VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

Three different types of physical quantities are used in transport phenomena: scalars (e.g.
temperature, pressure and concentration), vectors (e.g. velocity, momentum and force) and second
order tensors (e.g. stress or momentum flux and velocity gradient). It is essential to have a primary
knowledge of the mathematical operations of scalar, vector and tensor quantities for solving the
problems of transport phenomena. In fact, the use of the indicial notation in Cartesian coordinates
will enable us to express the long formulae encountered in transport phenomena in a concise and
compact fashion. In addition, any equation written in vector tensor form is equally valid in any
coordinate system. In this course, we will be using the following notations for scalar, vector and
tensor quantities:

Scalar quantities a, b, c
Notation Vector quantities u, v, w
2nd order tensor quantities τ, σ

Cartesian coordinates and unit vectors

An xyz Cartesian coordinate system may also be conventionally written as shown in Fig.1.1 below.
Where δ1, δ2, and δ3 are the unit vectors in x, y and z direction respectively.

Fig. 1.1 3-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with unit vector

 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
TENSOR QUANTITIES

A 2nd order tensor quantity can be loosely define as a physical quantity which has a magnitude
and two different directions associated with it. To better understand, why we might need two
different directions for specifying a particular physical quantity. Let us take the example of the
stresses which may arise in a solid body, or in a fluid. Clearly, the stresses are associated with
magnitude of forces, as well as with an area, whose direction also needs to be specified by the
outward normal to the face of the area on which a particular force is acting. Hence, we will
require 32, i.e., 9 components to specify a stress completely in a 3 dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system. In general, an nth order tensor will be specified by 3n components (in a 3-dimensional
system). However, the number of components alone cannot determine whether a physical quantity
is a vector or a tensor. The additional requirement is that there should be some transformation rule
for obtaining the corresponding tensors when we rotate the coordinate system about the origin.
Thus, the tensor quantities can be defined by two essential conditions:

1. These quantities should have 3n components. According to this definition, scalar quantities
are zero order tensors and have 30= 1 component. Vector quantities are first order tensors
and have 31 = 3 components. Second order tensors have 32 = 9 components and third order
tensors have 33 = 27 components. Third and higher order tensors are not used in transport
phenomena, and are not dealt here.
2. The second necessary requirement of any tensor quantity is that it should follow some
transformation rule

There are two quantities which are quite useful in conveniently and concisely expressing several
mathematical operations on tensors. These are the Kronecker delta and the alternating unit tensor.

Kronecker delta

Kronecker delta or Kronecker’s delta is a function of two index variables, usually integers, which
is 1 if they are equal and 0 otherwise. It is expressed as a symbol δij.

δij=1, if i=j

δij=0, if i≠j
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Thus, in three dimensions, we may also express the Kronecker delta in matrix form

Alternating unit tensor

The alternating unit tensor εijk is useful when expressing certain results in a compact form in index
notation. It may be noted that the alternating unit tensor has three indices and therefore 27 possible
combinations but it is a scalar quantity .

εijk=0 if any two of indices i, j, k are equal. For example ε113,ε131,ε111,ε222=0

εijk=+1 when the indices i, j, k are different and are in cyclic order (123), For example ε123

εijk=-1 when the indices i, j, k are different and are in anti-cyclic order. For example ε321
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Free indices

Free indices are the indices which occur only once in each tensor term. For example, i is the free
index in following expression vij wj. In any tensorial equation, every term should have an equal
number of free indices. For example, vij wj =cj dj is not a valid tensorial expression since the
number of free indices (index i) is not equal in both terms.

Any free indices in a tensorial expression can be replaced by any other indices as long as this
symbol has not already occurred in the expression. For example, Aij Bj= CiDjEj is equivalent
to Akj Bj= CkDjEj.

The number of free indices in an equation gives the actual number of mathematical equations that
will arise from it. For example, in equation Aij Bj= CiDjEj corresponds to 31 = 3 equations since
there is only one free indices i. It may be noted that each indices can take value i=1, 2 or 3.

Dummy indices

Dummy indices are the indices that occur twice in a tensor term. For example, j is the dummy
index in Aij Bj. Any dummy index implies the summation of all components of that tensor term
associated with each coordinate axis. Thus, when we write Aiδi, we actually imply

Any dummy index in a tensor term can be replaced by any other symbol as long as this symbol
has not already occurred in previous terms. For example, Aijkδjδk= Aipqδpδq

Note: The dummy indices can be renamed in each term separately in an equations but free indices
should be renamed for all terms in a tensor equations. For example, Aij Bj= CiDjEj can be replaced
by Akp Bp= CkDjEj. Here, i is the free index which has been replaced by k in both terms but j is a
dummy index and can be replaced either in one term or both.
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Summation convention in vector and tensor analysis

According to the summation convention rule, if k is a dummy index which repeats itself in a term
then there should be a summation sign associated with it. Therefore, we can eliminate the implied
summation sign and can write the expression in a more compact way. For example, using the
summation convention

can be simply written as εijkεljk . Since j and k are repeating, there is no need to write
summation sign over these indices.

