國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept.

of Civil Engineering, NCTU Civil Engineering - Historical Context -

Hsin-yu Shan 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Modern Date
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Monuments of the Millennium
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU As we entered the new millennium, the
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) initiated programs to reflect on the contributions of the
profession to the development of quality of life in the 20th century. For the Millennium Challenge, ASCE
canvassed its members in late 1999 to determine the 10 civil engineering achievements that had the
greatest positive impact on life in the 20th century. Rather than individual projects, they chose to
recognize broad categories of achievements. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering,
NCTU Monuments of the Millennium Airport Design And Development Kansai International Airport
Dams Hoover Dam The Interstate Highway System Long-Span Bridges Golden Gate Bridge Rail
Transportation Eurotunnel Rail System Kansai International Airport Hoover Dam Golden Gate Bridge
When the bridge opened in 1937, with a main suspension span length of 4,200 feet, it was the longest in
the world. The engineering obstacles poised by the mile-wide, turbulent Golden Gate Strait led
engineers to devise a bridge that required four years to build, 83,000 tons of steel, 389,000 cubic yards
of concrete, and enough cable to encircle the earth three times. Previous ASCE designations for the
Golden Gate Bridge include: the National Civil Engineering Landmark (1984) and Seven Wonders of the
World (1955). Other significant bridges include the VerrazanoNarrows Bridge, the George Washington
Bridge, the Akashi Kaikyo (Japan) and the Humber Bridge (England). 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept.
of Civil Engineering, NCTU Sanitary Landfills/Solid Waste Disposal Skyscrapers The Empire State Building
Wastewater Treatment Chicago Wastewater System Water Supply and Distribution The California Water
Project Water Transportation The Panama Canal 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil
Engineering, NCTU Iron and Steel The Iron Age came about approximately 3500 years ago (1500 B.C.),
when a Hittite inventor in what is now eastern Asia developed methods of smelting iron, and alloying it
with carbon to create steel, and then forging the new metal into tools. It was iron and steel tools which
made possible the fabulous cultures of Greece and Rome. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil
Engineering, NCTU Steel and the Skyscraper Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) is the man whose name we
associate today with one of the major processes of producing steel. It was Bessemerʹs discovery of a
process for making steel cheaply which led to its use in the construction industry. George A. Fuller
(1851-1900), as a young man, was employed in his uncleʹs architectural office, drawing building plans.
He soon became interested in the problem of load bearing capacities and how much weight each part of
a building would carry. During the 1880s he went to Chicago and set up business as a building
contractor, where his firm built the Tacoma Building in 1889. This was the first structure ever built in
which the outer walls carried no burden and served no purpose other than to keep out the elements
and provide a cosmetic facade. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Eventually
Fuller and an architect, Daniel Bumham, were called to New York to design and build an office building
on a small triangular plot of land in downtown Manhattan. Fuller told the land owners that he could
construct a 21 story building, which was twice the height that he could achieve if they limited him to
conventional materials, such as stone or brick. The building weight would rest on Bessemer steel beams,
which would be riveted together in the form of cages, thus tying the whole building together. Despite
great public skepticism that winds would blow the walls in or bend the steel cages, the Flatiron Building
at the corner of Broadway and 23rd was one of New Yorkʹs first skyscrapers in 1902. Once George Fuller
and the construction firm he created paved the way, others followed and today about half of all the
large apartments and office buildings in this country are built on his steel cage system.
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of
Civil Engineering, NCTU 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Structural height508 m (1667 ft) Height to
roof448 m (1470 ft) Height to top floor438 m (1437 ft) Floors 101TopoutOctober 17, 2003
OpeningDecember 31, 2004 Gross floor area450,000m² 380 piles @80 m A 660-ton tuned mass damper
is held at the 88th floor, stabilizing the tower against earthquakes, typhoons, and wind. The damper can
reduce up to 40% of the tower's movements. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering,
NCTU Taipei 101 has 101 stories above ground (hence the name) and five under ground. The building
holds the records for: Ground to structural top: 508 m (1667 ft), a record formerly held by the Petronas
Twin Towers at 452 m (1483ft). Ground to roof: 448 m (1470 ft). Formerly held by the Sears Tower (442
m = 1454ft) Ground to highest occupied floor: 438 m (1437 ft). Formerly held by the Sears Tower. It does
not hold the record for Ground to pinnacle, which is held by the Sears Tower 529 m (1703ft). Chicago
Wastewater System The California Water Project Conceived more than 50 years ago with bold
imagination by engineers of dedication and courage, a system of aqueducts, dams, reservoirs and plants
meets the water resources needs of two-thirds of California's population serving more than 23 million
citizens and thousands of businesses daily. Features of the project include 32 storage facilities,
reservoirs and lakes, 17 pumping plants, three pumpinggenerating plants, five hydroelectric power
plants, and 660 miles of open canals and pipelines. The Panama Canal 國立交通大學土木工程學系
Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Seven Wonders of the Modern World 1996
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU As a tribute to modern societyʹs ability to
achieve the unachievable, reach unreachable heights, and scorn the notion of ʺit canʹt be done,ʺ in 1994
ASCE sought nominations from across the globe for the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. The
chosen projects pay tribute to the greatest civil engineering achievements of the 20th century.
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU The Seven Wonders of the Modern
World: Channel Tunnel CN Tower Empire State Building Golden Gate Bridge Itaipu Dam Netherlands
North Sea Protection Works Panama Canal 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering,
NCTU Channel Tunnel The 31-mile Channel Tunnel (Chunnel) fulfilled a centuries-old dream by linking
Britain and the rest of Europe. Three 5-feet thick concrete tubes plunge into the earth at Coquelles,
France, and burrow through the chalky basement of the English Channel. 國立交通大學土木工程學系
Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU The $15 billion Channel Tunnel makes the old dream of a ground link
between Great Britain and continental Europe a reality for the first time since the Ice Ages.
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Through two of the tubes rush the
broadest trains ever built. The double decker behemoths, which span 14-feet across, traverse the tunnel
at close to 100 mph. Maintenance and emergency vehicles utilize the third tunnel, located between the
rail tubes. Huge pistons open and close ducts, relieving the pressure that builds ahead of the trainsʹ
noses. Some 300 miles of cold water piping run alongside the rail tracks to drain off the heat raised by
the air friction. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Project launch March
1985 British & French governments initiate Fixed Link consultation 20 January 1986 Eurotunnel selected
