Professional Documents
Culture Documents
- INDIAN CONTEXT .
CONTENT:
1.1. Housing and its importance in Architecture and its relationship with neighborhood
and city planning
1.2. Housing demand and supply
1.3. National Housing Policy
1.4. Housing agencies and their role in housing development
1.5. Impact of traditional life style
1.6. Rural Housing, Public, private sector housing.
ASPECT:
1. HOUSING AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN ARCHITECTURE AND ITS
RELATIONSHIP WITH NEIGHBORHOOD AND CITY PLANNING.
1.1. INTRODUCTION:
Food, clothing and shelter (housing) are the primary requirements of life.
The availability of these necessities in sufficient quantity and quality increases the
physical efficiency and productivity of the people.
So housing is an important component of human resource development.
In India, the problem of housing is acute. There is a wide gap between the demand and supply
of houses. This gap is responsible for growth of slums in cities where crores of people live in
most unhygienic and unhealthy conditions.
The table indicates that rural housing shortage increased from 3.4 million in 1961 to 20.6
million in 2001. Urban housing shortage increased from 0.9 million units to 10.4 million units
during the same period. Thus total shortages of housing increased from 4.3 million to 31.0
million dwelling units. The rate of housing construction in the country is around 3 houses per
thousand populations per year as against the required rate of 5 houses per thousand
populations.
According to 2012 housing shortage report was estimated at a whopping 20 million households
in 2012. Out of those living in obsolescence, close to 90 percent belong to the Economically
Weaker Sections (EWS) who were in dire need of a new house, or even a house. The Lower
Income Segments (LIG) and Middle-Income Segments (MIG) constituted the remaining
households who lacked livable ‘affordable’ housing spaces in urban centers.
For example: Bihar accounted for one third of the housing scarcity followed by Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, U.P. and West Bengal. In 2000, about 48.7 million people were living in urban slums in
unhealthy conditions.
According to Ninth Five-Year Plan, 18.77 million houses are kutcha houses. They are thatched
houses made of mud, straw and bamboos. These are unable to face natural disaster like cyclone
and flood etc.
Housing, besides being a very basic requirement for the urban people, also holds the
key to accelerate the speed of the development of the nation.
Investment in housing industry like any other industry has a multiplier effect on income
and employment, which in turn leads to the overall development of the economy.
It is estimated that overall employment generation in our economy due to the
additional investment in housing as well as construction industry is eight times the
direct employment.
Housing provides employment to a cross section of people, which importantly includes
the weaker sections of the society.
Housing also provides opportunities for home based economic activities. At the same
time, adequate housing also decides the health status of the occupants.
Therefore, on account of health, income and employment considerations, housing is a
very important tool for removing poverty, generation of employment and improving the
health status of people.
Magnitude of housing requirements is linked to pattern of growth, settlement status
and overall shelter quality.
Cities and towns, which are growing at faster rate, need to develop and deliver a faster
and greater supply of housing.
Growth of slums in India has been at least three times higher than the growth of urban
population, leading to sizeable number of urban populations living in the slums.
QUALITY
Pursuing the longevity, well-being and future health of the individuals and society
A well-designed space can make the inhabitant enjoy where they live, take pride in their
surroundings, build sense of community and inspire them to strive for more.
In simple words:
Housing quality refers to the physical condition of a person’s home as well as the quality
of the social and physical environment in which the home is located.
2. Infrastructure
3. Design
4. Aesthetics
6. Sustainability
7. Concept
8. Hyginity
QUANTITY
House more people but sub-standard life, cheap construction, isolated spaces.
NEIGHBORHOOD LEVEL
The housing plays an important role in neighborhood planning. As the household are the
key user the entire setting up of the surrounding should be planned for the ease and
comfortable living of them.
Location of school, daily market, commercial area etc., will be planned accordingly to
the housing units planning.
Open spaces, social spaces or community spaces will also be planned/ designed
accordingly to the housing unit/ residential neighborhood.
The relationship of residential neighborhood with the surrounding land use proposed
plays an major role.
One can’t propose a huge highway or industrial area next to tan residential area.
The connectivity between the residential area and CBD, Commercial hubs will be
considered.
Proposal of availability of other services and amenities for the well being of the
community/ society is taken care.
Whenever the master plan is done for any city, more care and importance will be given
for residential areas. It can be of any type of residential settlement.
This analysis illustrates that in the presence of an inelastic supply curve that prevents supply
from responding to price rises, both subsidies are at best ineffective, and at worst a hand-out to
developers.
When housing providers are unable to respond to price rises by supplying more housing (e.g.
due to a limited supply of well-connected land), the supply curve S rises upwards steeply.
This is referred to as an inelastic supply response to price rises. When a demand-side subsidy
acts to shift the demand curve from D1 to D2, the housing market equilibrium moves from
point A to point B.
The main effect of the demand-side subsidy is therefore an increase in price rather than an
increase in the quantity of housing delivered.
The price rise translates into increased profits for housing suppliers.
When a supply-side subsidy acts to reduce the price at which subsidised suppliers are willing to
provide a certain quantity of housing, this shifts the supply curve downwards from S1 to S2.
The housing market equilibrium moves from A to B, resulting in a decrease in price and increase
in quantity delivered.
In the extreme case where the supply of land is completely fixed, the supply curve is vertical.
The subsidy therefore has no effect on quantity, and simply serves to displace non-subsidised
housing production.
When policy acts to increase the elasticity of housing supply (e.g. through reforming land-use
regulation or increasing the effective land supply) this enables the private sector to better
respond to rises in price by supplying more housing in the market.
This makes slope of the supply curve less steep such that the supply curve pivots from S1 to S2.
This movement in the supply curve reduces house prices and increases the quantity of housing
delivered.
It also has the corollary of making both demand and supply-side subsidies more effective if
implemented.
