y-li

The Future of Comminution

Jens Lichter
Lyntek Incorpo rated, Lakewood, Colorad o, United Stares

ABSTRACT: The challenges facing future comminution circu its are primarily centered on the
reduction of the operating cost and the carbon footprint associated with the comminution process.
This challenge is being addressed on numerous fronts. This includes more intell igent circu it
designs that replace traditional comminution machines with more efficient options, fine tuning
of existing comminutio n processes, reductions in the use of steel grinding m edia and wear liners,
new emerging comm in ution technologies fo r the pretreatment of ore, improving circuit stability
and co ntrol, and the reduction of total tonnages treated by sorring or pre-concentration of ores. A
holistic approach that considers im provem ents in all of these aforemenrioned areas will ultimately
d rive the development of the comm inution ci rcuit of the futu re.

INTRODUCTION
l11e challenges facing future com mi nution circuits are pri marily centered on the reduction of the
operating cost, and the carbon footprint associated with the comm inution process. Addi tional envi-
ronmental challenges will include the reduction of water usage; however, the urgency to el iminate
water from the commi nution process will not be fu lly realized until a d ry beneficiation process
becom es feasible for metalliferous ores. Solutions are being developed on numerous fronts and
research con tinues on new comminmion processes, bur the path from concept to implem entation
is long.
Therefore, the primary d ri vers in the development of future comminution circuits can be
listed as follows:

1. Min imizing energy requi rements- Comminu tion remains on e of the primary contri buto rs
to the global consumption of energy, as well as being a significant cost con tributor to the
beneficiation process. l11e reduction of energy consum ed is therefore one of the strongest
dri vers in the development of future comm inution circuits.
2. Reduction in the usage of steel grinding med ia and wear liners-Steel media and metallic
liners con tribute significantly to the total carbon footprint associated with the comminution
p rocess, as well as the operating costs. Reducing wear and med ia co nsumprion is therefore
a key opportunity.
3. Circuit stabili ty and control- Tonnage variations contribute significantly to inefficient pro-
cesses. Equipmenr selections, as well as advanced control strategies, can help ro minimize
tonnage Auctuations, thereby significantly improving overall circuit efficiencies.
4 . Optimization of existing comminution machines- The advancement of multi phys-
ics simulation roo ls is opening up o ppo rtu nit ies to optim ize comminu tion processes at a

129
130 Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy

fundamemal level. Generic solutions will make way to custom configurations, designed to
optimize equipment fo r a specific duty.
5. Emergi ng comminution processes-These may be applied to pre-treat ores to reduce energy
requirements and improve coarse ore liberation.
6. Ore soning and pre-concentration- These processes will potentialJy reduce rhe total ton-
nages being treated, thereby reducing energy requirements per ron of metal produced.
7. Scale-As grades beco me poo rer, the tonnages being treated increase. Mach ine sizes requ ired
ro treat the larger to nnages will therefore co ntinue ro increase in size and capacity. This
pressure will be felt no t only on SAG and Ball 1nills, bur also on H PG Rs and stirred mills.
Limits on machine sizes, as well as drive requ irements, will ultimately be determined by rhe
manufacturing limitations of foundries and fabrication facilities. These limi tations may be
solved by maki ng changes in the design and the manufactu ri ng methods of comm inution
machines.

These oppo rtunities are discussed in more detail below, but it should be recognized that im prove-
ments in the overall efficiency of comminution processes can be found in many areas. The best
app roach will therefore be a holistic approach that considers the potential for improvement in al l
of rhese areas, and is used to design a ci rcuit rhat attempts to optimize every aspect of the commi-
n ution circuit of rhe future. Improvements in the overall comm inu tion circui t efficiency of up to
40% co 50% appear to be within reach; rhis should be the ultimate objective of the comminution
circuit of the fu ture.

ENERGY REDUCTION
Undoubtedly, the primary driver in the development of comminutio n circuits is the need to reduce
rhe energy requirement of the comminutio n process. As important as the red uctio n of operating
costs is, the desire for sustainable development and the red uction of the carbon footprint. The
reductio n of the carbon footpri nt (or the total energy requirement) of the comminution process
rakes into consideration not only the electrical power required for the commi nution equipmem,
bur also the energy required to support rh e process. Most no tably, this is the energy required co
prod uce rhe grinding medi a and the wear liners, bur secondary equipmem , including conveyors
and classi fication equipment, are also significant con tributo rs.
Approxi mately 4% to 7% of global energy use is anribu ted to rhe mining and mi nerals indus-
rries. One of the primary contributo rs is rhe comm inutio n process co nsuming an estimated 0.5%
to 1% of the total global energy consumption (Rabago et al. 200 l ; US D OE 2001 ; D aniel er a!.
2010, 2011).
·n1e per capita consum ption of minerals world wide is increasing and new deposits are trendi ng
cowards harder ores rhar require finer grinding to achi eve liberatio n. 1l1e fraction of global energy
use acrributed to comminution will therefore in crease unless step changes are made to comm inu-
tio n ci rcui ts.
In recognition of the significant role played by comm inution in the world's energy consump-
tio n, num erous efforts are underway to improve the overall efficiency of comminuti on circuits. A
brief overview of some of these activities is provided below.
 The Futu re of Comminution 131