 from a short list of four Fixed Link projects 12 February 1986 Signing of Franco-British ‘Treaty of
Canterbury’ 14 March 1986 Signing of the ‘Concession Agreement’ 29 July 1987 Ratification of the
‘Treaty’; ‘Railway Usage Contract’ signed 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU
Construction 15 December 1987 Tunnelling begins 1 December 1990 First breakthrough, 22.3km from
Britain/15.6km from France 28 June 1991 Tunnelling completed (150km of tunnels dug in 3_ years) 10
December 1993 TML deliver the project to Eurotunnel 1993-1994 Completion of fitting-out and testing
of the system 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Operation 6 May 1994
Official inauguration by Queen Elizabeth II & François Mitterrand 19 May 1994 Eurotunnel starts Truck
Shuttle service 1 June 1994 First rail freight train travels through the Tunnel 14 November 1994 Eurostar
starts commercial services 22 December 1994 Passenger Shuttle service for cars starts 26 June 1995
Passenger Shuttle service for coaches starts 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering,
NCTU 1 July 1997 British/French Governments extend concession to 2086 13 April 1999 On-line booking
introduced on www.eurotunnel.com 30 June 1999 Eurotunnel is awarded ISO 9002 quality certification
5 January 2000 Under Concession rules, plans for second Fixed Link submitted 5 September 2000
Eurotunnel offers six truck shuttle departures per hour 13 February 2003 Licence to operate trains in
France under new EU liberalisation rules The Channel Tunnel ter minal at Cheriton near Folkston in Kent,
from the Pilgrims' Way on the escarpment on the southern edge of Cheriton Hill, part of the North
Downs. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Planning In 1957 le Tunnel sous la
Manche Study Group was formed. It reported in 1960 and recommended two main railway tunnels and
a smaller service tunnel. The project was launched in 1973 but folded due to financial problems in 1975
after the construction of a 250 m test tunnel. In 1984 the idea was relaunched with a joint United
Kingdom and French government request for proposals to build a privately funded link. Of the four
submissions received, the one most closely resembling the 1973 plan was chosen and announced on 20
January 1986. The Fixed Link Treaty was signed by the two governments in Canterbury, Kent on 12
February 1986 and ratified in 1987. The planned route of the tunnel took it from Calais to Folkestone (a
route rather longer than the shortest possible crossing) and the tunnel was to follow a single chalk
stratum, which meant the tunnel was deeper than the previous attempt. For much of its route, the
tunnel is nearly 40 m (130 ft) under the seafloor, with the southern section being deeper than the
northern. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Construction Digging the tunnel
took 15,000 workers over seven years, with tunnelling operations conducted simultaneously from both
ends. The prime contractor for the construction was the Anglo-French TransManche Link, a consortium
of ten construction companies and five banks of the two countries. Engineers used large tunnel boring
machines (TBMs), mobile excavation factories that combined drilling, material removal, and the process
of shoring up the soft and permeable tunnel walls with a concrete liner. After the British and French
TBMs had met near the middle, the French TBM was dismantled while the British one was diverted into
the rock and abandoned. Almost 4 million m³ of chalk were excavated on the English side, much of
which was dumped below Shakespeare Cliff near Folkestone to reclaim 90 acres (360,000 m²) of land
from the sea. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Tunnels, Terminals &
Technology The tunnels are 50 kilometres long and 30 metres apart and were bored in the rock strata
under the Channel at an average depth of 45 metres below the seabed. The two large tunnels ( 7.6
metres diameter) each contain a single track railway line. The smaller service tunnel ( 4.8 metres
 diameter) is located between the two rail tunnels and is equipped with a wire guidance system for
specially designed service tunnel vehicles. All three tunnels are connected every 375 metres by a cross-
passage which gives access to the service tunnel in case of emergency. The cross-passages are also used
for ventilation and maintenance service access. Every 200 metres, the two rail tunnels are linked by
piston relief ducts. These are used for the regulation of the air pressure in the tunnels.
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Geology & Surveying UK FRANCE
Shakespeare Cliff / Sangatte Undersea crossovers / rock strata — chalk / chalk marl / gault clay depth
beneath seabed — average 25-45 metres Satellite data from geophysical surveys provided information
about the geology and helped to determine the alignment and route of the tunnel. To maximise the
favourable ground conditions, the tunnels were excavated in the layer of chalk marl except for a 3
kilometer section on the French side. NUMBER OF DRIVES ( tunnels excavated ) 12 - 6 undersea, 6
underland NUMBER OF TBMS 11 - 6 undersea, 5 underland ( a French machine bored 2 underland
tunnels) 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Dates of Breakthroughs:
Undersea service tunnel - 1st December 1990 Undersea rail tunnel north - 22May 1991 Undersea rail
tunnel south - 28 June 1991 Date Tunneling Commenced: 1st December 1987 Finished Tunnel Diameter:
Rail tunnels 7.6m Service tunnel 4.8m 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU
Completion 1 December 1990 The British and French efforts, which had been guided by laser surveying
methods, met with less than 20 mm of error. The tunnel was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II and
French President François Mitterrand in a ceremony held in Calais on 6 May 1994.
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Statistics The Channel Tunnel is 50 km (31
miles) long, of which 39 km (24 miles) are undersea. The average depth is 45 m (150 ft) underneath the
seabed. It opened for business in late 1994, offering two principal services: a shuttle run for vehicles,
and the Eurostar passenger service linking London with Paris and Brussels. In 2004, 7,276,675
passengers travelled through the tunnel on Eurostar while in the same year Eurotunnel carried
2,101,323 cars, 1,281,207 trucks, and 63,467 coaches on its shuttle trains. Rail freight carried through
the Channel Tunnel increased by 8% to 1,889,175 t in 2004. A journey through the tunnel lasts about 20
minutes; from start to end, including a large loop to turn the train round, a shuttle train journey totals
about 35 minutes. Eurostar trains travel considerably more slowly than their top speed while going
through the tunnel, in part to fit in with the shuttle trains. At completion, it was estimated that the
whole project cost around £10 billion. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU
Operation The tunnel is operated by Eurotunnel plc. Four types of train services operate: Eurostar, a
high speed passenger service. This connects Londonʹs Waterloo station (named for the Napoleonic
battle between the UK and France) with the Gare du Nord station in Paris and with Brussels Midi/Zuid
station, with stops at Ashford, Calais-Frethun and Lille. All Eurostar services will switch from Waterloo to
St Pancras railway station when the new Channel Tunnel Rail Link railway line is completed between the
tunnel and London in 2007. Eurotunnel Shuttle, a rail ferry service. These carry cars, coaches and vans
between Sangatte (Calais/Coquelles) and Folkestone. Enclosed rail wagons with minor amenities, some
double-deck, permit drive-on and drive-off operation; passengers stay with their vehicle. Formerly
marketed as Le Shuttle. Eurotunnel freight shuttle trains. These carry lorries on open rail wagons, with
the lorry drivers travelling in separate passenger coaches. Rail freight service. These trains carry