VALUE-CHAIN-IN-HOUSING:
Fig: The-value-chain-in-housing-in-Nicaragua-(Source:Affordable-Housing-Institute)
The newly arising need (demand) analysis is a forward-looking view of the need question.
Specifically, it relies on the projected or potential short to medium term household
composition of the community to estimate the future need for affordable housing in the
community. Together, the current and newly arising need analyses allow the proponent to
put forward a project that is better able to accommodate the present and future affordable
housing needs of the community.
The Supply analysis is to identify or study about the product (housing) given to the
community against the demand. This supply should nullify the demand. The common
situation prolonging in our country is that the supply is always lesser than the actual
demand. Drastic imbalance between supply and demand is seen.
Shelter is one of the basic human needs just next to food and clothing.
Need for a National Housing and Habitat Policy emerges from the growing requirements
of shelter and related infrastructure.
These requirements are growing in the context of rapid pace of urbanization, increasing
migration from rural to urban centers in search of livelihood, mis-match between
demand and supply of sites & services at affordable cost and inability of most new and
poorer urban settlers to access formal land markets in urban areas due to high costs and
their own lower incomes, leading to a non-sustainable situation.
This policy intends to promote sustainable development of habitat in the country, with a
view to ensure equitable supply of land, shelter and services at affordable prices.
OBJECTIVES OF NHP
Housing Policy Objectives would focus to evolve an enabling strategy aiming at:
To create the environment for achieving the maximum housing, efforts.
To encourage investment in housing.
To motivate and help houseless and inadequately housed people to secure for
themselves affordable shelter.
To promote vernacular architecture.
Encouraging indigenous approaches in Research and Development to support housing
activity particularly for low income groups.
Developing indigenous and cost effective approaches particularly for Low income group.
Provision of institutional incentives for improved housing delivery for the rural areas
and preparation of Rural Housing Plans and schemes.
Realizing the importance of role of Private Sector, introduce incentives to encourage
their full participation in National Building initiatives.
Promote women participations in this important national building actively.
STRATEGY OF NHP
The high population growth, combined with difficulties in governance and inadequate
investment in urban development has resulted in uncontrolled and unplanned growth of cities
and towns, deterioration in urban environment and deficiency in all forms of services.
The Policy has been prepared with a practical approach to achieve the following aims and
objectives:
CRITICISM OF NHP
The presentation of NHP document has generated some lively Criticism on various grounds,
the important ones being followed;
1. Ambitious goal
The task cannot be accomplished in matter of few years in a country where
people do not have even enough eat and survive.
2. Course of action
SALIENT FEATURES
The salient features of the National Urban Housing & Habitat Policy are:
Focus of the Policy is on affordable urban housing with special emphasis on the urban
poor.
Role of Housing and provision of basic services to the urban poor has been integrated
into the objectives of the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM).
Special emphasis has been laid on Scheduled Castes / Tribes / Backward Classes /
Minorities, empowerment of Women within the ambit of the urban poor.
The Policy focuses on a symbiotic development of rural and urban areas in line with
the objectives of the 74th Constitution Amendment Act.
Within the overarching goal of "Affordable Housing for All," emphasis has been laid on
urban planning, increase supply of land, use of spatial incentives like additional Floor
Area Ratio (FAR), Transferable Development Rights, etc., increased flow of funds,
healthy environment, effective solid waste management and use of renewal sources
of energy.
Encouraging integrated townships and Special Economic Zones.
10-15% of land in every new public/private housing projects or or 20-25% FAR
whichever is greater to be reserved for EWS/LIG Housing through appropriate spatial
incentives.
Private Sector to be permitted land assembly within the purview of Master Plans.
Action Plans for urban slum dwellers and special package for cooperative housing,
labour housing and employees housing is to be prepared.
States to be advised to develop 10 years perspective plan for housing of EWS/LIG.
Policy gives primacy to provision of shelter to urban poor at their present location or
near their work place.
Approach will be in-situ slum rehabilitation. Relocation will be considered only in
specific cases.
Micro finance institutions to be promoted at state level to expedite flow of finances to
urban poor.
Model municipal laws to be prepared by the Central Government.
Detailed city maps to be prepared based on GIS, aerial survey and ground verification.
Use of proven cost effective technology and building materials to be encouraged.
ACTION PLAN
The Action Plan stated in the Policy is as follows:
Encouragement and support to be provided to State Governments by the Central
Government for preparation of State Urban Housing and Habitat Policy and Action Plan.
State/UT Action plans to focus on accelerated flow of funds.
State / UT level policy to provide road map for institutional, legal and financial
incentives.
State / UT plans to indicate concrete steps for encouraging a participatory approach.
Periodic review of implementation of Policy and Action Plan at State level to be carried
out.
Preparation of 15-20 years perspective plans in the form of City Development Plans
(CDPs) based on spatial planning at the city level.
Setting up of a High Level Monitoring Committee for periodic review and
implementation of the Policy and for making amendments, modifications wherever
considered necessary.
Source: PIB
OVERARCHING OBJECTIVE
To provide for and promote a supportive environment for the vast mass of urban street
vendors to carry out their vocation while at the same time ensuring that their vending activities
do not lead to overcrowding and unsanitary conditions in public spaces and streets.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Specific Objectives This Policy aims to develop a legal framework through a model law on street
vending which can be adopted by States/Union Territories with suitable modifications to take
into account their geographical/local conditions. The specific objectives of this Policy are
elaborated as follows:
A) LEGAL STATUS:
To give street vendors a legal status by formulating an appropriate law and thereby providing
for legitimate vending/hawking zones in city/town master or development plans including
zonal, local and layout plans and ensuring their enforcement;
B) CIVIC FACILITIES:
To provide civic facilities for appropriate use of Identified spaces as vending/hawking zones,
vendors’ markets or vending areas in accordance with city/town master plans including zonal,
local and layout plans;
STREET VENDORS
“Street vendors constitute an integral part of our urban economy. Street vending is not only a
source of self-employment to the poor in cities and towns but also a means to provide
‘affordable’ as well as ‘convenient’ services to a majority of the urban population, especially the
common man. Street vendors are often those who are unable to get regular jobs in the
remunerative formal sector on account of their low level of education and skills. They try to
solve their livelihoods issues through their own meagre financial resources and sweat equity.