Comminution Circuits
One of rhe mosr acrive areas of invesrigarion inro rhe reducrion of overall comminution energy is
the redesign of the comminurion circuir, wirh an emphasis on rhe use of more efficienr comm in u-
tio n machines in place of rraditional Semi Au rogenous Grindin g (SAG) and ball mills.
Alrernare comminurion machi nes are constantly under review bur the gestation period from
concept ro a fully funcrionaJ large ronnage comminution device is long. A rimeline of l 0 ro 20 years
or more for product developm ent, and the eve ntual adoption of new technol ogies inro commi-
nution circuirs, is rypical. Forrunately, well-established rechnologies exist rhar have demonstrated
considerable opportun iry for subsranriaJ reducrions in the roral energy required for comminution.
Primarily, rhese are High Pressure G rinding Rolls (H PGRs) and srirred m ills.

High Pressure Grinding Rolls

The successful developmem of the H PG R fo r use wirh hard abrasive ores has provided a viable
.llrernarive to SAG mills for m any circuirs. l11e estimated reduction in rhe specific energy require-
ment of HPGR/ball mill circui ts vs. SAG/ball mill ci rcuits has been es timated at 10 ro 25% (von
~1ichaelis 2009, Marsden 2008, Rule er al. 2008). In addition ro the di recr energy saving, rhe
d iminarion of SAG mill grinding m edia would contribute roan addi tional reduction of 10% ro
I )o/o of the totaJ en ergy consumpri o n, for a combined reductio n in the carbon footprin t of26% to
.)9% (Daniel er aJ. 20 l 0). H PGR avail abilities and operating costs are now considered to be at least
.:om parable with those of SAG m ills for many applications.

Stirred Milling Technologies

')ri rred milling technologies faJj inro rwo primary categori es: screw rype vertical mills, such as
\ferso's Verrimil!TM and N ippon Eirich's Tower M ill™, and stirred media mills, which Auidize the
;riDding med ia, such as Xsrrara's lsaMil l™, Merso's SMD™, FLSmidrh's VXPmi ll ™, and Ourorec's
HIGM ill™. "lbese technologies are more commonly applied ro regrind applications, bur are being
C'·aluated as possible baJI mill replacements. These mills are generally recognized as being 25% ro
"0f:!lo more efficient rhan a ball mill in secondary o r regrind applications, bur are relarively unresred
~a replacement for a primary ball mi ll. The screw rype vertical mills have an inherent advantage
$Cr srirred media mills in rhis mle; rh ey are generaJly more capable of handling coarse feeds and
....-e more forgiving of changes in the feed co ndirions.

..JPGR, Stirred Mill Circuits

:.r ui rs consisting of HPGRs followed by screw rype verticaJ mi lls have been suggested , and m od-
~.od in excess of 10 years with the promise of overall improvements in the energy consumption of
me comminurion circuit of up w 45% (Valery and Jankovic 2002). Figure I shows a rypica l ci rcuir
::oncepr.
The challenges faced in replacing ball mills with screw rype verrical mills, or stirred m edi a
r::'ills. are p rim arily scale and the abil ity to accepr coarse feed .
The largest ball mills currently builr have an insraJied power of 24MW, compared with a
m:axi mum insralled size of 3.4MW for rhe Verrim ill™ and 3 .0MW for rhe lsaMiJI™. Taking inro
ronsiderarion rhe improved efficiency of srirred mills, ir would require approximately 5 ro 7 mills
132 Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy

Pnmary Crusher

i: - ---.
'-'

Figure 1. Typical high-efficiency circuit concept. Primary crushing followed by HPGRs and stirred mill
technologies.

