Journal of Psychoactive Drugs

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Examination of the Phenomenology of the

Ibogaine Treatment Experience: Role of Altered
States of Consciousness and Psychedelic
Experiences

Annamarie Heink M.A., Steve Katsikas Ph.D. & Tiffany Lange-Altman Psy.D.

To cite this article: Annamarie Heink M.A., Steve Katsikas Ph.D. & Tiffany Lange-Altman Psy.D.
(2017): Examination of the Phenomenology of the Ibogaine Treatment Experience: Role of Altered
States of Consciousness and Psychedelic Experiences, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, DOI:
10.1080/02791072.2017.1290855

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Published online: 07 Mar 2017.

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JOURNAL OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2017.1290855

Examination of the Phenomenology of the Ibogaine Treatment Experience: Role

of Altered States of Consciousness and Psychedelic Experiences
Annamarie Heink, M.A.a, Steve Katsikas, Ph.D.b, and Tiffany Lange-Altman, Psy.D.c
a
Doctoral Candidate, School of Professional Psychology, Spalding University, Louisville, KY, USA; bChair, School of Professional Psychology,
Spalding University, Louisville, KY, USA; cPTSD/SUD Psychologist, Hampton Veteran Affairs, School of Professional Psychology, Spalding
University, Louisville, KY, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Psychedelic drugs have historically been used for ritualistic purposes and to help individuals Received 3 July 2016
gain insight. Ibogaine, a naturally occurring psychoactive substance, has been reported to Revised 29 November 2016
have anti-addictive properties that aid in the treatment of substance use disorders. An online Accepted 29 December 2016
survey obtained retrospective data from individuals who used ibogaine in the past. Individuals KEYWORDS
who used ibogaine tended to describe thematically similar experiences post-treatment. This Addiction treatment; heroin;
study adds to the literature by using the 5d-ASC, a psychometrically sound measure of altered ibogaine; opiate;
states of consciousness (ASCs), to examine the ASCs induced by ibogaine and discusses the psychedelics
demographic characteristics of those who seek ibogaine treatment (N = 27). The study also
examined several aspects of ibogaine treatment experience, including reasons for seeking
treatment, course of treatment, and treatment outcome. Results indicated a positive correla-
tion between the various dimensions of the ASCs and the outcome (ability to make changes in
one’s life, cravings, and how changed the person was as a result of ibogaine treatment). While
this study is limited in generalizability due to high attrition and low sample size, it deepens
the understanding of the phenomenological experience of ibogaine and explores the possible
utility of ibogaine in the treatment of substance use disorders.

Ibogaine is the active alkaloid of the root bark of the Ibogaine

plant Tabernanthe iboga, which grows in western
Anecdotal reports suggest that ibogaine may alleviate
central Africa. The root bark of the plant has been
immediate symptoms of opiate withdrawal and cravings,
used by the Bwiti tribe for religious rituals and
as well as cravings over time (Alper, Beal, and Kaplan
induces a series of psychoactive effects, including
2001). Yet, few studies have formally investigated these
vivid hallucinations. Animal studies, as well as sev-
claims. A few studies have examined ibogaine and eval-
eral open human trials, suggest that ibogaine may
uated its medicinal qualities, focusing mainly on eluci-
have therapeutic value as a treatment for substance
dating its chemical structure and studying its possible
abuse, especially opiate addiction (Mash et al. 2000;
anti-addictive/anti-craving properties (Carnicella et al.
Siegel et al. 1996). It is unclear whether the addic-
2010; Levi and Borne 2002; Mash et al. 1998).
tion interruption effects reported by some indivi-
Alper, Beal, and Kaplan (2001) evaluated the reasons
duals are a product of the pharmacology of the
individuals provided for seeking ibogaine treatment, and
substance itself or are also affected by the psyche-
the most common reasons were heroin use, unspecified
delic effects of the substance. Given the prevalence
addiction, and spiritual growth. Alper, Lotsof, and Kaplan
of opiate addiction and a lack of pharmacological
(2008) estimated that 53% of those who took ibogaine for
treatments other than substitution approaches (e.g.,
treatment of substance use disorders did so to treat or avoid
Methadone) and abstinence-based therapies, there
opioid withdrawal.
remains a need for identifying additional approaches
Currently, ibogaine is classified as a Schedule I
to treating substance use. Both popular press articles
substance in the United States. Resultantly, all formal
and scientific literature point to an increasing num-
treatment facilities are outside of the United States,
ber of people with substance use disorders seeking
although ibogaine is provided in the U.S. by an
out treatment using psychoactive substances (Kotler
underground network of laypersons in nonmedical
2010; MAPS 2003).
settings (Alper, Beal, and Kaplan 2001). The current