Given the pace of urbanization and the opportunities presented through the development of
urban areas, the growth of street vendors’ population is likely to have an upward trend. It is
vital that these vendors are enabled to pursue their livelihoods in a congenial and harassment
free atmosphere.
The estimates of housing shortage reveal that in the urban sector, according to the NBO, on the
basis of 1991 Census, there was a shortage of 8.23 million housing units in urban sector.
It is hoped that the shortage would decline to 7.57 million units in 1997 and 6.64 million units in
2001. Some other estimate indicates that housing shortage will increase to 9.4 million units in
2001.
Available data on housing stock in urban and rural lndia (Table No. 3.1) suggest that between
1951 and 1991, population had increased about 235 per cent, however the increase in the
number of households was about 206 per cent .
This indicates that the government, in spite of its several housing programmes, was not able to
achieve the demands created by the population explosion and for that matter no Government
would be able to meet such huge demands.
In the Central Sector, Central Construction Agencies such as Central PWDs, Central Public
Undertakings, Military Engineering Services, Post and Telegraphs and Railways are involved.
In addition to these massive housing schemes are implemented by the Housing and Urban
Development Corporation (HUDCO) under the Ministry of Urban Affair and Employment,
National Cooperative.
Housing Federation, etc., and public intuitions, such as LIC, GIC (General insurance corporation -
India) and Banking sector are also contributing to their might through promotion of loans and
advances to the employees and the promotion of the Co-operative Sector on a big scale.
In the private sector the promotion of housing schemes and construction of massive scale
housing are being encouraged by the provision of adequate finances by National Housing Bank.
RBI, Commercial Banks in the private sector, corporations like HDFC and specialized institutions
set up by Nationalized Banks; also provide adequate finances in this area.
In spite of the entire tremendous boost provided to the housing sector in recent times, the
housing shortage continues to be alarming. State Governments have encouraged specific
programmes and policies in the public and private sectors in construction activities and the new
The magnitude of housing shortage in urban and rural areas is evident from the following Table
“Households. Usable housing stocks and housing shortages in 1991” (In Lakhs)
Figures in brackets recomputed on the basis of 1991 Census / Projected population. Table
shows the number of households and estimates of housing shortage in India 1991 and 2001.
As per the NBO estimates there was a shortage of 104 lakh houses in urban area and this
figure was projected to rise to 155 lakhs in 2001.
Figures recomputed on the basis of 1991 Census show that in 2001 urban areas will have a
shortage of 143 lakhs houses, while there had a shortage of 96 lakhs houses in 1991. Thus
during the decade, housing shortage in urban areas will increase by 47 lakhs.
It may be noted that the extent of shortage has been worked out considering certain minimum
standards. It does not imply that an equivalent number of families are entirely shelter less.
The problem of urban housing is felt much more acutely with the immigration of population
from the neighboring areas. All sorts of working population, literate, semi-literate, etc., flow to
the urban centers in search of employment.
This undue concentration in urban areas has to be tackled through proper and effective urban
housing policies and with the adoption of proper programmes and policies by way of providing
basic civic amenities and environmental improvement programmes in semi - urban and rural
areas.
Rural housing is qualitatively different from urban housing in the sense that the housing activity
is not very much based on the cash economy but depends to a considerable extend on land
rights and access to resources. In rural housing also there is need to provide house - sites to the
poor so that they are able to erect housing units over them .
India is primarily rural in character where about 74 per cent of the population lives in villages
(1991 Census). Though there is no unanimous view about the magnitude of poverty, it is fact
that vast majority lives below the poverty line.
A vast majority of the poor either do not have a house or live in an unserviceable Kutcha house.
According to 1991 Census there are 341 million households who are absolutely houseless and
about 10.31 million households live in unserviceable Kutcha house. The total housing shortage
in the country is thus about 13.72 million. To meet this housing shortage the Government of
lndia has given special attention to the programmes for the rural housing and expectation are
that by 2002 all rural houseless people will be provided shelter.
Rural housing should not be confined to mere provision of a roof over one's head in the
changing socioeconomic-politico system in India in particular and in the developing economies
of the world in general.
On the basis of the review of the progress of rural housing, it can be seen that the housing
shortage had marginally defined in the Sixties but the trend witnessed a reversal in Seventies.
As regards the growth rate in rural households, it was 7.83 between 1971 and 1981. The usable
housing stock increased at a rate of 1.54 in rural areas. So far as the housing shortage is
concerned it is estimated to have increased from 6.5 million dwelling units in the year 1951 to
over 16 million in 1981 and 18.8 million in 1985.
According to the estimate of the NBO 1991 March, out of the total housing shortage of 310
lakhs units in the country, 206 lakhs units are in rural areas .
The estimated housing shortage at the beginning of 1997 -1998 was estimated at 140 lakhs
dwelling units in the rural areas.
To cope with the problem as many as 20 lakhs new units are needed every year for the
increasing population.
Housing problem is essentially the problem of the poor and low - income groups. During the
Eighth Five Year Plan a target of 7.80 million new housing stock was set, out of which 6.29
million units were for economically weaker sections and low-income groups.
However, since the housing demand has to be looked after by the state administration each
state is trying to achieve its target every year and in this process some of the states appear to
be establishing progress over others.