ro replace a single large ball mill for high tonnage circuits. Borh of rhese milling technologies are
therefo re being actively developed to increase rhe size and power draw of individual machines.
Feed size is another primary consideratio n. Stirred mills have primarily been used as second-
ary or regrind mills, with a few notable exceptions such as Red Dog and McArthur River, which
utilize SAG mill/stirred mill circui ts and incorporate careful control of the rop size bei ng fed ro
the mills. Screw rype verti cal mills are better able ro handle relatively coarse feeds ( ~ minus 8mm)
rhan srirred media mills, which prefer minus l mm feed or less. The coarser feeds can be prepared
in a single stage closed circuit HPG R, bur fine r feeds will require rwo stages of HPGRs. There are
a number of effo rts underway to evaluate HPG R/stirred mill circuits, bur data is nor readil y avail-
able, and ir is nor clear whar efficiency advantage stirred milling technologies will have over ball
mills when utilized as a repl acement for primary ball mills. When operating as a replacement for
primary ball mills, a reduced efficiency advantage of ~20% is expected, compared to standard ball
mill configurations.
The option of incorporating rwo stages of HPGRs to prepare feed for screw type vertical m ills,
or stirred m edia mills, would eumi nate much of rhe concern over rhe effect of coarse feed on rhe
efficiency and availabi li ty of the mills. Pilor tests have been run on platinum ore to evaluate two
srages of H PGRs fo llowed by an lsaM ill (Ayers et al. 2008). In another study by Drozdiak (20 11).
piJor scale rests on a copper nickel sulfide ore compared specific energies fo r cone crusher/ ball
mill, HPGR/ball mi ll and HPGR/stirred mill circuits. The T 80 to the ball mill after cone crush-
ing was 2. 12mm, the T80 to rhe ball mill after single stage HPG R was l .6 mm , and rhe T80 ro
rhe N etzsd1 mill after rwo stages of HPGRs was 0.34m m. The HPG R/ball mill circuit was shown
to be ~8 % more efficient rhan rhe crusher/ ball mill ci rcuit, and the HPGR/stirred mill circuit was
~9% more efficient than rhe HPGR/ball mill circuit. Wh ile ir is probable thar rhese circuits were
not optimized , rhe work does show the feasibili ty of th is type of circuit, as well as the potential for
significanr reductions in the total energy usage.
Good data from operating plant utilizing HPGR/srirred mill ci rcuits is still scarce and gen-
erally nor in the public domain. Much emphasis is therefore placed on si mulated circui ts in the
evaluation of circuit options. Cau tion is requ ired in the use of data fro m simulated circui ts; rhe
empi rical and phenomenological models used fo r rhe stirred mills are nor able to adequately calcu-
late rhe effect of coarse feed on mill performance. As clara becomes more avai lable, the combination
ofHPG Rs with stirred mills will become more common.
 The Future of Comminution 133

Additional Opportunities to Optimize Comminution Circuits

Kawatra and Eisele (2005) suggested thar rwo of the main causes of energy loss in grind ing circuits
are underutilization of equipment due to process bottlenecks and overgrinding due to material
being retained in the circuit after it has reached target size. Im proving classification efficiency, as
well as circuit stability and control. di recrly addJ·ess these areas. Reducing media and liner consump-
tion provides another oppo rtun ity to further redu ce the carbon Footprint of commi nution circuits.

Classification Efficiency
Improving classi1ication efficiency primarily reduces overgrindi ng, wh ich is the wasted application
of energy ro provide a product that is finer than it needs to be for efficient separation. The most
commonly designed cyclone class ifi cation circuits are based on single stage classifi cation, with the
cyclone 0 /F density bei ng prescribed by downstream processes. Capital cost is the primary con-
sideration after achieving rhe correct product P80. Alternative circuit options that remove so me
of the tradition:J.I constraints are, however, available in the design of classification circuits. Mcivor
(20 12) describes six case smdies ind icating potential improvements in the comminution efficiency
of ball m ills circuits of 3o/o to 30%. l l1e classification circu it changes described util ize a number of
strategies; th is includes the use of high efficiency cyclones, improving water balances, optimizing
ci rculating loads, and using two-stage classification.
Another area worthy of consideration for low tonnage appl icatio ns is the use of screens. Screen
technologies are cu rrently bei ng develo ped in parallel to m illi ng technologies, and polyu rethane
screen panels with apertures as fin e as 75 microns are ava ilable. Screens have two significant advan-
tages over hyd rocyclones. Screens control the top size of the product, thereby minimizing recov-
ery losses due to oversized panicles in the product, while maintaini ng coarser P80s in the fina l
product. Secondly, hydrocydones have a.n inherenr characteristic in that a significanr fractio n of
fi nal product (up to 50%) will report to the cyclone u nderAow (and therefore the m ill feed) result-
ing in sign ificant over-grind ing. Screens can reduce this misplaced material with the potential of
al most entirely elimi naring it. Improvements of up ro 50% in overall circuit performance have been
reponed, bur these are unusual cases. Improvements of20o/o are, however, feasible as a direct resu lt
of improved classifica tion efficiency and the coarsen ing of the fi nal product.