CONTACT Annamarie Heink annamarie.heink@gmail.com Spalding University, 901 South Fourth Street, Louisville, KY 40203, USA.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 A. HEINK ET AL.
classification of ibogaine is a likely reason why few
studies, and no randomized trials, have been
conducted.
Human trials
Mash et al. (1998) studied the pharmacokinetics of
ibogaine to assess for safety, dosage, and the efficacy
of ibogaine used to treat opiate addiction. Researchers
analyzed ibogaine in multiple administrative forms
(bark and extract), as well as its metabolite, noribo-
gaine. They reported the presence of some unpleasant
side-effects (nausea and mild tremor), but no signifi-
cant adverse reactions. However, the study was con-
ducted under optimum conditions (single-dose
administration after subjects had received a medical
evaluation, physical examination, electrocardiogram,
and blood work), and results may not generalize to
the use of ibogaine outside of these conditions.
However, the single-dose administration of ibogaine
was well tolerated (Mash et al. 1998).
Long-term effects of ibogaine treatment are still
being investigated. Bastiaans (2004) used a retrospec-
tive self-report questionnaire to evaluate changes in
behavior and attitudes over time. One quarter (24%)
of participants ceased use of any substance (illicit drugs,
pain medication, or alcohol) three and a half years
post-treatment. Most (76%) quit using their primary
and secondary drugs of choice for approximately one
and a half years. Mash et al. (2000) evaluated mood and
cravings at three points during a 14-day study and
one month post-treatment. Results suggested lasting
reductive effects of single-dose administration on the
subjects’ mood and depressive symptoms. This study
also showed significant decreased opiate and cocaine
cravings at one month post-treatment.
Phenomenology of the ibogaine experience
Commonalities exist among ibogaine treatment experi-
ences, including three general phases and physical and
psychological effects. Alper (2001) described Phase I as a
“waking dream” state where individuals commonly experi-
ence visions and have altered perceptions. Phase II is a
period of evaluation of the inner experiences of Phase I
and may involve review of the individual’s issues (e.g., past
trauma, substance use, health problems) (Alper 2001;
Lotsof and Wachtel 2003). Phase III occurs for days fol-
lowing treatment, and was described as an increased
awareness of the external environment and a reduction
in the psychoactive effects of ibogaine (Alper 2001).
Physical and psychedelic effects
Ibogaine induces physical effects, including feelings of
warmth, paralysis or difficulty with movement, nausea,
and vomiting (Alper, Lotsof, and Kaplan 2008; KBF
2009; Naranjo 1974). Concerns regarding the potential
cardiac effects of ibogaine are also well documented
(Koenig et al. 2013; Maas and Strubelt 2016). There
have been some reports of long-term sleep disturbance
in the weeks or months after ibogaine administration
(Lotsof and Wachtel 2003).
The psychedelic effects of ibogaine include visual
and auditory hallucinations and altered perceptions.
Anecdotes recount visions of burning skulls, brightly
colored patterns, goblin faces, and figures in black
(Pinchbeck 2002). Lotsof (1994) reported rapid visuali-
zations, with some individuals equating the experience
to watching a movie in high speed or as a slideshow.
The occurrence of visual altered states of consciousness
(ASCs) seems to be vivid, personal, and meaningful to
the individual. Personal anecdotes suggest that the
visions themselves are a way to gather insight into
current or past issues within the self (Pinchbeck 2002).
Interest in alternative treatments for substance use
disorder is growing out of the realization that treat-
ments need to be multimodal and tailored to individual
needs. This study set out to understand the phenom-
enology of the ibogaine experience and associated treat-
ment outcomes. If the psychedelic experience itself
contributes to outcomes for individuals treated with
ibogaine, then understanding the subjective experience
may increase the understanding of ibogaine’s mechan-
isms of action as an addiction-interruption treatment.
Methods
Participants
The researchers gathered data using an anonymous,
online, retrospective survey. Criteria for participation
included being at least 18 years old and previous use of
ibogaine.
Materials
The materials consisted of a demographics question-
naire (DQ), assessment of ASCs, and additional items
examining the phenomenology and self-reported treat-
ment outcomes. The DQ examined age, race/ethnicity,
country of origin, country in which they received treat-
ment, education, and language. The researchers
assessed the ASCs experienced with ibogaine by using
the 5d-ASC, the second revision of the English transla-
tion of Abnormer Psychischer Zustand (APZ), the most
widely used, standardized measure of psychedelic
experiences. The 5d-ASC (Dittrich 1998) for use in
this online study uses a sliding scale (Dittrich, personal
 JOURNAL OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS 3