This is what is indicated in Table No. 3.3. Consolidated figures at the all lndia level indicate that
within a decade, the proportion of houseless I households in rural lndia have declined from 0.47
per cent to 0.28 per cent. This is an appreciable achievement in terms of statistical data.
There are many reasons behind houseless and low quality of houses in rural areas. The major
factors are:-
1. Poverty / Low income
2. Population growth
3. Westernization Value changes and
4. Environmental factors
The poor lack in all basic facilities. For them food is the most important need.
The shelters should be provided with basic amenities such as access to drinking water, toilets,
electrification and general sanitation. The National Sample Survey (1974-1975) reveals that
about 97 per cent of the households have no toilets and 93 per cent of the households do not
have any bathrooms.
Only 0.35 per cent of them were having water supply and 45 per cent of the households' living
room was being used as kitchen and the remaining households were cooking their food in the
open area in front of their houses.
MIG, category-1
MIG, category-2
Role:
I. To provide long term finance to individuals for purchase or construction of house
or flat for residential purpose / repair and renovation of existing flat / houses.
II. To provide finance on existing property for business / personal needs and also
gives loans to professionals for purchase / construction of Clinics / Nursing
Homes / Diagnostic Centres / Office Space and also for purchase of equipments.
III. To provide long term finance to persons engaged in the business of construction
of houses or flats for residential purpose and to be sold by them.
MISSION
"To Promote Sustainable Habitat Development to Enhance the Quality Of Life"
OBJECTIVES
- Providing long term finance for construction of houses and urban development
programs in the country.
- Finance or undertake, wholly or partly, the setting up of the new or satellite towns.
- Subscribe to the debentures and bonds to be issued by the State Housing Urban
Development Boards, Improvement Trusts, Development Authorities etc. specifically for
the purpose of financing housing and urban development programs.
- Finance or undertake the setting up of industrial enterprises of building material.
- Administers the money received, from time to time, from the Government of India and
other sources as grant or otherwise for the purposes of financing or undertaking
housing and urban development programs in the country, and promote, establish,
assist, collaborate and provide consultancy services for the projects of designing and
planning of works relating to Housing and Urban Development programs in India and
abroad.
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WATTLE AND DUAB UNIT
- Cement is used as stabilizer.
- Foundation based on stilts and random rubble masonry.
- Flooring of verandah made from locally available wood.
- Columns constructed using stabilized rammed earth block technique employing ‘ram
rod’ technique.
- Walls made of bamboo mats plastered with mud or lime mortar.
- CGI sheet roofing over space frame truss instead of wood. Bamboo CGS can be used.
- Roof water harvesting shows syntax water tank connected to a cost effective sanitation
model.
- The structure is totally earthquake resistant as vertical and horizontal bands are
provided.
- Assembling The Steel Or Wooden Frame Work Fixing Bamboo Net On Wall
BRICK PANEL HOUSE
- Use of brick panels for roofing.
- Prefabricated brick panel and partially pre-cast joists require burnt clay bricks, cement,
sand, coarse aggregate and reinforcing steel as major raw materials.
- No major plant, equipment and machinery is required.
BAMBOO HOUSE
- Bamboo is a versatile construction material which is affordable, durable and very
suitable for earthquake prone regions. It is a light weight, long lasting and renewable
building material
- In case of earthquakes, bamboo house won’t cause any death if it collapses and is easy
to mend and repair.
- The use of these boards and other bamboo products makes the house construction not
only cost effective but also offers exotic designs.
India offers astounding variety in virtually every aspect of social life. Diversities of ethnic,
linguistic, regional, economic, religious, class, and caste groups crosscut Indian society, which is
also permeated with immense urban-rural differences and gender distinctions. Differences
between north India and south India are particularly significant, especially in systems of kinship
and marriage. Indian society is multifaceted to an extent perhaps unknown in any other of the
world’s great civilizations—it is more like an area as varied as Europe than any other single
HIERARCHY
India is a hierarchical society. Whether in north India or south India, Hindu or Muslim, urban or
village, virtually all things, people, and social groups are ranked according to various essential
qualities. Although India is a political democracy, notions of complete equality are seldom
evident in daily life.
Societal hierarchy is evident in caste groups, amongst individuals, and in family and kinship
groups. Castes are primarily associated with Hinduism, but caste-like groups also exist among
Muslims, Indian, Christians, and other religious communities. Within most villages or towns,
everyone knows the relative rankings of each locally represented caste, and behavior is
constantly shaped by this knowledge.
Individuals are also ranked according to their wealth and power. For example, some powerful
people, or “big men,” sit confidently on chairs, while “little men” come before them to make
requests, either standing or squatting not presuming to sit beside a man of high status as an
equal.
Hierarchy plays an important role within families and kinship groupings also, where men
outrank women of similar age, and senior relatives outrank junior relatives. Formal respect is
accorded family members—for example, in northern India, a daughter-in-law shows deference
to her husband, to all senior in-laws, and to all daughters of the household. Siblings, too,
recognize age differences, with younger siblings addressing older siblings by respectful terms
rather than by name.
Many status differences in Indian society are expressed in terms of ritual purity and pollution,
complex notions that vary greatly among different castes, religious groups, and regions.
Generally, high status is associated with purity and low status with pollution. Some kinds of
purity are inherent; for example, a member of a high-ranking Brahmin, or priestly, caste is born
with more inherent purity than someone born into a low-ranking sweeper, or scavenger, caste.
Other kinds of purity are more transitory—for example, a Brahmin who has just taken a bath is
more ritually pure than a Brahmin who has not bathed for a day.