conventional rail freight or container loads between a special transfer yard in France to destinations in
 England. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Eurostar trains travel at high
speeds in France, where the tracks are modern and custom-made for the standard TGV cruising speed of
300 km/h (186 mph), and within the tunnel at up to 160 km/h (100 mph), their speed in Kent once they
leave the Channel Tunnel Rail Link is limited by the relatively low-speed tracks over which they must run.
The project, a partly government-funded scheme to build a dedicated high-speed line from London to
the tunnel entrance, is expected to be completed in 2007. The first stage of the link, running from the
tunnel to North Kent, was opened in 2003. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering,
NCTU Sovereignty As one of the first international rail tunnels, the Channel Tunnel required inventive
approach to border controls. The official border between France and the United Kingdom is a painted
line roughly halfway through the tunnel (there is more tunnel on the UK side). The English half is part of
the District of Dover and the county of Kent. As a practical matter border controls are handled at
boarding or on the train. A detailed three-way treaty between the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium
governs border controls, with the establishment of control zones wherein the officers of the other
nation may exercise limited customs and law enforcement powers. For most purposes these are at
either end of the tunnel; for certain city- to-city trains the train itself represents a control zone.
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Summary traffic information 1,889,175
1,743,686 1,463,580 2,447,432 2,947,388 2,865,251 Rail freight tonnes 7,276,675 6,314,795 6,602,817
6,947,135 7,130,417 6,593,247 Eurostar passengers Coaches 63,467 71,942 71,911 75,402 79,460
82,074 Trucks 1,281,207 1,284,875 1,231,100 1,197,771 1,133,146 838,776 Cars 2,101,323 2,278,999
2,335,625 2,529,757 2,784,493 3,260,166 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU CN Tower The worldʹs tallest free-
standing structure soars 1,815-feet above the sidewalks of Toronto, three times the height of its better-
known cousin, the Seattle Space Needle. Today the tower is off by a mere 1.1-inch. Designed with the
aid of a wind tunnel, the CN Tower can withstand 260-mph gusts. The SkyPod, a seven-story structure,
1,100-feet high, was built around the base of the tower and jacked into place as one unit. A pair of 10-
ton counterweights is attached to the mast to keep the tower from swaying too much.
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Empire State Building Measuring 1,250-
feet high, the Empire State Building is the best- known skyscraper in the world, and was by far the tallest
building in the world for more than 40 years. Construction was completed in only a year and 45 days,
without requiring overtime. Ironworkers set a fervent pace, riveting the 58,000-ton frame together in 23
weeks. Just below them, plumbers laid 51 miles of pipe, electricians installed 17-million ft. of telephone
wire and masons finished the exterior in only eight months. The building was so well engineered that, in
1945, it was easily repaired after a B-25 twin-engine bomber plane crashed into it in the dense fog. The
precise choreography of the project revolutionized the tall building construction industry. Although it
has been surpassed as the world's tallest building, the Empire State Building remains the standard
against which all other skyscrapers have been judged for the last 65 years. 國立交通大學土木工程學系
Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Golden Gate Bridge More than 66 years after its completion, the
Golden Gate Bridge, once the worldʹs longest and tallest suspension bridge, stands at the entrance of
the San Francisco Bay as a beloved international icon. Hanging from two 746-foot-high towers, the
bridge is suspended by two massive main cables that contain 80,000 miles of wire and measure one yard
in diameter. In fact, the Golden Gate Bridge cables contain enough wire to encircle the earth three
 times. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU To leap across the mouth of an
ocean harbor, something never before accomplished, civil engineers planted one pier in the open sea,
1,100-feet from the shore. Construction crews braved biting cold, 70-mph gusts and dizzying heights to
complete the bridge in only four years. It survived the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake suffering no
damage, and in 66 years the bridge has only been shut briefly (longest closure was 3 hours and 27
minutes) to traffic three times due to periods of high sustaining winds. A $400 million seismic retrofit,
which will allow the bridge to withstand a nearby earthquake that measures 8.3 on the Richter scale,
began in August 1997. 20 Construction Views of the Golden Gate Bridge 1933-1936 20 Construction
Views of the Golden Gate Bridge 1933-1936 Pictures will automatically Pictures will automatically
advance every 10 seconds advance every 10 seconds ©1999 Gladys Cox Hansen Prepared by Prepared
by the Museum of the City of San Francisco the Museum of the City of San Francisco ©1999 Gl 1999
Gladys Cox Hansen adys Cox Hansen 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU
Itaipu Dam Five-miles-wide and requiring enough concrete to build five Hoover Dams, the Itaipu Dam
spans the Parana River at the Brazil/Paraguay border. During its construction, workers shifted the course
of the seventh largest river in the world by digging a 1.3-mile bypass. To accomplish this they had to
remove 50 million tons of earth and rock. The main dam, as high as a 65-story building, is composed of
hollow concrete segments; while the flanking wings are earth and rock fill. Its powerhouse measures
one-half-mile long and contains 18 hydroelectric generators, each 53-feet across. Some 160-tons of
water-per-second pour onto each turbine, generating 12,600-megawatts, enough to power most of
California. Itaipu supplies 28 percent of all the electric energy in Brazilʹs south, southeast and central-
west regions, and 72 percent of Paraguayʹs total energy consumption. 國立交通大學土木工程學系
Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Facts Construction started in January 1975 and finished in 1982. It took
30,000 people 7 years to build the Itaipu Dam. It cost $20 billion to build. The dam supplies electricity to
Brazil and Paraguay. The dam is 7.76 kilometres long and 196 metres high. The reservoir behind the dam
has an area of 1350 square kilometres. It is a hollow gravity type dam. The Itaipu Dam generates 75
billion kilowatts of electricity per year. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU
Netherlands North Sea Protection Works This singularly unique, vast and complex system of dams,
floodgates, storm surge barriers and other engineered works literally allows the Netherlands to exist The
North Sea Protection Works exemplifies the ability of humanity to exist side-by-side with the forces of
nature. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU The North Sea Protection Works
consists of two monumental steps the Dutch took to win their struggle to hold back the sea. Step one, a
19-mile-long enclosure dam, was built between 1927 and 1932. The immense dike, 100-yards thick at
the waterline, collars the neck of the estuary once known as Zuiderzee. Step two, the Delta Project, was
intended to control the treacherous area where the mouths of the Meuse and Rhine Rivers break into a
delta. The projectʹs crowning touch was the Eastern Schelde Barrier, a two-mile barrier of tell gates
slung between massive concrete piers, which fall only when storm-waters threaten.
國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU The crown on this giant flood-control
project is the barrier dam that stretches 1.75 miles across the three channels of the Eastern Schelde.
This dam consists of several strings of gates and their massive supporting piers which, in normal