Circuit Stability
SAG/ball mill ci rcuits, in particular, are prone ro substantial variations in th rough p ut as the ore
characteristics change. As ore changes from softer ro harder, the ci rcui t will progress from being
ball mill limited to SAG mi ll limited. This resul ts in challenges nor on ly in the balancing of the
co mminution circuit, bur also causes disturbances in the remainder of the concentrator leading ro
recovery losses and therefore a higher energy demand per ron of meral p roduced.
The use of HPGRs in place of SAG m ills provides an additional ad vantage with regard to
circuit stability. HPGRs are essentially constant tonnage machines. C hanges in the ore p roperries
pri marily affect the power draw of the HPGR, bur tonnages remain fa r more co nsisten t than would
be rhe case with SAG mills. This inheren t stability in the circuit rhroughpm will significantly sim-
plifY process control and w ill result in overall improvements in average comminution efficiency as
well as consistency in the recovery of m inerals.
134 Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy

TI1e use of variable speed drives for ball mills provides another opportunity ro improve overall
comm inution circuit efficiencies. The cost of variable speed drives is reducing and has become an
affordable oprion for smaller ball mills. Variable speed control is also inh erent with ring morors
(gearless drives), which are almost standard for large mills. Fixed speed ball mills are largely con-
stant power devices and changes in rhe power draw can only be affected over rime by reducing or
increasing the ball charge. The ability ro control the speed of ball mills to conrrol grind for normal
short term flu ctuations will significantly reduce over-grinding; this provides another opportunity to
substantially reduce the overaU power requirement of the comminution circuit.
The use of advanced instrumentation and controls, including expert controllers with predic-
tive capability, has been shown to improve overall circuit efficiency by as much as 5% to 15%. As
m ill sizes increase, and the number of parallel process ing streams decreases , and the opportunity to
incorporate expert control systems to comminution circuits increases sign ificantly.

Grinding Media (Secondary Energy Consumption)

Steel media and wear liners are estimated to add over 50% co rhe total carbon footprint of the
comminution circuit and can have an even greater influence on the operating costs (depending
on the cost of power and delivered steel media). The use of HPGRs eliminates the grinding media
consum ed by the SAG mill, however, the ball mills or vertical stirred mills still require steel media.
AG/pebble mills offer an alternative ro SAG/ball mill circuits, eliminate the need for steel
media, and have significantly lower rates of liner wear. Recent installations, such as the Boliden
Aitik expansion (Markstrom 2011 ), have shown chat large format AG/ pebble mills are a viable
alternative ro conventional SAG and ball mills. The Boliden circuit utilizes two 38' x 45' AG
mills and two 30' x 38' pebble mills, in closed circuit with screw classifiers. These mills process
up to a combine tonnage of 6,000 tph of copper ore. An AG/pebble mill circu it was selected in
preference of a SAG/ball mill circuit after trade off studies indicated that the operating cost for an
AG/pebble mill ci rcuit would be $45 million less per annum, for an increase in the capital cost of
$ 15 million. Pebble m edia generation for the Boliden AG and pebble mills was estimated using
multiphysics tools. Predicted operating cost estimates, as well as media generation rates, were
confirmed in th e field.
The primary concerns wi th AG/pebble circuits have always centered on the susceptibility of
AG mill tonnage to changes in the ore properties. Industries such as the North American iron ore
industry, as well as the Scandinavian iron ore and copper indusrries, have however demonstrated
convincingly chat if there is a desire ro do so, these circuits can be operated efficiently and produce
substantial cost benefits to the user.
An interesting alternative to current HPGR/ball mill circuit concepts would be the evaluation
of HPGR/pebble mill circuits. Special considerations would need robe given to the generation of
pebble m edia for the pebble mills, by scalping the feed ahead of the HPGR. This type of circuit
would combine the efficiency and fully aurogenous operation of an HPGR with an autogenous
pebble mill, and eliminate the need for steel grinding media. The incorporation ofH PGRs would
also elimjnate most of that concern of the AG mills suscepti bility to tonnage variations due to
changes in the hardness of the feed o re. However, a brave soul would be required to be the first ro
install such a circuit!
 The Future of Commin ution 135

-aed Optimization
The opt im izati on of crusher or mill feed by imp roving fragmentation at the mine is well docu-
mem ed and has demonstrated substantial benefits ro SAG/ball mill circuit capacities. These tech-
nologies cominue to be d eveloped. Products such as Orica's Vis tis™ have more than rwice the
':dative bulk suength of ANFO and therefore allow significanrly higher energy intensities. These
lltgh ene rgy explosives, combined with new blasting techniques, allow the controlled applica-
• on o f powder facro rs of 4kg/m 3 and above. At these powder factors, reductions in the total
~!lergy requirement of SAG mill applications of 35% to 50% are ind icated (1hompson 2012,
Ziemski 20 11 ).
Finer blasts also provide opportunities ro HPG R circuits. Increased fines generat ion, and a
iiner top size in the feed, creates opportun ities to reduce the product size from single stage HPGR
~rcu its, wh ich will benefit the subsequent grinding circu ir.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW COMMINUTION TECHNOLOGIES

-:here are few, if any, new technologies on rhe horizon, so ir is best to refer to emerging technolo-
:<Jes. The "new" machines currently being brought to market for use in metall iferous comminution
.:ucuits, either as production or pilot scale rest units, build on existing concepts that have long
hl.Srories. The two primary categories would be (1) machines with long operational histories in
ndus trial minerals that are being migrated to metalliferous applications and (2) novel (currenrly
:mused) methods of comminution using predominantly non-mechan ical methods of transferring
::nergy to the ore.