Relation between alternating unit tensor and Kronecker delta

When two indices are common between the two alternating unit tensors, then the following can be
shown easily.

2.1
When one index is common between the two alternating unit tensors, there product may be written
as

2.2
Example: A three by three determinant may be written in terms of the εijk as follows

2.3

Representation of a vector quantity

A vector ʋ which has three components ʋ1, ʋ2, and ʋ3 may be written as
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
ʋ = ʋ1 𝛿1 + ʋ2 𝛿2 + ʋ3 𝛿3
= ʋ𝑖 𝛿𝑖
Therefore, vector ʋ may be represented as ʋiδi, ʋjδj, ʋkδk and so on.

Mathematical operations on vectors

Addition of vectors
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑢𝑖 𝛿𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝛿𝑖 = ∑3𝑖=3(𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 ) 𝛿𝑖 2.4
In the same way, subtraction of vectors may be carried out as follows
𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑢𝑖 𝛿𝑖 − 𝑣𝑖 𝛿𝑖 = ∑3𝑖=3(𝑢𝑖 − 𝑣𝑖 ) 𝛿𝑖 2.5

Multiplication of two vectors

Any two vectors may be multiplied in three different ways: (a) dyadic product, (b) dot product,
and (c) cross product.

Dyadic product of two vectors

The dyadic product is a mathematical operation on two vectors, which changes the order of the
resultant quantity by one. Since the order of the two vectors is one each, the order of the resulting
term is 1+1=2. Thus, the dyadic product of two vectors gives a second order tensor. To
mathematically denote the dyadic product, we simply write the two vectors next to each other
without any sign in between.

Example
𝜕
𝛿𝑖 𝜕𝑥 (𝑣𝑗 𝛿𝑗 ) 2.6
𝑖

𝜕
Here, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑗 𝛿𝑗 is a vector quantity and 𝛿𝑖 𝜕𝑥 is the gradient operator, also a vector quantity.
𝑖

𝜕𝑣
Hence, the resultant quantity 𝜕𝑥𝑗 (𝛿𝑖 𝛿𝑗 ) is a second order tensor.
𝑖

Note scalar quantities have been collected together while unit vectors are also collected but written
at the end of the expression.
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS

Scalar product or dot product of two vectors

The dot product is a mathematical operation on two vectors, which reduces the order of tensor of
the resultant quantity by two. Hence, the dot product of two vectors results a tensor of zero order,
i.e. a scalar quantity. Mathematically, the dot product is defined as
𝑣 ∙ 𝑤 = 𝑣𝑤 cos ∅𝑣𝑤 2.7
Where v and w denote the respective magnitudes of the two vectors, and Φvw denotes the angle
formed between the two vectors.

Vector product or cross product of two vectors

The cross product is a mathematical operation on two vectors, which reduces the order of tensor
of the resultant quantity by one. Hence, cross product of two vectors results a first order
tensor i.e., a vector quantity. Mathematically, the cross product is defined as
𝑣 × 𝑤 = 𝑣𝑖 𝛿𝑖 × 𝑤𝑗 𝛿𝑗 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑗 𝛿𝑖 × 𝛿𝑗 = 𝑣𝑤 sin(∅𝑣𝑤 )𝑛𝑣𝑤
Where v and w denote the respective magnitudes of the two vectors
∅𝑣𝑤 denotes the angle formed between the two vectors
nvw is a unit vector which is normal to the plane containing vectors v and w

Dot product of two unit vectors

If δ1, δ2, and δ3 are the three unit vectors along the axes in a Cartesian coordinate system, then the
dot product of these vectors has 9 possibilities.
𝛿1 𝛿2 , 𝛿1 𝛿3 , 𝛿2 𝛿1 , 𝛿2 𝛿3 , 𝛿3 𝛿1 𝛿3 𝛿2 = 0
And 𝛿1 𝛿1 , 𝛿2 𝛿2 , 𝛿3 𝛿3 = 1

Compaction operations
Whenever a Kronecker delta δij is present in an operation, it may be removed by it may be removed
by replacing either i by j or j by i in the expression. For example 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝑗 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑤𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑗 𝑤𝑗

Cross product of two unit vectors

 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
If δ1,δ2, δ3 are the three unit vectors, then the cross produc of these vectors 9 possibilities as shown
below:

Hence, all nine possible combinations may be written in concise form by using the alternating unit
tensor.