communication, August 19, 2012). The sliding scale Table 1. Self-reported treatment outcome questions.
assessed deviation from normal waking consciousness Factor Question Likert scale range
and ranged from 0 to 100 where 0 indicated the experi- Withdrawal What effect do you believe 1. Ibogaine dramatically
your ibogaine treatment had reduced withdrawal
ence was “No, not more than usual” and 100 was “Yes, on your withdrawal symptoms
much more than usual.” The 5d-ASC questions factor symptoms? 2. Ibogaine reduced
withdrawal symptoms
into six primary dimensions or scales: Oceanic 3. No effect on withdrawal
Boundlessness (OBN), Dread of Ego-Dissolution symptoms
4. Ibogaine increased
(DED), Visual Restructuralization (VRS), Auditory withdrawal symptoms
Alterations (AUA), Vigilance Reduction (VIR), and a 5. Ibogaine dramatically
increased withdrawal
Global Altered State of Consciousness scale (G-ASC) symptoms
(Dittrich 1998; Dittrich, von Arx, and Staub 1985). The
5d-ASC demonstrates good reliability, yielding internal Cravings What effect do you believe 1. Ibogaine dramatically
(weeks) your ibogaine treatment had reduced my drug cravings
consistency reliabilities between α = .88 and α = .95 for on your drug cravings in the 2. Ibogaine reduced my
the various dimensions and a total scale score of α = .96 first 4 weeks after your drug cravings
treatment? 3. Ibogaine had no effect
(Dittrich, Lamparter, and Maurer 2011). The 5d-ASC on my drug cravings
has been shown to distinguish between amount admi- 4. Ibogaine increased my
drug cravings
nistered and type of psychedelic substance (Studerus 5. Ibogaine dramatically
et al. 2010). increased my drug cravings
6. I did not seek ibogaine
The questionnaire included additional items exam- as a treatment for drug use
ining the psychedelic experience itself and self-reported
treatment outcomes. Regarding phenomenology, parti- Cravings What effect do you believe 1. Ibogaine dramatically
(months) your ibogaine treatment had reduced my drug cravings
cipants responded to multiple-choice questions about on your drug cravings in the 2. Ibogaine reduced my
the administration process, reasons for seeking treat- months following your drug cravings
treatment? 3. Ibogaine had no effect
ment, and course of treatment, which included physical on my drug cravings
and psychedelic effects. Self-reported treatment out- 4. Ibogaine increased my
drug cravings
come questions included symptoms of withdrawal and 5. Ibogaine dramatically
cravings over weeks and months, the importance of increased my drug cravings
6. I did not seek ibogaine
ASCs in the ability to make changes in life, how chan- as a treatment for drug use
ged the person was as a result of ibogaine treatment,
expectations, and perceived effectiveness (Table 1). Importance How important were the 1. Not at all important
visions/hallucinations to your 2. A little important
Participants responded on a Likert scale. ability to make changes in 3. Very important
your life? 4. Extremely important
5. I did not experience
visions/hallucinations
Procedures
Research procedures were approved by Spalding Changed How changed are you as a 1. I am much worse
result of your experience because of the experience
University’s Institutional Review Board approval of with ibogaine? 2. I am worse because of
protocol and then prepared as an online survey tool. the experience
3. I am the same
The researchers sent the link to the questionnaires to 14 4. I am better because of
ibogaine treatment centers, asking program directors to the experience
5. I am much better
share the link with patients who had completed treat- because of the experience
ment at their facility within the past two years.
Additionally, the survey description and link was Expectation Compared to your 1. My experience was
expectations for your completely different than
posted on 12 relevant online forums and discussion experience with ibogaine, what I was expecting
boards, including Facebook and a threaded bulletin how would you describe 2. My experience was a
your actual experience? little different from what I
board devoted to Ibogaine discussion, obtaining per- was expecting
mission from moderators as needed. 3. My experience was close
to what I was expecting
After clicking on the study link, participants 4. My experience was very
reviewed and signed an electronic informed consent similar to what I was
expecting
form that described the study. A hyperlink led parti-
cipants to the demographics questionnaire. If the par- Effectiveness Overall, how effective was 1. Not at all helpful
ticipant met the criteria for the study, a subsequent your ibogaine experience in 2. A little helpful
helping with the MAIN issue 3. Unsure
link directed him or her to the rest of the survey. The you sought treatment for? 4. Very helpful
length of the questionnaire required approximately 5. Extremely helpful