igrated Technologies
Because of a growing understanding of the need ro be able ro provide higher efficiency comminu-
non opt ions (other than bal l mills), especially for regrind applications, a number of new machines
:-1.1ve come to marker. Well-established mills, such as the Metso's Yertim ill ™ and SMD™ and
Xmata's lsaM ill™, are now being augmenred by Ourotec's H IGMill and FLSmidth's VXPmi ll,
~mong others (Wang and Forssberg 2003). Collectively, these mills will undoubtedly be developed
•..., be able to handle more rons, coarser feed, and ro do so with acceptable media costs and main-
·enance requirements. Their use in future comm inution circuits has been discussed above; applica-
·Jon can be expected to increase.

Em erging Technologies
The most interesting of rhe emerging technologies fall into rhe category of augmenting ex isting
.:omminution processes, rather than necessarily replacing them. While not new concepts, these
processes are seeing renewed interest as the drive for more energy efficient comminution conrinues.
-:be two most prominent augmentation techniques are High Voltage Electric Pulse, and Microwave
-:1dlarion. These techniques are capable of independent size reduction, but they are currently not
d1cienr in this role. Rather than rep lacing existi ng comminution machines, these techniques are
:oredominantly being tailored to o re pre-treatment, with two specific objectives. Firsrly to weaken
-vck by creating fractures that will result in a "softer" ore for subsequent comminution steps. And
:;.ct:O nd ly, to specifically enhance liberation characteristics so rhat liberation occurs at coarser prod-
<..ct sizes. The latter is achieved as a resu.lt of preferentially breaking along grain boundaries rather
136 Minera l Processing and Extractive Metall urgy

than across grains, as might be the case with mechanical fracrure mechanisms. The use of Ultrasonic
energy is also being investigated as a means to enhance mechanical fracture rates.

High Voltage Electric Pulse

High Vol cage Electric Pulse devices such as rhe selFrag (selFrag AG, Switzerland) batch unit have
been used to pre-rrear ores with high voltage electric pulses. The feed size ro the electric pulse unirs
is relatively coarse, lOmm to 45mm, which makes the treat ment well suited ro HPGR feeds. Data
currently available is fo r batch rream1ent of ores, bur a pilot scale continuous unit is being devel-
oped. [n work published by Wang et al. (2 01 1), four parailel rests were cond ucted on o res subjected
ro electri c pulse energy, and con ven tional crushing. Electrical energy applied for the electric pulse
pre-treatment was of the o rder of 1 kW h/ron ro 3 kWh/ ron. Both JKRBT UK Rock Breakage
Tester) and BWIR (Bond rod mill wo rk index) tests were run on the selF rag and non-selFrag trea ted
samples. Two parameters were compared to estimate the level of ore "softening" that resulted from
the se!Frag trearmenr
The fi rst was the A*b parameter used to characterize the o re hardness in the J KSirnMer com-
minution model. The second was the Bond Rod M ill Work Index. The resting showed a 9% to 52%
increase in the A*b value (a higher value is an indicator of a softer ore) and a 0% to 24% reductio n
in the Bond rod mill wo rk index.
Initial work has also demonstrated that im provements in recovery can also be achieved as a
result of elecrric pulse per treatment, bur data is specific to relatively coarse size fractions and it is
unclear at what level these benefits will be realized in normal beneficiation processes.
W hen considering the "softening" effect, it is important ro undersca nd that this softening
of the ore is not a fund amental change in the material properties of the rock, bur an ind icaro r
of micro cracking along primary grain boundaries. As a result, rests such as the JKRBC, which
specifically invest igate energy required to fi rst fracture, show a significantly larger effect than tests
that require mLdtiple fracw re events such as a Bond test. Tt is reasonable to assum e that the finer
the product required, the less the softening effect will be. The concept of ore softening therefore
has to be explo red carefully, and be eval uated specifically ro the fi nal product size required for the
process. The use of a soften ing facror in a simu laror sho uld be avoided unless the correct reduction
ratio is used.