Here, i and j are free indices (hence, 9 equations) and k is a dummy index (In each term on left and
right hand side three terms are added together ).

Proof

Similarly, all other possible combination may also be shown to follow Equation (2.10).

Example

where,

In the above equation, k is the free index, whereas i and j are the dummy indices. If k = 1,

Similarly if k= 2
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS

For k= 3

Hence

The vector differential operation or the del operation

The vector differential operator, ∇, is defined in the rectangular coordinate system as follows

The vector differential of the del operation is always followed by a quantity which can be a scalar
or a vector or a tensor

Del operation n scalars

Del operation of a scalar s is called the gradient of the scalar s and is defined as follows:

Del operation n vectors

Three types of del operations are possible for vector quantities: (a) gradient, (b) divergence, and
(c) curl of a vector field

Gradient of a vector field

 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Dyadic product of the del operator and a vector quantity is called the gradient of a vector field and
is a second order tensor quantity. If is a vector quantity then gradient of a vector field is

Divergence of a vector
Dot product of the del operator and a vector quantity is called the divergence of vector field. It is
a scalar quantity. If ʋ is a vector quantity then divergence of a vector field is

Curl of a vector field

Cross product of the del operator and a vector quantity is called curl of vector field. It is a vector
quantity. If is a vector quantity then curl of a vector field is
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Laplacian of a scalar field
If we compute the divergence of the gradient of a scalar field s then it is called the Laplacian of
scalar field s. To understand this, let ∇·v be the divergence of a vector field v where v is the is
the gradient of a scalar quantity s, i.e.,𝑣 = ∇𝑠 Then,

Laplacian of a vector
Laplacian of a vector field ʋ is similarly defined as follows

Second necessary requirement of a vector quantity

Before proceeding further, we would like to revisit the definition of a vector. As we have discussed
earlier there are two necessary requirements for a physical quantity to be a vector. The first
requirement is that any vector quantity should have three components. The second necessary
requirement is that it should follow certain transformation rule when the coordinates are rotated
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
by some angle. Thus a rigorous definition of vector ʋ is that it has 31=3 components and it follows
the following transformation rule

Where i is the dummy index and p is the free index

v'p are the components of vector in new rotated coordinate system and vi are the components of
vector in the old coordinate system. Here

For example for p = 1 we have

Proof of transformation rule in two dimensional coordinate system

Fig 3.1 Rotation of axes

As shown in Fig. 3.1 , x1 and x2 are the old axes and v1 and v2 are components of vector in the
old axes. If axes are rotated by angle α. Now, new axis are x1' and x2' and the components of
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
vector in new coordinate are v'1 and v'2. The angle of x1’ axis to line which joins origin to is θ.
therefore, we have

and

Thus

Similarly for v2

From Equation (3.18) and Equation (3.21), we can solve for v'1 and v'2 in terms of v1 and v2 as
shown below

Which may be generalized to,

 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
This proves that vector ʋ in a two dimensional coordinate systems follows the transformation rule
given above in Equation (3.12).

Second order tensor

Analogous to a vector, second order tensor must also follow some transformation rules. Firstly,
they should contain 32 = 9 components and secondly, they should also follow the following
transformation rule as follows.

′ ′
If m=1 and n=1 then, 𝜏𝑚𝑛 = 𝜏11 and from Equation (4.1), we have

For a second order tensor, τ11, τ22, τ33 are the normal components of the tensor and this second
order tensor is symmetric, if

2nd order tensor as dyadic product of two vectors

As we have discussed earlier, the dyadic product of two vectors is a 2nd order tensor quantity. For
example, if v and w are two vectors, then
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
From Equation 4.6, we can see that on the right hand side nine terms have been added together
and if we omit the product of unit vectors, the nine components may written as shown below

Thus,

Mathematical operations for second order tensors

Addition
Tensors of the same order can be added or subtracted as follows

Similarly

Multiplication
A scalar and a 2nd order tensor quantity can be multiplied as follows
𝑎𝜏 = (𝑎𝜏𝑖𝑗 )𝛿𝑖 𝛿𝑗 4.10
Various multiplication operations are possible between two different order tensors. Some of these
are shown below