4 A. HEINK ET AL.
one hour to complete, and respondents received a
gratitude statement.
Results
The survey informed consent was viewed 392 times.
The survey itself was started 100 times, and 27 indivi-
duals completed the survey.
Demographics
The 27 participants were from 10 different countries,
had a mean age of 35.11 (SD = 7.85), and most (96%)
identified as White/Caucasian/European. About half
(56%) identified as male. Regarding participant’s level
of education, 7% had some high school, 35% had
some college, 11% held a technical certification, 8%
had an associate degree, 39% had a bachelor’s degree
or higher. It is possible that individuals with a post-
secondary education may be more likely to have the
economic means to receive ibogaine treatment, as
treatments can be costly (Ibogaine University 2013).
Several participants (31%) reported multiple ibogaine
treatments.
Phenomenology of the experience
Administration process. Participants reported various
ibogaine treatment settings, including medical treat-
ment facilities (22%), their own home (11%), someone
else’s home (26%), motel rooms (22%), counseling cen-
ters (15%), and other places (4%). Ibogaine was admi-
nistered by a medical professional 33% of the time, a
non-medical professional with experience in using ibo-
gaine 33% of the time, and a counseling professional
15% of the time, with the rest being described as either
self-administered or “other.” Participants indicated that
they were able to ask questions of the treatment provi-
ders, with 70% reporting that their questions were
answered completely.
Reasons for seeking treatment and expectations. When
asked to indicate the most important reason for seek-
ing ibogaine treatment, 78% indicated substance abuse
(drugs or alcohol), 8% indicated spiritual growth, and
14% indicated alcohol abuse, chronic pain, anxiety,
self-awareness, or “other.” Regarding expectations,
participants indicated that the ibogaine treatment
experience was “different” (4%) or “completely differ-
ent” (59%) from what they had expected. Most indi-
viduals (92%) indicated experiencing the effects of
ibogaine within the first hour after administration,
including both physical and perceptual changes.
Physical effects. Participants indicated that they felt at
least “some” of the following physical symptoms:
lightheadedness/dizziness (56%), decreased control of
movements in any body parts (70%), buzzing in ears
(89%), nausea (52%), vomiting (30%), diarrhea (19%),
feeling physically heavy (77%), difficulty trying to
move (81%), emotional distress (46%), and feeling
hesitant to take the next dose of ibogaine (35%).
Psychedelic effects. Participants reported variations in
perception as well as visual and auditory hallucina-
tions. Eighty-eight percent (88%) of participants
endorsed a heightened sense of perceptions.
Participants reported change in perception of light
(89%), change in perception of sound (85%), change
in perception of their body (82%), change in percep-
tion of time (93%), and change in perception of space
(78%).
Most participants experienced hallucinations (97%),
with 63% indicating “quite a bit” or “almost all” of the
ibogaine experience included hallucinations or visions.
Common themes and images included hallucinations of
living people (77%) and deceased people (38%), visuals
of animals (62%), visions of television screens (46%),
hearing drums beating (54%), hearing a buzzing noise
(96%), and communication with the deceased (27%).
The majority of participants indicated that their visions
told a story (70%) and contained symbolism (74%).
Seventy-four percent also reported that the visions
had an obvious personal meaning to them, and 77%
had visions from their own childhood.
Participants varied in their ability to control halluci-
nations. Most (78%) were able to exit the vision by open-
ing their eyes, at least “a little” of the time. When
participants shut their eyes again, most returned to the
vision where they left off (78%). About half (52%) felt as
though they were not able to control their visions “at all.”
Participants also varied in their experiences of various
internal and external events, such as the intensity of the
altered state of consciousness and communication with
treatment providers. Two-thirds (66%) found it at least “a
little” difficult to communicate with counselors or staff
members and 48% stated counselor/staff member “check-
ing ins” interfered with their experience.
All participants reported that the ibogaine experience
yielded insight relating to their past, 92% had insights
relating to the meaning of life, and 88% reported insights
regarding creation. Others endorsed insights regarding
the evolution of humanity (85%), evolution of the animal
world (77%), evolution of the universe (89%), and death/
after-life (85%). After the ibogaine experience, 85% of
participants indicated relief from guilt.