Microwave Radi ation

Another area of research is rhe use of microwave rad iatio n to weaken ores. Most early research
concenrrared on the feas ibility of the use of continuous microwave emitters to assist comminution
(Kingman et al. 2000, Vorsrer 2001, Wang and Forrsberg 2000), and were often combined with
quench ing to enhance the effect. These studies showed that substantial changes in the properties of
ores could be achieved with microwave treatment. Reductions in the Bond Rod M ill Work lndex
of treated of up ro 70% were observed. However, these results were obtai ned using continuous
exposure to microwaves, and applied relatively massive amo unts of energy, well in excess of normal
energy co nsumed in comminutio n processes.
Recent research has concentrated on the use of pulsed microwave systems to affect substanrial
changes in the apparent hardness of minerals at modest energy requirements (Kingman et al. 2004).
At the core of this work is the understand ing that the power density is more importan t than the
rotal energy applied, and that shorr bursts of very high power exposure can significantly weaken
 The Future of Comminution 137

rock. Initial indi cations are that microwave treat ment can significantly influence both the strength
and liberati on behavior of ores at economic energy inputs of less rhan 1 kWh/r. Multiple hardness
indices were quoted , including Point Load resting, J KMRC Drop Weight resting, and batch ball
mill grindab iliry rests. The trends are similar to those discussed for the high voltage elecrric pulse
testing in rhar substantial "weakening" of the o re is seen with the use of microwave preuearmenr.
1l1e benefi t is, however, most significam for coa rse size fractions, with the benefits reducing as
the product becomes finer. A drop in the uniax ial compressive strength of up ro 50% was noted
(a 100% "softening" of rhe ore at ini tial fracture), the A*b value derived from a drop weigh t rest
increased by 4 1%, and the breakage rate in a batch ball mill increased between 67% and I 0%. Of
note was th e result fro m the batch ball mill resrs; there was an indi catio n of a diminished weakening
of the ore as rhe product size reduced from a mean size of J8mm (67%) to 4mm (1 0%).
D egree ofliberation was also measured using QEM*SEM analysis. This ana lysis showed signif-
icam improvem enrs in liberation for the coarse sjze fraction (+500 microns) from 3 1.8% liberation
for the umreared sample ro 69.2% fo r the treated sample, bur insignificanr changes in the degree of
liberation for the balance of rhe size fractions.

Ultrasonic Enhancement of the Comminution Process

Ultrasound assisted comminutio n relies predominan tly on ultrasound augmenred mechanical com-
minution devices. One exam ple is the work by Gaete-Garreron er al. (2000, 2003) which applied
ultrasound energy to an H PG R concept. In this design, the rolls apply mechanical stress to the
rock, bur one of the rolls is ultraso nically activated. The rests have demonstrated energy savings
of up to 6% in HPGR rype machines with the use of ultrasonic enhancemem, bu r more interest-
ingly, have also repo n ed a very significant reduction in the wear rare of rhe rolls wirh roll wear rates
being reduced by ~5 0% with rhe application of ultrasonic energy. This wo rk, as well as the work
by Yerkovic et al. ( 1993) has at least one sign ifica nt departure fro m con ventional HPGR applica-
tions. The gap in these laboratory devices is typically set at a fraction of rhe top size of rhe feed, and
breakage is therefo re more si ngle-panicle than packed bed. It was nor clear from the publications
whether any work o n the applicatio n of ultrason ic enhancemem of roll crushers was ever attempted
for a packed bed scenario, where the damping of the u ltrasonic waves by the bed is likely. H PGRs
operate with a packed bed with the large majority of applied forces being antiparticle. It is therefore
not clear ro what extent these results would transfer to operating plant.

Optimizing Comminution Machines (aka Improving the Mouse Trap)

Multiphysics Modeling
Refinement of current comminution techn ologies is raking place as a resulr of both traditional
incremental machine improvements and by rhe application of a rapidly developing suite of mul-
tiphysics rools. The latter, in particular, deserves additional discussion. Mulriphysics rools are
machine independent and represent rhe fi rst rrue microscale model of a co mminution machine.
The pri mary m ulriphysics roo ls include Discrete Element Method (OEM ), Com putational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD ), and fractu re mechani cs. These tools can be augmented with pheno meno-
logical models such as rhe Populatio n Balance Model (PBM). Models such as rh ese p rovide the
abili ty to model almost any comminurion device at rhe level of the panicle-particle and particle-
machine interactions. Improved code, rapidly increas ing availabi li ty of multi-core compmers, and
clusters has significantly advan ced rhe si7-e and complexity of problems that can be analyzed. These
138 Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy

tools have been used in dozens of studies to improve crusher and mill performance over rhe last
decade.
DEM modeling provides a complete history of all impact events in a comminution device,
typically limited to some minimum particle size. Fracture m echanics can then be applied to develop
a probability of breakage (or a breakage rate) which is a un ique function of the machine, how it is
operated, the ore breakage characteristics, and the feed size of the ore. These models adequately con-
sider both the volumetric capacity, as well as the power applied, by a crusher or mill. They therefore
permit the detailed optimization of a comm inution machine for a specific ore and duty.
There are limi tations; these relate to the size of the problem to be modeled and the complexity
of liquid/solid interactions. Where the size of the problem (co mputational efforr required) is too
great to look specifically at single particle breakage events, the DEM models can be combined with
PBM models to provide the solutions required (Potapov et al. 2007).
Since rhe initial successful application of DEM in SAG mill liner design for the Alumbrera
SAG mills (Sherman et al. 1999), where a 15% improvement in mill capacity was reponed for lin -
ers designed with the aid of OEM modeling, the use of DEM for the design of mill liner profiles
h as become almost standard. The initial efforts concentrated on des igning a liner profile that would
provide a good charge trajectory in a mill. These early uses have now been augmented to include
wear modeling. A particularly interesting development is the ability to evaluate the effect that
liner profiles have on breakage rates, specifically of the coarse and critical size material in the SAG
mills. Initial indications are that improvements of 5% to 25% are feasible for SAG and ball mill
operations (H erbst and Lichter 2006). Mill discharge systems have also been extensively modeled
to identifY and eliminate volumetric restrictions, and to improve wear life (Lichter et al. 2011).
Multiphysics modeling has also been applied to crushers and HPGRs. A fully functional
crusher model is available that can look in detail at the effect of crusher cavity design, crusher speed,
and closed side setting on crusher performance (Lichter er al. 2008).
Figure 2 shows a sectional view of an HPlOO crusher model using both OEM and fracture
mechanics. Of particular interest with these models is the ability to evaluate system parameters such
as crusher feed arrangemenr, crusher speed, and crusher throw, which are not variables that can be
easily manipulated in the field.
A Multiphysics model of the HPGR is described in the work by H erbst et al. (201 1). Like
the crusher model, the effects of all primary design and operating parameters can be evaluated in
a simulated environment. These models include task-specific ore characterizations tests developed
from existing testing techniques.
The use of these tools goes beyond the optimization of existing installations. A significant
advantage of a simulated environment is that the normal planr variability can be eliminated, thereby
allowing an independent look at each of the operating parameters. In addition, simulations per-
mit the optimization of machines during the design stage, and the derailed evaluation of multiple
machine design parameters that are not available with traditional design tools.

Improving Crusher Performance

A possible alternative to HPGRs in commin u tion circu its (primari ly for lower tonnage applica-
tions) is the use of multistage crushing to generate a fine feed suitable for subsequent ball or stirred
milling. The current generation of tertiary cone crushers all rely on inter-panicle crushing to signifi-
cantly increase fin es generation. ll1e development of the new Sandvik Vibrocone" ' crusher, which
 The Future of Com minution 139

Tran<b1tior~al Velocity, m/scc

Figure 2. Sectional view of an HP100 DEM, breakage simulation

uses unbalanced weights to provide th e crushing action, has the potential to significantly in crease
fines generation when compared to other crushing technologies.

Improving Ball Mill Efficiency

In parallel with the research and testing on the use of stirred mills as a replacement for ball mills, is
the re-eval uation of ball mill efficiency. It has been understood fo r many decad es that ball mill effi-
ciency is a function of mill speed, charge level, and m edia size. The work published by Plavina and
C lark (1986), together with data coll ected at Bougainville, showed convincingly that high er speed
and higher charge levels do not necessarily translate into more tones and that a deeper understand-
ing is requ ired of th e effect that operating va riab les have on mill performance. The Bo ugainville
data indi cated that fo r a change from a 41 % charge level and 81 % of C ritical Speed (Cs), to a 32%
charge level and 74% ofCs, the specific energy (kWh/ron) required to grind to an equ ivalem p rod-
ucr was reduced by - 12%. Si milarly it has been shown that changes in media size can significantly
improve ball m ill efficiencies and improvements of 5% to 15% in th e mill efficiency are feasible.
Cu rrent efforts to imp rove ball m ill operating efficiency include operating the mills at slower
speeds, reduced charge levels, and with more care taken in the selection of media size and liner pro-
files. If the same care is taken when preparing ball mill feed, as is required when preparing feed for
a sri rred mill (both vertical screw and stirred med ia), then sign ificam changes are possible to liner
design and media size. Com b ined with slowing down the m ill, and opera ri ng at lower charge levels,
these factors will likely reduce the energy consumption of ball mills by -20% or more.
Ball mills sized an d operated to maximize efficiency will operate at lower tonnages than mills
operated to maximize throughpur. Ball mills optimized for efficiency will therefore be larger and
140 Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy

have a higher capital cost than mills optimized for throughput. Ad option of ball mills optimized
fo r efficiency rather than capital cost will therefo re require either adequate field data o r the broader
application of m odels that that allow the evaluation of ore breakage parameters as a fun ction of
feed size, media size, mill speed and mill charge level. The question remains: Once installed , will
the mills be operated co op ti mi ze efficiency or will the traditio nal pressures to maximize tons come
into play?