weather, allow tidal seawaters to ebb and flow in the Eastern Schelde estuary, thus benefiting the fish
and bird life and the local fisheries. The Oosterschelde storm surge barrier Bottom consolidation The
 piers The piers were the most important elements of the dam. They were produced in a building
excavation with a surface area of about one square kilometre, located 15.2 metres below sea level. A
ring-dike kept the sea water outside the excavation. The dry dock consisted of four parts. When the
piers of one part were finished, this part would be flooded. The lifting ship then sailed into the dock,
lifted the heavy pier and shipped it off to its place in the barrier. Each pier consisted of 7,000 cubic
metre of concrete. Therefore, the dock may also be typified as a large concrete factory in which 450,000
cubic metre of concrete was manufactured between 1979 and 1983. The construction of each pier
almost took one and a half years. One started building a new pier every two weeks. This way, thirty piers
were in production at the same time. It took an enormous amount of organisation and planning to finish
the giant and complex structures in time. People worked day and night, because otherwise the concrete
could not harden properly. The sixty-five piers were each between 30.25 and 38.75 metres high and
weighed 18,000 tonnes. Two extra piers were built, for safety’s sake. Visitors of Neeltje Jans, the former
artificial island, can now climb one of these left-over piers. The placement When all the piers were
finished, the building excavation in which they were built, was flooded. Two ships took the piers to the
right place. The ship Ostrea could lift the piers one by one and sailed them to a floating pontoon. This
pontoon marked the place where the pier should be sunk. When the piers stood Slides firmly on the
bottom of the Oosterschelde, the construction of the barrier could be finished. The piers were raised
with the top-pieces, upon which the slides were fixed. Hollow tubes were placed on the piers, and on
top of this came a road. The tubes provided room for the equipment responsible for making the slides
move. Mytilus (mussel) This ship made sure that the bottom of the Oosterschelde was compressed
along the section were the barrier would be built. When the bottom is compressed, the sand and clay
parts are compacted more closely to each other. The bottom becomes more solid. Without the work of
the Mytilus, the barrier would not have been as firm. The entire compression process took place under
water and continued twenty-four hours per day. The needles transferred vibrations to the sea bottom,
with a frequency of between 25 and 30 Hertz and an amplitude of 4 to 5 millimetres. Cardium (cockle)
Although the Ostrea was the most impressive ship of the fleet, the Cardium was the most expensive
one. The Cardium carried out an important task: putting down the mats. These mats which were thirty-
six centimetres thick, forty-two metres wide and two hundred metres long. The synthetic mats were
filled with sand and gravel in a factory. The mats were put on the sea bottom at a rate of ten metres
every hour. An extra mat was put at the areas where the piers were to be placed. This was to protect
the mats against wear, which could be developed through the opening and closure of the slides. The
Ostrea (oyster) The Ostrea was the flagship of the Delta fleet. With its length of eighty-seven metres, the
typical U-shape and a capability of 8,000 horsepower, it was the most impressive ship. The ship lifted
the piers from the dry dock and sailed them to the place of the barrier. With the open side of the ‘U’,
the ship manoeuvred around the pier. The ship could steer easily, thanks to its four screw propellers. On
both sides there were two porches fifty metres high. The piers were fixed to these porches. The porches
could not lift more than 10,000 tonnes however, whereas the piers weighed 18,000 tonnes. So how did
the Ostrea put the piers in the right place? Fortunately, the levers did not have to lift the piers
completely out of the water. The most important factor was that they did not touch the bottom of the
sea during transportation. Because of the upward pressure of the water, the levers needed to provide
less power. Macoma (nun) This pontoon, named after a shellfish, was situated exactly in front of the
place where a pier would be placed. When the Ostrea had taken a pier, it moored against the Macoma.
 To offer the Ostrea some stability, the pontoon had a coupling mechanism with a power of six hundred
tonnes. The Macoma also had a second function: an enormous vacuum cleaner was used to ensure
there was no sand between the pier and the bottom. This was an extremely difficult job, because the
tidal movements moved large amounts of sand each day. Another ship, the Jan Heijmans, helped the
Cardium place the mattres ses. The Jan Heijmans was also responsible for the filling of the hole s
between the mattresses and the gravel. The Macoma worked together with the Sepia and the Donax I
during the placement of gravel ballast mats on the bottom. Maeslant barrier The most important
demand for the design was that the barrier should not hinder the shipping. The barrier should only be
closed under exceptional circumstances - no more than once or twice every ten years. In 1991, four
years after the competition was held, construction started. Which design had won? Out of six
submissions, the design of the Building Combination Maeslant Barrier won. The Maeslant barrier would
consist of two steel doors which could be sunk down and could be turned away in the docks in the
shores. BOS and BES The Maeslantkering is operated by a computer. In the case of a storm flood, the
decision of whether or not to close the barrier is left to a computer system (BOS). The chance of
mistakes is greatly increased if people were to make the decision. A computer will only follow
predefined procedures, it doesn’t get its own ideas and it is not affected by poor environmental
conditions. The system only takes into account the water and weather forecasts. On that basis it
calculates the expected water levels in Rotterdam, Dordrecht and Spijkenisse. When the BOS decides to
close the barrier, it gives orders to another computer system, the BES. The BES carries out the orders of
the BOS. The system operates entirely automatically, but remains under constant human supervision
with regards to the procedures. Movement works The movement works are operated from control
buildings at the north and south side. The movement works consist of three parts: the dock gate, the
locomotive and the ballast system of the retaining wall. The dock gate opens when the barrier is
activated. The barrier is driven into the New Waterway by the locomotive. The ballast system allows the
barrier to sink. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Panama Canal The dream
of Spanish conquistadors and the failed ambition of famed French canal builder Ferdinand de Lesseps,
the Panama Canal is one of civil engineeringʹs greatest triumphs. Under the direction of U.S. Col. George
Washington Goethals, 42,000 workers dredged, blasted and excavated the path stretching from Colon to
Balboa. They moved enough earth and rubble to bury the island of Manhattan to a depth of 12-feet, or
enough to open a 16-foot-wide tunnel to the center of the Earth. The canal was finished on time and
within budget. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Despite this, after
completion a challenge remained: How to tame the flood waters of the Chagres River, known to rise 25-
feet in a single day during monsoon season? The engineersʹ solution was to erect a dam that, at the
time, formed the worldʹs largest man-made lake. The Canal operates as regularly today as it did in 1914.
In each transit, 52 million gallons of fresh water is lost, but quickly replaced by Panamaʹs heavy rainfall.
The canal remains a testament to the combined skills of structural, geotechnical, hydraulic and sanitary
engineers. 國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU Conclusions