Table 2. 5d-ASC scores by substance.
Substance OBN DED VRS VIR AUA
Ibogaine 62.45 41.96 66.23 48.18 54.87
Psilocybin 41.72 22.53 44.27 41.59 11.53
Note. Psilocybin—high dose (315 μg/kg Psilocybin, n = 42). Data obtained
from Studerus (2012).
Treatment outcomes
Outcome questions concerned the impact of the ASCs,
participants’ expectations of treatment, the perceived
effect of ibogaine on withdrawal symptoms, and any
insight gained through the experience.
Withdrawal
Nearly all participants (96%) found ibogaine to have a
reductive effect on immediate post-treatment withdra-
wal symptoms. Many (68%) indicated that ibogaine
“dramatically reduced” withdrawal symptoms.
Altered states of consciousness (ASCs)
Individual total scores for each of the 5d-ASC factors
are shown in Table 2, together with similar data for
psilocybin taken from Studerus (2012). These results
suggest that ibogaine may result in a more intense
psychedelic experience than psilocybin.
Altered states of consciousness and outcome
variables
The authors ran a correlational analysis to evaluate the
link between the ASCs and the following treatment
outcome measures: importance of visions/hallucina-
tions to the participant’s ability to make changes in
life (importance variable), the level of change the parti-
cipant attributed to the ibogaine experience (changed
variable), the participant’s expectations, effect on crav-
ings over the first four weeks, effect on cravings for
months after treatment, how effective ibogaine was in
helping with the main issues for which treatment was
sought, and symptoms of withdrawal. There were no
significant correlations between withdrawal symptoms
and 5d-ASC variables. However, there were positive
correlations between self-reported withdrawal and the
effects on cravings in the first four weeks after treat-
ment (rho = .720, p = .01) and the effects on cravings in
the months following treatment (rho = .675, p = .01). A
negative correlation was found between symptoms of
withdrawal and how effective ibogaine was for the main
issues for seeking treatment (rho = –.546, p = .01).
Cravings
Of those who sought ibogaine as a treatment for drug
use, 92% reported that ibogaine “reduced” or “drama-
tically reduced” drug cravings in the first four weeks
JOURNAL OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS 5
after treatment. Craving reduction continued for
G-ASC months after treatment for 91% of participants and
168.19 49% indicated a “dramatic” reduction. There were no
108.52
significant correlations between cravings reductions
weeks or months after treatment and the 5d-ASC vari-
ables. However, the effects on cravings in the first
four weeks after treatment factor was negatively corre-
lated with how important the ASCs were to the parti-
cipant’s ability to make changes in life (rho = –.391,
p = .05). A negative correlation was found between the
effects on cravings, in the months following treatment
and the changed variable (rho = –.448, p = .05). There
was a positive correlation between the effects on crav-
ings in the first four weeks and the effects on cravings
in the months following (rho = .972, p = .01).
Changed
Participants identified how changed they felt as a result
of the ibogaine experience. Participants answered this
question on a 5-point Likert scale that ranged from “I
am much worse because of the experience” to “I am
much better because of the experience.” Results yielded
the “changed” variable. No participants indicated that
they were either “much worse” or “worse” as a result of
their experience with ibogaine. Instead, 30% of partici-
pants stated they were “better,” and 67% stated they
were “much better” because of the ibogaine experience.
There was significant positive correlation between how
changed the participant felt as a result of the experience
and the 5d-ASC factors VRS (rho = .679, p = .01) and