ORE SORTING AND PRE-CONCENTRATION

DecreasLng grades of o re deposits, combined wi th the need co p rocess increased cones, have resul ted
in increased efforts to develo p o re sorting techni ques that can be applied co the coarse ore feed to
the mill. If a significant fraction of the feed to the concentrator can be eliminated after primary or
secondary crushing, then the overall energy requirements per ron p rocessed from the mine can be
reduced significa ntly. There are some "hidden" costs associated with the use of ore sorting, however,
and these include lost revenue d ue to mined mineral being discarded and the addicio nal cost of
hauling and dumping the reject rock. Coarse ore haulage carries a sign ificantly higher price rag rhan
rhe pumping of slurries and can run as high as $2 per ton.
An alternative ro pre-sorting is the early co ncentration of ores. Coarse separatio n devices, such
as pressure jigs and coarse ore Rotatio n, can be used to concentrate ores after an initial fi ne crush or
coarse grind. Gangue material can then be rejected ahead of rhe fine grinding step, whi ch consumes
most of th e power and grinding media. The gangue material can be pumped to the railings fac ility,
significantly reducing the cost of el iminating rejects.
This type of circui t would require an ore rhat allows separation and gangue rejection, at a
coarse particle size, bur can be co nsidered as a viable circuit oprion if rhe m ineralogy allows ir.

WATER ELIMINATION-DRY COMMINUTION CIRCU ITS

Water co nservat ion is as critical an environmental issue as the conservatio n o f energy and the reduc-
tion of rhe carbon foo tprint, and is particularly relevant to concentrators in arid areas. The use of
HPG Rs opens up new opportunities fo r dry grindi ng ci rcuits as well, and can be used in conjunc-
tio n with dry ball mills and high efficiency classifie rs.
Another possibili ty is the d evelopm ent o f the roller mill as a replacement fo r ball mills. Ro ller
mills are recognized as being signi fica nrly more energy efficient than ball mills, bur have not been
suitable for abrasive ores. Lessons learned in ruggedizing HPGRs could p rovide rhe key co develop-
ing roller m ills sui table fo r ab rasive ores.
Dry co mminution ci rcui ts have the possibil ity o f being mo re efficient rhan wet com minut ion
circu its primarily because of the efficiency of dry class ificati on and the abili ty to rem ove fi nished
p roduct as it is crea ted . D ry mills also have significantly red uced media and liner consum pt ion
rates, further add ing to thei r benefit as regards the total energy equation . Moisture in the feed is,
however, the conrrolling variab le as the need to dry feed will rapi dly eli m inate any energy effi-
ciency advan tages.
L1 order to gain the most tangible benefi t from the el imination of water fro m the comminution
p rocess, dry beneficiation processes must be developed fo r m etalli fero us ores. Research cominues, bur
this remains the predom inan t challenge in the elimination of water fro m rhe beneficiacion process.
 The Future of Comminution 141

SUMMARY
A broad array of opportunities exists, ro sign ificantly alter the comminution circuits of the furure.
To mention a few, these op porruniries include reco nfiguring circuits to incorporate higher effi-
ciency com minution options, optim izing existing comm inution mach ines, optimizing fe ed size
prepa ration , pre-rrearm cnr of ores usi ng emerging rechnologies, optimizing circu it stability a nd
co ntrol, and rhe reduc tion of tons treated by pre-concentration of the fe ed ore.
Co nsiderable work is still requ ired before all of these ci rcuit concepts are fully realized.
Tmproved efficiency commi.nurion circuits will typically require an increase in rhe capital cost, and
the des ign risk associated with any new processes. In order to accelerate the widespread implemen-
tation of these opponurtiti es, new modeling tools and ore characterization rests will n eed to be
d eveloped, and adopted, so as to berrer define the benefits at the design stage. The ability to justify
the operating cost benefits of new comminutio n circuit options w ill accelerate the adoption of
new processes. Faili ng that, th e no rmal process of one or rwo trail installations followed by years of
evaluation will ensue.
ll1e potential prize is large and the absolute need ro reduce the carbon footprint of the commi-
nutio n process cannot be ignored. Overall reductions in the energy requirement of the comminu-
tion process of up to 30% to 50% appea r to be attainable, w ith similar reductions in the operating
costs. Pilot, or production scale, rests are underway on most of the opt ions discussed; the future of
com minution will be in teresting indeed!

ACKNOWlEDGMENTS
The author expresses his g ra titude for the assistance and input received from Robert Dunne and
Brian Flinroff.

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 The Future of Comminution 143

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Jens Lichter graduated from the Universiry of Natal, South Africa, in 1984,
with a master's degree in chemical engineering. After starring his career man-
aging pilot plant facilities for the Co uncil for Mineral Technology, he has
held various positions including managi ng the commi nu tion business unit for
Metso in South Africa; managing the process engineering group for Metso in
York, Pennsylvania; and managing Metso's Technology Development group
in Colorado. H e is now a vice president at Lymek Incorporated in Denver,
Colorado. His activities have covered a broad spectrum of discipl ines, including process plant
design, comminurion circuit design, and the development of advanced modeling tools for the
m ineral processing industry. Lichter has been active in projects on six continents, in both metallic
and industrial minerals applications.