SOCIAL INTERDEPENDENCE
One of the great themes pervading Indian life is social interdependence. People are born into
groups—families, clans, subcastes, castes, and religious communities—and feel a deep sense of
inseparability from these groups. People are deeply involved with others, and for many, the
greatest fear is the possibility of being left alone, without social support. Psychologically, family
members typically experience intense emotional interdependence. Economic activities, too, are
deeply imbedded in a social nexus. Through a multitude of kinship ties, each person is linked
with kin in villages and towns near and far. Almost everywhere a person goes, he can find a
relative from whom he can expect moral and practical support.
In every activity, social ties can help a person and the absence of them can bring failure. Seldom
do people carry out even the simplest tasks on their own. When a small child eats, his mother
puts the food into his mouth with her own hand. When a girl brings water home from the well
in pots on her head, someone helps her unload the pots. A student hopes that an influential
relative or friend can facilitate his college admission. A young person anticipates that parents
will arrange his or her marriage. Finally, a person facing death expects that relatives will
conduct the proper funeral rites ensuring his own smooth passage to the next stage of
existence and reaffirming social ties among mourners.
This sense of interdependence extends into the theological realm. From birth onward, a child
learns that his “fate” has been “written” by divine forces and that his life is shaped by powerful
deities with whom an ongoing relationship must be maintained.
Family Ideals
The essential themes of Indian cultural life are learned within the bosom of a family. The joint
family is highly valued, ideally consisting of several generations residing, working, eating, and
worshiping together. Such families include men related through the male line, along with their
wives, children, and unmarried daughters. A wife usually lives with her husband’s relatives,
although she retains important bonds with her natal family. Even in rapidly modernizing India,
Large families tend to be flexible and well suited to modern Indian life, especially for the more
than two-thirds of Indians who are involved in agriculture. As in most primarily agricultural
societies, cooperating kin help provide mutual economic security. The joint family is also
common in cities, where kinship ties are often crucial to obtaining employment or financial
assistance. Many prominent families, such as the Tatas, Birlas, and Sarabhais, retain joint family
arrangements as they cooperate in controlling major financial empires.
The ancient ideal of the joint family retains its power, but today actual living arrangements vary
widely. Many Indians live in nuclear families—-a couple with their unmarried children—-but
belong to strong networks of beneficial kinship ties. Often, clusters of relatives live as
neighbors, responding readily to their kinship obligations.
As they expand, joint families typically divide into smaller units, which gradually grow into new
joint families, continuing a perpetual cycle. Today, some family members may move about to
take advantage of job opportunities, typically sending money home to the larger family.
In the Indian household, lines of hierarchy and authority are clearly drawn, and ideals of
conduct help maintain family harmony. [i] All family members are socialized to accept the
authority of those above them in the hierarchy. The eldest male acts as family head, and his
wife supervises her daughters-in-law, among whom the youngest has the least authority.
Reciprocally, those in authority accept responsibility for meeting the needs of other family
members.
Family loyalty is a deeply held ideal, and family unity is emphasized, especially in distinction to
those outside the kinship circle. Inside the household, ties between spouses and between
parents and their own children are de-emphasized to enhance a wider sense of family harmony.
For example, open displays of affection between husbands and wives are considered highly
improper.
Traditionally, males have controlled key family resources, such as land or businesses, especially
in high-status groups. Following traditional Hindu law, women did not inherit real estate and
were thus beholden to their male kin who controlled land and buildings. Under Muslim
customary law, women can—and do—inherit real estate, but their shares have typically been
smaller than those of males. Modern legislation allows all Indian women to inherit real estate.
A significant aspect of Indian family life is purdah (from Hindi parda, or “curtain”), or the veiling
and seclusion of women. In much of northern and central India, particularly in rural areas,
Hindu and Muslim women follow complex rules of veiling the body and avoidance of public
appearance, especially before relatives linked by marriage and before strange men. Purdah
practices are linked to patterns of authority and harmony within the family. Hindu and Muslim
purdah observances differ in certain key ways, but female modesty and decorum as well as
concepts of family honor and prestige are essential to the various forms of purdah. Purdah
restrictions are generally stronger for women of conservative high-status families. [ii]
Restriction and restraint for women in virtually every aspect of life are essential to purdah,
limiting women’s access to power and to the control of vital resources in a male-dominated
society. Sequestered women should conceal their bodies and even their faces with modest
clothing and veils before certain categories of people, avoid extramarital relations, and move
about in public only with a male escort. Poor and low-status women often practice attenuated
versions of veiling as they work in the fields and on construction gangs.
Hindu women of conservative families veil their faces and remain silent in the presence of older
male in-laws, both at home and in the community. A young daughter-in-law even veils from her
mother-inlaw. These practices emphasize respect relationships, limit unapproved encounters,
and enhance family lines of authority.
For Muslims, veiling is especially stressed outside the home, where a conservative woman may
wear an all-enveloping black burka. Such purdah shelters women—-and the sexual inviolability
of the family-— from unrelated unknown men.
In south India, purdah has been little practiced, except in certain minority groups. In northern
and central India today, purdah practices are diminishing, and among urbanites and even the
rural elite, they are rapidly vanishing. Chastity and female modesty are still highly valued, but as
education and employment opportunities for women increase, veiling has all but disappeared
in progressive circles.
LIFE PASSAGES
The birth of an infant is celebrated with rites of welcome and blessing, typically much more
elaborate for a boy than for a girl. Although India boasts many eminent women and was once
Marriage is deemed essential for virtually everyone in India, marking the great watershed in life
for the individual. For most of Hindu northern and central India, marriages are arranged within
the caste between unrelated young people who may never have met. Among some south
Indians communities and many Muslims, families seek to strengthen existing kin ties through
marriages with cousins whenever possible. For every parent, finding the perfect partner for
one’s child is a challenging task. People use their existing social networks, and increasingly,
matrimonial newspaper advertisements. The advertisements usually announce religion, caste,
educational qualifications, physical features, and earning capacity, and may hint at dowry size
(even though giving or accepting dowries is actually illegal).