1. Dyadic product of vector and tensor is a third order tensor. Though, it is not required in
transport phenomena, may still be computed as shown below
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
2. Dot operation reduces the order of resulting quantity by two. Hence, the dot product of a
vector and a tensor is a vector quantity. For example, if τ is a 2nd tensor and ʋ is a vector
quantity, then
𝜏 ∙ 𝑣 = 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑖 𝛿𝑗 ∙ 𝑣𝑘 𝛿𝑘 = 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝛿𝑖 (𝛿𝑗 𝛿𝑘 ) 4.12
Next, we perform the dot operation between two the nearest unit vectors as shown below
𝜏 ∙ 𝑣 = 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝛿𝑖 𝛿𝑗𝑘 → replace j by k or k by j by k
= 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑗 𝛿𝑖 = 𝑤 = 𝑤𝑖 𝛿𝑖
Thus
𝑤𝑖 = 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑗 4.13
𝑤𝑙 = 𝜏𝑙𝑗 𝑣𝑗 = ∑3𝑗=1 𝜏𝑙𝑗 𝑣𝑗 4.14
For example, if i = 1, then
𝑤1 = 𝜏11 𝑣1 + 𝜏12 𝑣2 + 𝜏13 𝑣3

3. Cross operation reduces the order of resulting quantity by one. Hence, the cross product of
a vector and second order tensor is a second order tensor. For example, if τ is a tensor and
ʋ is a vector quantity, then
𝜏 × 𝑣 = 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑖 𝛿𝑗 × 𝑣𝑘 𝛿𝑘
= 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝛿𝑖 (𝛿𝑗 × 𝛿𝑘 )
= 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝛿𝑖 (𝜀𝑗𝑘𝑛 𝛿𝑛 )
= 𝜏𝑖𝑗 𝑣𝑘 𝜀𝑗𝑘𝑛 𝛿𝑖 𝛿𝑘

Multiplication of two 2nd order tensors

1. Dyadic product of two second order tensors is a fourth order tensor quantity. It is not
discussed here as this is not required in transport phenomena.

2. Cross product of two second order tensors is a third order tensor quantity and is not
discussed here for the same reason as above
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS

3. Dot reduces the order of resultant quantity by two. Thus, the dot product of two second

order tensors is a second order tensor quantity. If and are two second order
tensors, then

While performing the dot product between two unit vectors, the order in which indices appear
above, should not be changed and the dot product should be performed between the two nearest
unit vectors.

Replace k by j (or you may also replace j by k) (compaction operation)

4. Double dot operation reduces the order of resultant quantity by four. Thus, the double dot
product of two second order tensors is a scalar quantity. If τ and σ are two second order
tensors, then

First dot operation should take place between the two nearer vectors and the next dot
operation should take place between two remaining unit vectors. Hence,

replace k by j

replace l by i
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Del operations involving second order tensors
Divergence of second order tensor field
If τ is a second order tensor then divergence of the tensor field is

Time derivatives in transport phenomena

Many times, we are interested to know how fast any physical quantity or property is changing with
time. However, the property might be also the function of space coordinates, makes more
complicated to measure. In this section, three different types of time derivatives are discussed

𝜕𝐶
Partial derivative, denoted as 𝜕𝑡

𝑑𝐶
Total derivative, denoted as 𝑑𝑡

𝐷𝐶
Substantial derivative, denoted as 𝐷𝑡

To understand the differences between these time derivatives, consider a hypothetical case. A
chimney produces flue gases containing SO2 and we want to study the change in SO2 concentration
with time.
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS

Fig 6.1 Partial derivative with constant observer at point C

Partial derivative

If the observer remains fixed at a particular position and determines the change in the concentration
of SO2. It is being the partial derivative that is measured. At time t=t, let the concentration of
SO2 be C1 and at time t+Δt, let it be C1+ΔC1. Thus, the time derivative, which is the measure of
change in SO2 concentration is given by

While calculating the partial derivative it is assumed other space coordinates remain constant.

Total derivative

If, however, the observer also changes his position with time. It is the total derivative which is
measured. Suppose at any time t = t, the observer is situated at the point A and measures
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
concentration of SO2 as C1. At time t= t+Δt, the observer has move and reaches a different location
at point B. Let this measured concentration of of SO2 be C2 . In this case, the time derivative is

This may be called a total derivative as the change in concentration with respect to both time and
space is being considered. Therefore, it should also include the effects of the velocity of observer.
Mathematically this time derivative may be expressed as,

Here, ux, uy and uz are the components of the velocity of the observer in the x, y and z directions
respectively

Substantial derivative

It is a special case of the total derivative where the observer floats in a balloon with the speed of
the air around it. Thus, the velocity of fluid is same as the velocity of the observer. In this case,

