scalar function and denoted as 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
Consider a vector operator in Cartesian system denoted as ∇ (called del). It is
defined as.
∂ 𝜕 𝜕
∇ (𝑑𝑒𝑙 ) =
𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎
∂x 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
The operation of the vector operator del (∇) on a scalar function is called
gradient of a scalar
∂ 𝜕 𝜕
Grad w = ∇𝑤 = ( 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 ) 𝑤
∂x 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
In Cartesian coordinates
∂w 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
∇𝑤 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎
∂x 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
In cylindrical coordinates
∂w 1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
∇𝑤 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜑 + 𝑎
∂r 𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
In spherical coordinates
∂w 1 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑤
∇𝑤 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃 + 𝑎
∂r 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝜑
1.5.6 CURL OF A VECTOR

∇ × ⃗F = Curl of ⃗F
Curl indicates the rotational property of vector field. If curl of vector is zero, the
vector field is irrotational
𝜕𝐹𝑧 𝜕𝐹𝑦 𝜕𝐹𝑥 𝜕𝐹𝑧 𝜕𝐹𝑦 𝜕𝐹𝑥
∇ × ⃗F = [ − ]𝑎 + [ − ]𝑎 + [ − ]𝑎
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑧
In Cartesian
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ × ⃗F =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
[ 𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧 ]
In cylindrical:
𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝜑 𝑎𝑧
⃗ = 𝜕
∇×F
𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧
[ 𝐹𝑟 𝐹𝜑 𝐹𝑧 ]
In spherical:
𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑎𝜑
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗ =
∇×F
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜑
[ 𝐹𝑟 𝑟𝐹𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝐹𝜑 ]
Assignment I
Q3. From Engineering Electromagnetics by Hayt, 8th Edition. Attempt the

following questions: D1.1, D1.3, D1.4, D1.5, D1.6, D1.7, D1.8

Chap I

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Chap I

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EET 3255: ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Vector Analysis: Vector algebra, Coordinate systems, Component scalars and

1. William Hayt and John A. Buck, Engineering Electromagnetics, Seventh

Recommended Reference Material

1. Bhag S. G., Hüseyin R. H., (2012). Electromagnetic Field Theory

1.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS

Law Addition Multiplication

Associative 𝐴+(𝐵⃗ +𝐶 )=( 𝐴+𝐵)⃗⃗⃗⃗ +𝐶 B( α𝐴)=( B α)𝐴

⃗ i.e reverse its direction by multiplying it with (-1)

Two vectors are said to be identical if their difference is zero e.g.

SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT OF VECTORS

PROPERTIES OF DOT PRODUCT

5 The dot product obeys commutative and distributive law

APPLICATION OF DOT PRODUCT

⃗ then the cross product is denoted as 𝐴× 𝐵

Cross product is a vector quantity and has direction perpendicular to the

Mathematically cross product is expressed as

PROPERTIES OF CROSS PRODUCT

3 The cross product is not associative thus

In this case 𝑎N=𝑎z

⃗ =(𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 -𝐵𝑦 𝐴𝑧 ) 𝑎𝑥 +(𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 ) 𝑎𝑦 + (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑧

PRODUCT OF THREE VECTORS:

SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT

1 It represents the volume of a parallelepiped

VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT

𝐴. 𝐶 = (2)(2) + (0)(−3) + (−1)(1) = 3

1.3 COORDINATE SYSTEM

1.3.1 CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

i. Right handed system

Right handed system

Left handed system

 A point in rectangular coordinate system is located by three dimensions

POSITION AND DISTANCE VECTORS

ALTERNATE METHOD TO DEFINE A POINT IN CARTESIAN SYSTEM

Alternate method to consider three surfaces namely x=constant, y=constant

i. the vector from A to C

The position vectors for the given points are

⃗ =-3𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑎𝑦 + 5𝑎𝑧

𝐶 =2𝑎𝑥 + 6𝑎𝑦 − 4𝑎𝑧

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |= √92 + 52 + 92 = 13.6747

Hence vector from A to this midpoint is

[-0.5-3] 𝑎𝑥 +[1.5-(-2)] 𝑎𝑦 + [0.5-1] 𝑎𝑧

=-3.5𝑎𝑥 + 3.5𝑎𝑦 − 0.5𝑎𝑧

The magnitude of vectors in terms of three mutually perpendicular components

⃗ 𝑶𝑷 = 𝟏𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑦 + 3𝑎𝑧

Then the distance or displacement from P to Q is represented by a distance

Consider a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the rectangular coordinate system. Let us increase

𝑑𝑥 = Differential length in x direction, 𝑑𝑦 = Differential length in y direction

𝑑𝑧 = Differential length in z direction

Hence the differential volume of the rectangular parallelepiped is given by

Where 𝑑𝑠 = differential surface area of the element

The vector representation of these three elements is given as,

1. Plane of constant z which is parallel to xy plane

The range of variables

Note: φ is expressed in radians and for φ, anticlockwise direction

The 𝑎𝑟 lies in a plane parallel to the

Where Pr is radius r, Pφ is angle φ, Pz is coordinate of point P

DIFFERENTIAL ELEMENTS IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

Consider a point 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜑 , 𝑧) in a cylindrical coordinate system. Let each

The magnitude of the differential length vector is given by

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |= √(𝑑𝑟)2 + (𝑟𝑑φ)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2

Hence the differential volume of the differential element formed in is given by

Consider a point P whose