Among the highly educated, brides and grooms sometimes find each other in college or
professional settings. So-called love marriages are becoming less scandalous than in previous
years. Among Indian residents of North America, brides and grooms often meet through South
Asian matrimonial websites. Many self-arranged marriages link couples of different castes but
similar socioeconomic status.
Usually, a bride lives with her husband in his parental home, where she should accept the
authority of his senior relatives, perform household duties, and produce children—especially
sons—to enhance his family line. Ideally, she honors her husband, proudly wears the cosmetic
adornments of a married woman, and cheerfully fulfills her new role. If she is fortunate, her
husband will treat her with consideration, treasure her contributions to his household, and
allow her continuing contact with her natal relatives. For many young wives, this is a difficult
transition. While some negative stigma is still attached to women’s employment in many
circles, an increasing number of women are working in a variety of occupations.
Death causes the restructuring of any family. The demise of a woman’s husband brings the
dreaded status of inauspicious widowhood. Widows of low-status groups have always been
allowed to remarry, but widows of high rank have been expected to remain chaste until death.
Social inequality exists throughout the world, but perhaps nowhere has inequality been so
elaborately constructed as in the Indian institution of caste. Caste has existed for many
centuries, but in the modern period it has been severely criticized and is undergoing significant
change.
Castes are ranked, named, endogamous (in-marrying) groups, membership in which is achieved
by birth. There are thousands of castes and subcastes in India, involving hundreds of millions of
people. These large kinship-based groups are fundamental to South Asian social structure.
Caste membership provides a sense of belonging to a recognized group from whom support can
be expected in a variety of situations.
The word caste derives from the Portuguese casta, meaning species, race, or kind. Among
Indian terms sometimes translated as caste are varna, jati, jat, biradri, and samaj. Varna, or
color, actually refers to four large categories that include numerous castes. The other terms
refer to castes and subdivisions of castes often called subcastes.
Many castes are associated with traditional occupations, such as priests, potters, barbers,
carpenters, leatherworkers, butchers, and launderers. Members of higher-ranking castes tend
to be more prosperous than members of lower-ranking castes, who often endure poverty and
social disadvantage. The so-called “Untouchables” were traditionally relegated to polluting
tasks. Since 1935, “Untouchables” have been known as “Scheduled Castes,” and Mahatma
Gandhi called them Harijans, or “Children of God.” Today, the politically correct term for these
groups, who make up some 16% of the population, is Dalit, or “Oppressed.” Other groups,
usually called tribes (often referred to as “Scheduled Tribes”) are also integrated into the caste
system to varying degrees.
In past decades, Dalits in certain areas had to display extreme deference to high-status people
and were barred from most temples and wells. Such degrading discrimination was outlawed
under legislation passed during British rule and was repudiated by preindependence reform
movements led by Mahatma Gandhi and Bhimrao Ramji (B.R.) Ambedkar, a Dalit leader. After
independence in 1947, Dr. Ambedkar almost single-handedly wrote India’s constitution,
including provisions barring caste-based discrimination. However, Dalits as a group still suffer
significant disadvantages, especially in rural areas.
Within castes, explicit standards are maintained. Rules of marriage, diet, dress, occupation, and
other behaviors are enforced, often by a caste council (panchayat). Infringements can be
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punished by fines and temporary or permanent outcasting. Individuals and caste groups can
hope to rise slowly on the hierarchy through economic success and adoption of high-caste
behaviors. However, it is virtually impossible for an individual to raise his own status by falsely
claiming to belong to a higher caste; a deception of this kind is easily discovered.
In rural areas, many low-caste people still suffer from landlessness, unemployment, and
discriminatory practices. In the growing cities, however, caste affiliations are often unknown to
casual associates, and traditional restrictions on intercaste interactions are fading fast. In some
urbane circles, intercaste marriages linking mates of similar class status have become
acceptable. Correlations between caste and occupations are declining rapidly.
In recent years, key changes have occurred in caste observances. It is now legally and socially
unacceptable to openly advocate any caste’s superiority or inferiority, and lower caste groups
are flexing their political muscle. Even as traditional hierarchies weaken, caste identities are
being reinforced, especially among disadvantaged groups with rights to special educational
benefits and substantial quotas reserved for them of electoral offices and government jobs. In
protest against Hinduism’s rigid rankings, thousands of Dalits have embraced Buddhism,
following the example of the revered B.R. Ambedkar.
CLASSES
Most Indians reside in villages, where caste and class affiliations overlap. Large landholders are
overwhelmingly upper caste, and smallscale farmers middle caste, while landless laborers
typically belong to the lowest-ranking castes. These groups tend to form a three-level class
system of stratification in rural areas, and members of the groups are drawing together within
regions across caste lines in order to enhance their economic and political power. For example,
since the late 1960s, some of the middle-ranking cultivating castes of northern India, spurred by
competition with higher-caste landed elites, have cooperated politically in order to advance
their common economic interests.v In cities, class lines adhere less obviously to caste
affiliations, as vested interests strongly crosscut caste boundaries.
When looking at India as a whole, defining classes is a difficult task, rife with vague standards.
According to various estimates, the upper classes include about one percent of the population,
or some ten million people, encompassing wealthy property owners, industrialists, former
royalty, top executives, and prosperous entrepreneurs. Slightly below them are the many
millions of the upper middle class. At the other end of the scale is approximately half of India’s
population, including low-level workers of many kinds, as well as hundreds of millions of
extremely poor people, who endure grossly inadequate housing and education and many other
economic hardships.