GASC (rho = .419, p = .05).
Importance
The survey assessed the level of importance the partici-
pants placed on the ibogaine experience in their ability to
make changes in life. Participants (41%) indicated that the
visions or hallucinations were “extremely important” to
their ability to make changes in their lives, and 82% stated
they were at least “a little” important. There was signifi-
cant positive correlation between this importance variable
and the 5d-ASC factors AUA (rho = .433, p = .05).
Effectiveness
Participants indicated how effective ibogaine was in help-
ing with the main issues for which treatment was sought,
yielding the “effectiveness” variable. The majority of par-
ticipants indicated that ibogaine was “very helpful” or
“extremely helpful” (16% and 76%, respectively). There
was no significant correlation between how effective ibo-
gaine was in helping with the main issues for which
treatment was sought and the 5d-ASC variables.
Generally speaking, participants reported that ibogaine
was effective and that they gained insight from the
6 A. HEINK ET AL.
experience. Most participants stated that ibogaine was
“very” to “extremely” helpful (16% and 76%, respectively)
for the main reason for which they sought treatment
Discussion
This study revealed a number of variations in the
ibogaine treatment setting that may be due to its lack
of regulation or adoption of formal administration pro-
tocols. These variations included location of adminis-
tration, protocols used, and use of informed consent.
The rationale for administration of treatment by a non-
professional provider, reported by a majority of parti-
cipants, may be due to legality status (discouraging
medical providers’ participation), or participants may
gravitate towards a provider with personal experience
with ibogaine (Lawson 1982).
Addressing drug use was the primary reason for
seeking ibogaine treatment. Most indicated that their
experience was either “different” or “completely differ-
ent” from what they expected. Many participants
reported experiencing the physical and psychedelic
effects of ibogaine treatment that were consistent with
the literature (Alper, Lotsof, and Kaplan 2008; Lotsof
1994). A majority of participants endorsed a heightened
sense of perception, including changes in perception of
light, sound, time, space, and self. The ASCs seemed to
be personal in nature and to contain symbols.
Participants believed that ibogaine reduced withdra-
wal symptoms and cravings for up to months after
treatment. Nearly all participants reported a significant
reduction in withdrawal symptoms. Reductions in
withdrawal symptoms were correlated with perceived
effectiveness. These results suggest that ibogaine’s
impact on withdrawal symptoms are closely related to
future cravings and how participants rated its effective-
ness, but also that ibogaine’s effect on withdrawal
symptoms may be the result of factors that are inde-
pendent of the ibogaine-induced ASCs.
Participants reported that ibogaine reduced their
cravings both in the weeks and months after treatment,
independent of ASCs. Participants also reported that
the visions/hallucinations were an important aspect of
their experience in terms of their ability to make
changes in their lives.
ASCs appear important for individuals to be able to
make changes in their life, specifically auditory halluci-
nations (AUA). However, there was no significant rela-
tionship between how important the ASCs were to the
participant’s ability to make changes in life and the
intensity of the overall experience (GASC). This finding
suggests that participants get some benefit from the
hallucinations induced by ibogaine, but that the benefit
is not contingent on the intensity of the ASCs.
Participants did describe visual hallucinations (VRS)
and the overall intensity of the psychedelic experience