St.Petersburg State Polytechnical University

Institute ofEngineering andConstruction
 Department "Construction of unique buildings and structures"

valueengineeringin general and itsaspects

Execute: Phoy Meng Lim

Khun Sereyponly
Group: 23103/3
Scientific. hands. : Vyatkin M.E
Group: 33103/1

St. Petersburg 2013

Research goal and Objective

 Research goal: Value of civil engineering and its aspects.

 Objective:
 Compare with other specialists and see its role in developing country.
 Enlarge understanding about civil engineering.
 Understand well about its advantage and disadvantage in developing country
Content

 Definition
 History of civil engineering
 Ancient civil engineering
 Modern civil engineering
 Investment and ConstructionEngineering
 Benefitsengineering
 Conclusion
 Value of civil engineering and its aspects

 Definition

Civil engineering is field of engineering sciences, related to design, construction and

maintenance of buildings, dams, bridges, tunnels, highways and other structures by the use of
physical laws, mathematical equations and theories of mechanics. Civil Engineers utilize the
available resources (expertise, materials, manpower) to complete the project in the given time
span keeping in view the time, expenditure, environmental issues and physical hazards of the
project.

Also known as the mother of all engineering, it is the oldest, broadest, most simple and
useful of all engineering sciences. Being a broader field Civil Engineering is divided into the
following sub-categories and / or fields.

1. Geo technical Engineering

2. Structural Engineering
3. Transportation Engineering
4. Water Resource engineering
5. Environmental Engineering
 6. Earthquake Engineering
7. Urban Planning

 History of civil engineering

It is difficult to determine the history of emergence and beginning of civil engineering,

however, that the history of civil engineering is a mirror of the history of human beings on this
earth. Man used the old shelter caves to protect themselves of weather and harsh environment,
and used a tree trunk to cross the river, which being the demonstration of ancient age civil
engineering.

Engineering has been around for thousands of years. It began between 4000 and 2000 BC
when the nomadic tribes in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia started to settle and develop towns
and cities. The need for a strong, long lasting shelter, transportation and reliable water sources
began the development, study and practice of various engineering principles.

Until modern times, civil engineering and architecture were considered one in the same, the
titles used interchangeably. It wasn't until the 18th century that Civil Engineering was defined as
all forms of civilian engineering which excluded military engineering.

Before civil engineering was formally recognized as a profession - which wouldn't happen
until 1828 - engineering was practiced by artisans such as stone masons and carpenters. Training
was received in guilds which were often to the detriment of new advancements. This resulted in
design that was often repetitive with incremental increases.

However there were revolutionaries, such

as Archimedes (3rd century BC), in the world of
civil engineering who took a scientific approach to
designing efficient solutions to society's problems.
Archimedes is responsible for the Archimedes
Principle which supports our understanding of
buoyancy which was then applied to the design of
Archimedes’ screw.

The historical accomplishments of engineers are

responsible for much advancement for modern
civilization. In fact, engineers are responsible for
saving more lives those doctors. This is due to the
design and
implementati
Pic. 1 The Archimedes’ screw on of
sanitation and
waterpurification and management systems.

Engineering is responsible for many of the Seven

Wonders of the World. One of the first recorded instances
of developing and applying structural engineering principles was in the building and design of
the Pyramids in Egypt between 2700-2500 BC.

Much ancient civilizations embraced advancement made by Egyptians and utilized the
knowledge in their culture's engineered applications. The Qanat (older than 700 BC) - a water
management system, the Parthenon (447-438 BC), Appian Way - a strategic roadway - (312 BC)
and the Great Wall of China (220 BC) are all feats of engineering.

 Ancient civil engineering Figure. 2 The Parthenon

(447-438 BC)
One of the greatest engineering accomplishments in the ancient world, and certainly one
of the best-known was the construction of the Egyptian pyramids. The Egyptian pyramids
were built in the period from approximately 2700 to 2200 BC.Three factors were important
to Egyptian engineering. The first was that the Egyptian pharaohs were willing to devote
almost unlimited time and resources to the construction of the pyramids. There was an almost
unlimited availability of skilled human labor. Second was the ability to organize all of these
workers in a very efficient way. Egyptian laborers worked under the absolute control of a
single head engineer and his subordinates. The third was that there were sources of
sandstone, limestone, and granite very close to the sites of the pyramids.

Figure. 3 The Egyptian pyramids at Giza

The Romans are also known for their engineering works. These works include road
systems, aqueduct systems to provide drinking water, and monuments and buildings.Roman
roads tended to follow a straight line up and down hills, rather than bending to follow level
contours. This was because the roads were primarily designed for military use and marching
soldiers, not for transportation of cargo.

The Roman aqueducts are famous engineering accomplishments as well. The Romans
built aqueducts to move water from its source in springs or rivers to Roman cities.

Figure. 4 The Pont du Gard is an aqueduct in the south of France constructed by

the Roman Empire.

 Modern civil engineering

Numerous technologies have assisted in the advancement of civil engineering in the

modern world, including high-tech machinery, selection of materials, test equipment, and other
sciences. However, the most prominent contributor in this field is considered to be computer-
aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacture (CAM). Civil engineers use this
technology to achieve an efficient system of construction, including manufacture, fabrication,
and erection. Three-dimensional design software is an essential tool for the civil engineer that
facilitates him in the efficient designing of bridges, tall buildings, and other huge complicated
structures.
 Figure. 5 Lloyds Building and The Gherkin in London

 Investment and ConstructionEngineering

Construction - one of the largest industrial sectors in the country, which is assigned the
creation of new, expansion and modernization of existing fixed production assets (industrial
buildings, structures), as well as the creation of the main non-productive assets (homes, schools,
hospitals, municipal facilities and domestic purposes and etc.).
The building complex has a number of specific features. This is primarily due to the fact that
its products play a decisive role in the development of all sectors of the economy. Construction
Products is tough enough tied to the requirements of relevant industries. Thus, there is a need to
issue a very wide range of products (buildings and structures) with disabilities to unify
duplicated.
Engineering construction investment activity represents the direction of industrial
engineering , whose main task is to create a new (including reconstruction) of buildings and
structures for any purpose - industrial, civil and residential buildings , transportation systems,
communications , etc. - on the basis of the use of modern scientific approaches . Because when
you create a modern enterprise requires solving a huge number of complex issues that are at the
intersection of scientific and practical disciplines, engineering investment and construction
activities isinherently(andindustrial engineering) systems engineering, engineering activitiesfor
the design,creation and developmentof new industrialand civilsocio-economic systems, and in
additionincludes variousfunctionalareasof engineering.