About three-fourths of India’s people live in some 500,000 villages, where India’s most basic
business—agriculture takes place. Most villages have fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, but some
have as many as 5,000 people. Indian villages are often quite complex and are not isolated
socially or economically. Most villages include a multiplicity of economic, caste, kinship,
occupational, and even religious groups linked vertically within each settlement. Residents
typically range from priests and cultivators to merchants, artisans, and laborers. Various crucial
horizontal linkages connect each village with many others and with urban areas both near and
far. In daily life and at colorful festivals and rituals, members of various groups provide essential
goods and services for one another.
URBAN LIFE
The largest cities are densely populated, congested, noisy, polluted, and deficient in clean
water, electricity, sanitation, and decent housing. Slums abound, often cheek-by-jowl with
luxury apartment buildings, with the roads overrun with pedestrians, cattle, refuse, and
vehicles spewing diesel fumes.
Traditional caste hierarchies are weak in cities, but caste ties remain important, as scarce jobs
are often obtained through caste fellows, relatives, and friends. Ingenuity and tenacity
characterize poor urban workers supporting themselves through a multitude of tasks as
entrepreneurs, petty traders, and menial laborers.
The ranks of the growing middle class are increasingly evident in cities, where educational and
employment opportunities benefit them. For them, as for all in the city, linkages are affirmed
through neighborhood solidarity, voluntary associations, and festival celebrations.
Cities, of course, are the great hubs of commerce, education, science, politics, and government,
upon which the functioning of the nation depends. India’s movie industry is the world’s largest,
centered in Mumbai and Chennai, and popular television stations are proliferating. These bring
vivid depictions of urban lifestyles to small-town dwellers and villagers all over the country,
affecting the aspirations of millions.
Social revolutions, too, receive the support of urban visionaries, such as those shaping the
growing women’s movement. Largely led by educated urban women, the movement seeks
gender justice on a wide variety of issues, focusing particularly on the escalating issue of dowry-
related murders of young wives, which number in the thousands annually. The overwhelming
economic needs of poor female workers are being addressed by organizations such as the Self-
Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) of Ahmedabad, led by Ela Bhatt.
FUTURE TRENDS
Now numbering over one billion, India’s population grew by more than 18 million—the
equivalent of an Australia—every year over the past decade. In ten years, the most populous
state, Uttar Pradesh, expanded more than 25 percent to some 166 million, equal to 60 percent
of the population of the United States. India supports a population more than three and a half
times the size of the American population in an area about one-third the size. Family planning is
gaining in popularity, so the rate of population increase is gradually declining, but it is
In India’s vociferous democracy, different groups are increasingly demanding their share of
scarce resources and benefits. While new agricultural crops and techniques are expanding
productivity, forests, rangeland, and water tables are diminishing. As competition grows,
political, social, ecological, and economic issues are hotly contested. Justice in matters
pertaining to class, gender, and access to desirable resources remains an elusive goal.
India is but one of many nations facing these crucial problems and is not alone in seeking
solutions. For many centuries, the people of India have shown strength in creating manageable
order from complexity, bringing together widely disparate groups in structured efforts to
benefit the wider society, encouraging harmony among people with divergent interests,
knowing that close relatives and friends can rely upon each other, allocating different tasks to
those with different skills, and striving to do what is morally right in the eyes of the divine and
the community. These are some of the great strengths upon which Indian society can rely as it
seeks to meet the challenges of the future.
Introduction:
In all over the world, in any part of the globe, from prehistoric period till the date, complex
layers of social stratification and their cultural diversity are reflected in the urban form of the
settlement. The cause of this influence lies in the unique and diverse socio-cultural roots, which
represent nothing but the ‘Traditions’ of that area.
India is one of the parts of Asian continent where impact of these diverse socio-cultural
patterns is reflected in housing texture.
In general Housing is defined as the total residential environment or micro district including the
physical structure, all necessary services, facilities and apparatus for the total health and social
well-being of the individual and family (Abrams,1964). It is seen as the physical environment in
which the family and society’s basic units develop and sustain.
Housing structures are enclosures in which people are housed for lodging, living
accommodation or even work places. Distinct cultural and social factors along with differences
in geophysical characteristics, materials, climate and technology guided the spreading of human
settlements in India.
(v) Internal structure of layout of houses in various types of villages, settled according
(viii)Building materials
The village also differ in the type of institutions, associations, tribal panchayats, party based
organisations and the infrastructures regarding all these separately and combined. That is why,
a Japanese village different from Indian or Italian or Canadian or Brazilian village on the one
hand, and Israeli and East Siberian village on the other.
Rapoport (1979) noted that the origins of Architecture are best understood if one takes a wider
view and considers socio cultural factors in the broadest sense to be more important than
climate, technology, materials and economy. Architecture is a profession that has its roots in
Damen.―History and Civilization- 2008 renowned that a country is not only identified by its
people and government, but by its architecture. ―Through architecture it's possible to gauge
many things about a culture, such as lifestyle, artistic sensibilities and social structure.
Culture is one of the most powerful factors, which is guiding the evolutionary pattern of
households. Studying at the levels of human settlements, the impacts of culture in the
formations of house forms can be understood.
(Hossain, 2008):The traditional Bengali house shows the efficient use of building materials and
evolutions of a house form having relationship with the limit and the possibilities set by various
physical and socio-cultural factors .
In the case of the Indian traditional built environment, the user is also the designer, builder,
landscape specialist, artist and craftsman. However, he or she is not the concept giver (Haq,
1994).
Among several categories, the Chouchala Ghar is the most common, where the others are seen
very infrequently .It is found almost everywhere in the world that there are some taboos and
beliefs related with rural settlement. There are taboos and beliefs regarding the homesteads in
rural areas.
‗Taboo‘ means reflection of activities regarding houses in rural areas which the owner does not
believe but observes due to societal grounds (e.g. not to plant palm trees or tamarind trees).