Where vx, vy and vz are the components of the velocity of the fluid

To understand the differences between partial and substantial derivatives, let us take a simple one
dimensional problem. Let the point A be at the position ‘x’, and point B be at the position ‘x+ Δx’.
The concentration of SO2 is a function of both time t as well as spatial coordinate x. As shown in
Figure 6.2, the concentration profile (plot of C vs. x) changes with time. Let the concentration of
SO2 at the point A be recorded at time t=t as C1 and at time t+Δt as C2. In the same way, the
concentration of SO2 is recorded at point B at time t=t as C3 and at time t=t+Δt as C4 as shown in
Fig. 6.2
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS

Fig 6.2 Position of observer A ( C1 & C2 ) and B ( C3 and C4 )

The observer, starting from point A, reaches the point B in time Δt . If the velocity of the observer
is ux , the distance traversed in time Δt will be Δx=ux Δt.

The partial derivatives can thus be computed as

The substantial derivative, is however computed as

Equation (6.7) shows the difference between the partial and the substantial derivative. In order to
relate the two mathematically, we may proceed as follows

From the Fig. 6.2, C3 may be written as

 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Furthermore, C4 can be written in terms of C3 as

Therefore,

Dividing the equation by Δt and taking the limit as Δt → 0, we have

Generalizing the Equation (6.4) and making it independent of the coordinate system, we may write
it in vector and tensor form as

The above definition of substantial derivative may also apply to a quantity which is vector or
second order tensor, i.e.

Coordinate systems
Till now, we have mostly seen and dealt with the Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinate system.
However, depending on the geometry of the problem we intend to solve, we may find the Cartesian
coordinate system too cumbersome to use. For example, consider the flow of a fluid in a cylindrical
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
pipe. In such a case, it may be difficult to use the Cartesian coordinates because the boundary
conditions may become extremely complicated to write. Therefore, depending upon the geometry
in consideration, we may use three different types of coordinate systems.
 Cartesian coordinate system
 Cylindrical coordinate system
 Spherical coordinate system

Cartesian system
Cartesian coordinate system is a three dimensional coordinate system. In this coordinate system,
the space is defined by three lines, called axes which are mutually perpendicular to each other.
These axes intersect each other at a point called the origin. By convention, the axes are termed as
the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis. Any point in space can then be defined by the distance of the point
from the planes made by any two axes. For example, if any point P is located in space such that
the distance of P to the yz plane is x, to the xy plane is z, and to the zx plane is y then the
coordinates of point P are (x, y, z).

Fig 6.3 Cartesian and cylindrical coordinate system

Cylindrical system
Cylindrical coordinate system is a three dimensional coordinate system. In this coordinate system,
the space can be defined by an axis z, and a direction r and an angle θ. The origin is the point lying
at the intersection of the z-axis and a reference plane. Any point P can be specified as P(r,θ,z)
where r is the perpendicular (radial) distance from the z-axis to the point P; θ is the angle between
the reference direction on the selected reference plane A and the line from the origin to the
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
projection of point P on the reference plane; z is the perpendicular distance from the point P to the
reference plane.

Spherical system
In this coordinate system, three dimensional space can be defined by an axis z, a direction r and a
reference plane (the xy plane of the Cartesian system). The axis z and the reference plane are
perpendicular to each other and intersect at a point called the origin.

Fig 6.4 Spherical coordinate system

Any point P can be defined as P(r,θ,Φ) where r is the distance of the point from the origin; θ is
the angle made between z-axis and the line passing through origin and point P; Φ is the angle made
between x direction and the line which joins the origin to projection of point P on the reference
plane

Recap questions – these will help you understand the notes

1. Determine free indices and dummy indices in following expressions.
a. ujδj·viδi +vk
b. ϵijkδk
2. What is the order of tensor and direction for the following operations?
a. Cross product of two vectors
b. Dot product of two 2nd order tensors
c. Dot product of two vectors
 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
3. If 1, 2, and 3 represent coordinates of a three dimensional cartesian coordinate system then
solve following expressions:
a. 𝛿1. 𝛿2
b. 𝛿1 × 𝛿1
c. 𝛿3 × 𝛿2
d. 𝛿1 × 𝛿1
4. What is the significance of curl of a vector field?
5. What is the significance of divergence of a vector operator?
6. What is the meaning of Laplacian operator?
7. How can you decide the coordinate system for solving transport problem?
8. Give the coordinate systems for solving the following problems
a. Flow in pipe.
b. Heat transfer (axially) in a cone.
c. Mass transfer in a spherical catalyst.