These areasof engineeringinvestment and construction

activitiesencompassindividualfunctional areasof any modernenterpriseand therefore can
bedescribed as the directionof managementengineering.Its maintypes are:

 pre-project engineering - pre-investment studies, the formulation of initial permits , the

development of studies of investment (project) for construction, collection of baseline
data and preparation of specifications for the design ;
 project engineering - design documentation , perform the functions of the general
designer , development of special sections of the project , expertise, project support ;
 Process engineering - providing customer construction and maintenance technologies ,
together with licenses for their use , technological design , the formation of contract
specifications for process equipment ;
 value engineering - design and cost estimates for the project;
 financial engineering - the development of new financial instruments and operational
schemes;
 Engineering Project Management - development of organizational and management
structures and methods of operation;
 Information Technology Engineering - Development of information and software and
hardware investment and construction process ;
 manufacturing engineering - preparation of tender documentation for supplies , works
and services , preparation of production and work organization , supervision of
manufacturing , supply and production work , quality control organization , the
organization commissioning works , services for operation of the facility ;
 complex (system) engineering - a set of engineering services, providing the possibility of
implementing projects "turnkey”.

 Benefitsengineering

Among the majoradvantages of the systemengineeringinclude:

 increase, ceteris paribus, the effectiveness of investmentsin connectionwith the

appearance ofthe real levers ofinfluence on theestimate/budget for the project;
 reductionof performance timeandproduction costs
 appeal tocustomersprospectsof consolidation inthe hands of oneset
ofnecessaryservicesrelated to the implementationof investment projects;
  The emergence ofreal preconditionsfor the transitionto an effectiveprofessional
managementinconnection with the concentrationin the
handsoftechnicalengineeringand costinformationfor the project;
 reduction of investmentand other risksforthe company using
thesystemengineering;
 improving the competitiveness ofthe domestic and internationalmarkets due to
therecognition ofthe business worldefficiencyengineering.

 Conclusion

After work I have done, we can conclude that today engineering is an integral part of the
investment and construction process. It is a kind of "bridge over the river of knowledge”, where
one strand is a science, and others - Practice . Engineering allows you to work more closely all
project participants from design documentation to commissioning, which significantly reduces
construction time and improve the efficiency of the project. Connect all-round experience leads
to a multiple improve the quality of decisions, a significant decrease in the number of errors
which, when revealed later during the construction phase, resulting in the loss, incommensurate
with the cost of making changes to the project early on.
Engineering development in breadth and depth continues today. Therefore, we can conclude that
engineering has paced nature. He is constantly looking for the latest science in solving urgent
social problems.

 Lecture
^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. (accessed: 2007-08-08).
Jump up ^"History and Heritage of Civil Engineering". ASCE. Retrieved 2007-08-08.
Jump up ^"Institution of Civil Engineers What is Civil Engineering". ICE. Retrieved
2007-09-22.

What is Civil Engineering?

Civil engineering is arguably the oldest engineering discipline. It deals with the built
environment and can be dated to the first time someone placed a roof over his or her head or laid
a tree trunk across a river to make it easier to get across.

The built environment encompasses much of what defines modern civilization. Buildings and
bridges are often the first constructions that come to mind, as they are the most conspicuous
creations of structural engineering, one of civil engineering's major sub-disciplines. Roads,
railroads, subway systems, and airports are designed by transportation engineers, another
category of civil engineering. And then there are the less visible creations of civil engineers.
Every time you open a water faucet, you expect water to come out, without thinking that civil
engineers made it possible. New York City has one of the world’s most impressive water supply
systems, receiving billions of gallons of high-quality water from the Catskills over one hundred
miles away. Similarly, not many people seem to worry about what happens to the water after it
has served its purposes. The old civil engineering discipline of sanitary engineering has evolved
into modern environmental engineering of such significance that most academic departments
have changed their names to civil and environmental engineering.

These few examples illustrate that civil engineers do a lot more than design buildings and
bridges. They can be found in the aerospace industry, designing jetliners and space stations; in
the automotive industry, perfecting the load-carrying capacity of a chassis and improving the
crashworthiness of bumpers and doors; and they can be found in the ship building industry, the
power industry, and many other industries wherever constructed facilities are involved. And they
plan and oversee the construction of these facilities as construction managers.

Civil engineering is an exciting profession because at the end of the day you can see the results
of your work, whether this is a completed bridge, a high-rise building, a subway station, or a
hydroelectric dam.

• In the beginning, Civil Engineering included all engineers that did not practice military
engineering; said to have begun in 18th century France.

• First “Civil Engineer” was an Englishman, John Smeaton in 1761.

• Civil engineers have saved more lives than all the doctors in history — development of clean
water and sanitation systems.

• Henry H. White, first KY Civil Engineering Graduate from Bacon (Georgetown) College in
1840.

• Fall of 1886, “State College” (UK) established civil engineering degree.

• John Wesley Gunn of Lexington received first Civil Engineering degree from A & M College
(UK) in 1890.
ORIGINS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Civil engineering has evolved tremendously in aspects relating to building, designing and
maintaining the world’s built and natural environments. Historically, the term ‘civil engineering’
did not exist. It is only recently that engineers whose duties were civil and non- military were
categorized as civil engineers to differentiate them from military engineers. A military engineer
is one who makes ‘machines of war’. In ancient times the bridge, waterways, fortifications and
machines of war were all projects also projects undertaken by the military engineer. Kings,
Queens, Emperors or Pharaohs required these military building services from their engineers in
order to build massive structures that created a powerful and imposing image of themselves. This
was the ultimate form of self-promotion. The reason the ‘civil’ and ‘military’ engineers were
grouped as one, was because the techniques of designing these projects were similar and one
who worked on military construction projects also worked on civil projects. Also the structures
such as roads, dams, buildings and bridges facilitated for the military agendas of certain rulers.
Definitely, before the term civil engineer was coined, civil engineers were in existence.
Millennia ago when the pyramids of the Mayan and Egyptian empires were building pyramids,
the people designing and supervising the construction of the pyramids must have been an
engineer. Certainly, those endowed with the responsibility of devising ways to solve the day to
day problems of construction, transportation, water irrigation, city planning were engineers. The
engineers of the past often worked on technical problems of their day by using mechanics,
available materials and technicians of the day and often worked in areas that ranged from
mechanical, military inventions to architecture, which involved the design of aesthetic structure
and the overall shape and form of structures.
To Conclude we can say that “Civil Engineering is a Renaissance field that requires the
knowledge of many disciplines. ”
Below we have a list of disciplines one can choose from:

* Bridge Engineering

* Construction engineering

* Environmental engineering

* Fire protection engineering

* Geotechnical engineering
* General engineering

* Hydraulic engineering

* Materials science

* Piles Engineering

* Structural engineering

* Surveying

* Timber Engineering

* Transportation engineering

* Water resources engineering

History of Civil Engineering:

It is difficult to determine the history of emergence and beginning of civil engineering, however, that the history of
civil engineering is a mirror of the history of human beings on this earth. Man used the old shelter caves to protect
themselves of weather and harsh environment, and used a tree trunk to cross the river, which being the
demonstration of ancient age civil engineering.