On the other hand, ‗belief‘ means reflection of such activities regarding rural homesteads
which the owner not only believes but also ensures in reality (e.g. in the Muslim owned
homesteads the toilets are not made facing east-west; similarly, in Hindu owned homesteads in
rural areas Tulsi) (Baqee, 2011).
CONCLUSION
Today in the era of globalization-privatization, the advancements in field of science and
technology have boosted the trend of modernization in architecture as well as planning, there
The planning principles adopted in rural areas taking into account local context in terms of
climate, environment, and vernacular construction technique and lastly the culture and
tradition of the region are losing its importance in society and are being forgotten for the time
being.
However observing the production of monotonous concrete jungle without considering the
context in cities due to impact of inflation in land values, it is necessary to revert back to
architecture and planning principles adopted in rural housing where thought to social cultural,
physical and last but not the least economic factors in design of housing pattern is given
thereby enhancing the spatial quality.
The future architects and planners should study and take into consideration the relationship of
Indian traditions in various context, their respective settlement patterns and housing layouts
and try to bring the same in developing urban and semi-urban zones, or conserve the built
areas subjected to real estate pressure, so that it is suited to Indian psychology and
environment. This will not only revive the local tradition culture in respective zones but also
save the traditional or vernacular built fabric from effects of Globalization!
In India nearly three-fourth of population lives in rural areas. The housing needs of people in
these areas are largely unmet.In 2011 the Planning Commission constituted a Working Group
on Rural Housing for the Twelfth Five Year Plan to provide a perspective and approach on rural
housing.
The Report of the Working Group begins by noting the vision for rural housing provided by the
Ministry of Rural Development.
The Working Group has estimated the shortage of rural housing in India for the period of 2012-
2017 by using the method indicated in following table.
Sources: Working Group on Rural Housing for the Twelfth Five Year Plan, MRD (2011), p. 7.
Note: All numbers for 2012 were projections based on increased growth rates between the
Censuses of 1991-2001.
The Socio-Economic Caste Censes (SECC) data indicates 4.01 crore houses have one or two
rooms with Kutcha walls and Kutcha roofs. The twelfth plan working group or rural housing
recommended a target of 1.5 crore houses for the plan period based on housing shortage
estimate of four crore houses in rural areas.
PUBLIC SECTOR
A public sector enterprise is an organization which is owned by public authorities
including Central, State or Local authorities, to the extent of 50% or more
• Is under the top managerial control of owning public authorities
• Is established for the achievement of a definite set of public purpose
• Is consequently placed under a system of public accountability
• Is engaged in an activity of business character
PRIVATE SECTOR
• A private sector enterprise is an organisation which is owned, managed & controlled
by private individuals or a group of individuals or both. It is also engaged in business
activity but with the motive of profit maximisation rather than public service like in case
of public sector enterprise
OBJECTIVES
• To reduce political interference in the management of enterprise, leading to improved
efficiency & productivity,
• To provide adequate competition to the public sector,
• To generate cash in order to fund the ever-increasing expenses,
• To reduce the concentration of economic power in the country and rural areas
Why PPP?
Financial need - budget deficit, large debt
Aging or deteriorating infrastructure
Growing demand on public sector services
Search for greater efficiency and creativity
Strides to introduce competition
Lack of domestic experience or skills
Need to educate local contractors while remaining competitive
Regarding half of the targeted investment within the twelfth plan is to be achieved through
non-public sector investment.
To meet this bold housing agenda, investments of over $ 2 trillion or regarding $ 250 to 260
billion annual investments till 2022 would be needed. concerning 85 to 90 % of the whole
investments required to satisfy the country’ housing agenda would move into developing urban
housing, wherever development prices area unit high thanks to factors like land costs,
construction value, fees, and taxes.
To make the PPP model productive within the mass housing section, the govt. would wish to
deal with many structural problems initial. These embraces liberalizing urban coming up with
method, providing access to adequate funding sources for private players, setting up place a
mechanism for fast clearances of licenses and approvals in order that price overruns and
project delays are often decreased.
The PPP framework is often efficiently accustomed address vital problems in development like
land availableness, approval delays, funding, and affordability by the poor. Among a lot of
obvious blessings of the PPP model in AH are:
Easier land acquisition and consolidation – it's calculable that to satisfy the requirements of
urban housing, about 1.7 to 2.0 lakh hectare of land would be needed till 2022. speeded up and
easier land acquisition, created potential by the general public sector, may change are
managing in project lifecycle and project prices.
The central and state governments ought to give the land non-heritable, at competitive costs to
the personal sector, that is usually higher in term of managing construction risks and project
delivery.
A deep analysis of those PPP policies in housing saying that a PPP policy ought to aim at
aggregating land for development, whereas the non-public sector ought to target managing
operation risks (construction and finance). Land cost, that is anyplace between 20 to 60 % of
total project value (depending on project location), and lack formal financing channels for land
acquisition (both debt and foreign equity), are major bottlenecks limiting overall development
within the country.
b) IMPROVED FUNDING — A joint pool of personal and public funds is also more practical
and economical in funding housing comes. Further, a PPP project with government
guarantee might facilitate secure loaning from institutional lenders at a lower price.
c) IMPROVED AFFORDABILITY – With some relief on taxation and development fees, and
tie up with banking establishments, the affordability of homes by EWS/LIG sections may
be improved.
States like Haryana and Tamil-nadu have created smart use of transferable development rights
and a liberalized FSI approach to encourage PPP within the AH sector. In fact, Tamil Nadu offers
50 % further FSI for comes aiming EWS in Chennai, Metropolitan area, and 30 % additional FSI
for projects targeting MIG. Haryana includes a proposal to extend the density norms from 300
people/ acres to 900 people/ acres, permitting developers to extend the most range of units
per acre from 60 to 180. Cities like Delhi and Ahmedabad have written administrative division
OTHERS