as being an important predictor of how “changed” they
felt. The idea that the ASCs act as a catalyst for change
has potential implications for treatment and research. It
is well-established that a drug’s effect on the body is
contingent on many factors, including the substance,
the individual’s metabolic rate, and dose (Holford and
Sheiner 1981). Clinical trials may be useful to identify
the populations most likely to benefit from treatment,
as well as the specific dosage necessary to induce ther-
apeutic ASCs.
The majority of participants stated that ibogaine was
“very” helpful or “extremely” helpful for the main rea-
son they sought treatment. There was no significant
relationship between the perceived effectiveness and
the ASCs, suggesting that ibogaine may be effective
regardless of the intensity of the ASCs. However, the
level of perceived effectiveness was positively correlated
to withdrawal. These are encouraging results, as some
research suggests one significant reason for relapse is
withdrawal symptoms (Wikler 1948).
The majority of participants seemed to benefit from
their experience with ibogaine. While experiences var-
ied greatly (in setting, reason for treatment, expecta-
tions), no participants indicated that ibogaine had a
negative effect on their life, suggesting that ibogaine
may have positive and generalizable treatment effects.
Generally speaking, the ibogaine experience appears
to be significantly different from normal waking con-
sciousness across all aspects of a psychedelic experi-
ence, as defined by the 5d-ASC. Given the unpleasant
physical side-effects and quick development of toler-
ance, ibogaine is unlikely to be used recreationally and
does not likely represent a risk for abuse.
This study has several limitations, including the use
of a retrospective and self-report survey, a small sample
size, and high non-completion rate. The 27 respondents
who chose to complete the survey may be very different
from other ibogaine users who consented or initiated,
but did not complete, the survey.
Expanding the knowledge base on ibogaine may involve
the development of clinical trials with clear pre-post mea-
sures to assess changes in craving, withdrawal, and other
psychological dimensions. The development of adminis-
tration protocols, efficacy evaluations, and treatment out-
comes can be addressed through the use of clinical trials.
Finally, objective outcome measures, such as drug screens,
could be conducted before and after treatment to reduce
bias.
This study evaluated the phenomenology of the ibo-
gaine experience, including the physical and psychedelic

effects of ibogaine and treatment outcome measures related
to withdrawal, cravings, perceived effectiveness, impor-
tance of the visions or hallucinations, and the role of
expectations. The hypothesis of a link between ASCs and
the level of impact of the experience on the individual’s life
was partially supported. ASCs were related to how impor-
tant hallucinations or visions were to the individual’s ability
to make changes in his or her life and how changed the
participant felt as a result of the ibogaine experience. To
date, little research has been done on what aspects of the
ibogaine experience are linked to perceived treatment out-
come. It is possible that the ASCs play a vital role in the
treatment outcome; thus, should be considered an essential
predictor of outcomes. Comparing ibogaine to a non-psy-
chedelic derivative drug would be a useful study in further
elucidating whether the psychedelic experience adds to
treatment efficacy or is just an unpleasant (though striking)
set of medication side-effects.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge Spalding University’s Ibogaine
Research Interest Group: Edna Gyamfi, M.A.; Roshunna Lea,
M.A.; Melissa Swartz, M.A.; and Carissa Timmerberg, M.A.
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