Civil Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human
existence. The earliest practices of Civil engg may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the
construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of
the wheel and sailing.

Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engg and architecture, and the term engineer and
architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably. The
construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure
constructions.

Around 2550 BC, Imhotep, the first documented engineer, built a

famous stepped pyramid for King Djoser located at Saqqara Necropolis. With simple tools and mathematics he
created a monument that stands to this day. His greatest contribution to engineering was his discovery of the art of
building with shaped stones. Those who followed him carried engineering to remarkable heights using skill and
imagination.

Ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the oldest older than
3000 years and longer than 71 km,) the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), the Appian Way by
Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T’ien under orders from Ch’in Emperor Shih
Huang Ti (c. 220 BC) and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive
irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including
especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.

Other remarkable historical structures are Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan built in 691 BC; Li Ping's irrigation
projects in China (around 220 BC); Julius Caesar's Bridge over the Rhine River built in 55 BC, numerous bridges built
by other Romans in and around Rome(e.g. the pons Fabricius); Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct, Nimes, France) built
in 19 BC; the extensive system of highways the Romans built to facilitate trading and (more importantly) fast
manoeuvring of legions; extensive irrigation system constructed by the Hohokam Indians, Salt River, AZ around 600
AD; first dykes defending against high water in Friesland, The Netherlands around 1000 AD; El Camino Real - The
Royal Road, Eastern Branch, TX and Western Branch, NM (1500s AD).

Machu Picchu, Peru, built at around 1450, at the height of the Inca
Empire is considered an engineering marvel. It was built in the Andes Mountains assisted by some of history’s most
ingenious water resource engineers. The people of Machu Picchu built a mountain top city with running water,
drainage systems, food production and stone structures so advanced that they endured for over 500years.

A treatise on Architecture, Book called Vitruvius' De Archiectura, was published at 1AD in Rome
and survived to give us a look at engineering education in ancient times. It was probably written around 15 BC by the
Roman architect Vitruvius and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus, as a guide for building projects.

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans,
such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and
seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in
scale were incremental.

One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil
engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our
understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes’ screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian
mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume)
computations.

Educational & Institutional history of civil engineering

In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military
engineering. The first engineering school, The National School of Bridges and Highways, France, was opened in 1747.
The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse. In 1771,
Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the
profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more
than a social society.

In 1818, world’s first engineering society, the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in
London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal
Charter in 1828, formally recognizing civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as: “Civil
engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in
understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging
profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures,
material science, geography, geology, soil, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.”
The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by
Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to
Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.
- See more at: http://www.thecivilengg.com/History.php#sthash.BbD86z1n.dpuf

Boston's Big Dig presented geotechnical challenges in an urban environment.

Structural engineering deals with the making of complex systems like the International Space
Station, seen here from the departing Space Shuttle Atlantis.

Structural engineers investigating NASA's Mars-bound spacecraft, the Phoenix Mars Lander

The Eiffel Tower is a historical achievement of structural engineering.

Structural engineering deals with the making of complex systems like theInternational Space Station, seen here
from the departing Space ShuttleAtlantis.
Structural engineers investigating NASA's Mars-
bound spacecraft, thePhoenix Mars Lander

The Eiffel Tower is a historical achievement of structural engineering.

The engineering of this roundabout in Bristol, England, attempts to make traffic flow free-
moving

View from Church Span Bridge, Bern,Switzerland

Riprap lining a lake shore

UNESCO – EOLSS SAMPLE CHAPTERS CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Civil Engineering - Kiyoshi Horikawa
©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) CIVIL ENGINEERING Kiyoshi Horikawa Musashi Institute
of Technology, Tokyo, University of Tokyo, and Saitama University, Japan Keywords: Architecture, civil
engineer, civilization, Club of Rome, cultural heritage, disaster prevention, design code and manual,
engineering profession, ethics, environmental assessment, environmental problem, feasibility study,
global greenhouse effect, GPS (Global Positioning System), Industrial Revolution, infrastructure system,
information technology, ITS (Intelligent Transport System), licensing, military engineering, mean sea
level rise, professional engineer, pollution problem, remote sensing, satellite, sustainable development.
Contents 1. Introduction 2. Historical Background of Civil Engineering 3. Functions of Civil Engineering 4.
Social Development Of Civil Engineering 5. Prospects for the Twenty-First Century Appendix: Content of
Handbook of Civil Engineering Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketch Summary Civil engineering is
the oldest of the engineering specialties, and its main task is to perform civil works in order to make the
properties of matter and the sources of energy in nature useful to people. The advancement of civil
engineering has, therefore, been closely related to that of civilization. In this article, human activities on
the earth from ancient times to the present are briefly reviewed first, and then the history of the
process to establish the civil engineering discipline is discussed for better understanding of the
important role that civil engineering has played in the growth of a mature society, from both
technological and social points of view. Broad diversification of civil engineering has resulted from the
enormous expansion of society during the latter half of the twentieth century. The various branches are
briefly described to show the notable characters that civil engineering has formed to maintain the
sustainable development of society. In the final part of this article, the prospects of civil engineering in
the twentyfirst century is discussed. 1. Introduction The aim of this article is to outline the discipline of
civil engineering to readers who are not familiar with this field of engineering. Civil engineering is truly
the oldest of engineering specialties and is concerned with public undertaking. In addition, the
engineering profession itself has an extremely long history of development and has been UNESCO –
EOLSS SAMPLE CHAPTERS CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Civil Engineering - Kiyoshi Horikawa
©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) associated with the civilizations established throughout
history from ancient times to the present. Thus, the term “engineer” was long been recognized as a
person who builds various facilities and structures to satisfy the needs of human activities, including
military operations. People have accumulated broad experience and knowledge, and based on this, they
have established a number of techniques to improve their lifestyle over several thousands of years. The
adopted technique was gradually refined to the engineering discipline by applying the advanced
achievement in science and mathematics to various practical applications. Thus, engineering is defined
as the discipline in which science and mathematics are applied for the control and use of the material
and power in nature for people. The subjects concerned are: building structures, machines, numerous
products, systems, and processes. Engineering is one of the oldest professions in the world, and was
traditionally classified into the following four primary disciplines: civil engineering, mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering, and chemical engineering. In ancient as well as medieval times, as
military activities were extremely important to protect any state, engineering technology was
enthusiastically applied to construct structures such as fortresses, roads, bridges, and tunnels. That is
why the title of “engineer” was used only for military engineers for a long time. In an old English
dictionary, one may find the word “engineer” defined as “a soldier formerly engaged in siege work, but
now having the job of ensuring that military vehicles can move quickly and easily across country by
building roads, bridges, tunnels, etc.” That is to say, in those days military engineers had far more
technical knowledge than others. In the eighteenth century the term “civil engineering” was used first to
distinguish the newly-recognized profession from military engineering. It is well known that John
Smeaton, who was the builder of the Eddystone lighthouse near Plymouth, England, called himself a civil
engineer to differentiate himself from the “military engineer”. The profession of civil engineering is thus
as old as civilization itself, in a broad sense. In the following section, the fact that civil engineering is the
oldest engineering discipline is elaborated. In section 3, the function of civil engineering is discussed,
and in section 4, social development of civil engineering, such as education systems, licensing, and civil
engineering societies are described. Finally, in section 5, discussion is directed to the considerations that
need to be kept in mind in the twenty-first century in order to maintaining sustainable development of
the earth, in particular as it relates to global environmental issues. 2. Historical Background of Civil
Engineering Since human beings appeared on the earth, they survived the severe natural environment
by securing food, clothing, and shelter, and gradually improved their ways of living to become more
comfortable. Generation after generation, people accumulated their experience and improved their
skills, step by step, to establish it as technology. They then kept refining their technology to engineering
in general practices by applying the science and mathematics that was available at that time. UNESCO –
EOLSS SAMPLE CHAPTERS CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Civil Engineering - Kiyoshi Horikawa
©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) The following sections describe the process through
which civil engineering emerged from engineering in general as an independent profession. From this
review, characteristics of civil engineering should become evident. 2.1. Engineering in General From
ancient times people devoted great efforts to constructing various facilities and structures to make their
living conditions safer and more effective. This practice kept improving their skill during a tremendously
long period of time, and the techniques they learned were applied to numerous projects in other
regions of ancient civilizations. We can now visit and enjoy a number of sites of cultural heritage in the
world that, fortunately, have survived to the present. In the following, several well-known works will be
described. In ancient Egypt the Great Pyramid at Giza was constructed in about 2600 B.C. with 2.3
million stone blocks that weigh an average of over 1.5 tonnes each. The height and the base length of
the pyramid are 146.6m and 230m, respectively. This magnificent construction project was made
possible only with the full use of astronomical and other survey technology. The Great Wall in China is
another spectacular heritage site. The total length of the wall is at present about 2,250km, and the
construction project was initiated by Shih-hung-ti, the first emperor of China, in 214 B.C. by connecting
the walls that existed at that time. The main purpose of this big wall construction was to protect the
state against possible invasion by mounted troops through the state’s northern border. There are many
other sites of heritage that can be mentioned, such as the Parthenon in Greece, constructed in 438 B.C.;
the Roman road built about 310 B.C.; the Pont du Gard, a three-layer arch bridge for the Aqueduct of
Nemausus, in France, constructed in about 15 B.C.; the Colosseum in Rome constructed in 80 A.D.; and
the Great Canal in China completed in 610 A.D. connecting several big rivers such as the Yellow River
and the Yangtze River. As explained in the introduction section above, ancient technology was refined to
engineering with utilization of the results of science and mathematics. However, in medieval times,
engineers were isolated from academic advancement, and they had to work by trial and error. This
period is thus regarded as a kind of dark period for the engineering profession. In ancient and medieval
times military engineers were specialists in attacking or defending castles and the like with the use of
numerous devices. Those military engineers had access to the then most advanced technical knowledge,
which could be applied to public works in peaceful times. That is why only military engineers were called
engineers for a long time. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) described himself as an excellent military
engineer in his letter of introduction to the duke of Milan. Progress in technology bred engineering with
the introduction of scientific and mathematical knowledge. Thus engineering may be defined as a
discipline where UNESCO – EOLSS SAMPLE CHAPTERS CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Civil Engineering -
Kiyoshi Horikawa ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) sciences and mathematics are applied
for practical needs. Later numerous engineering fields have sprouted alongside those of social
development. 2.2. Civil Engineering as the Oldest Engineering Discipline From the earliest times,
engineering works related to both military operations and peaceful activities had been mostly civil
works. The beginning of civil engineering as a separate discipline may be traced back to the foundation
of the Bridge and Highway Corps in France in 1716. From this corps the École National des Ponts et
Chaussées (the National School of Bridges and Highways) grew in 1747. The oldest of the four primary
and main engineering disciplines is civil engineering, which was developed as a profession from the
techniques used in the ancient world. It is concerned with designing, site preparations, and construction
of all types of structures and facilities, such as bridges, roads, tunnels, harbors, and airfields. The term
“civil engineer” did not come into use until about 1750, when John Smeaton, the builder of the
Eddystone lighthouse near Plymouth, England, is said to have started calling himself a civil engineer to
distinguish himself from the military engineers of his time. However, the real profession, which is now
called civil engineering, is really as old as civilization itself. 3. Functions of Civil Engineering Civil
engineering is a form of human activity that has been pursued ever since people first wanted to change
the natural environment for their own benefit. It was well described by Thomas Tredgold in 1829 when
the Institution of Civil Engineers in Great Britain applied for its Charter: That species of knowledge which
constitutes the profession of a civil engineer; being the art of directing the great sources of power in
nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states both for
external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river
navigation and docks, for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbors,
moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of
commerce, and in the construction and adaptation of machinery and in the drainage of city and towns.
(Thomas Tredgold, 1829) Of course, added to the above there are particular forms of construction that
serve modern needs, such as airports, highways, dams, tunnels, and power stations of various types, but
these are minor refinements of the general theme of civil engineer as the creator of physical
infrastructure on which any level of civilization depends. Civil engineering, the oldest of engineering
specialties, is concerned with civil works or public works, including building construction, and consists of
several separate specializations, as explained later. The function of civil engineers can be divided into
the following three categories, depending on the steps in construction practice: those performed before
construction, during construction, and after construction. In the first step feasibility studies, site
investigation, and design works are carried out in order to make sure that the proposed project is
meaningful and executable. In the second step, UNESCO – EOLSS SAMPLE CHAPTERS CIVIL ENGINEERING
– Vol. I - Civil Engineering - Kiyoshi Horikawa ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) which is the
main part of the project, closer co-operation among clients, consulting engineers, and contractors is
extremely important to complete the construction projects successfully. Finally, in the third step, it is,
needless to say, extremely important that maintenance effort is applied to keep the structures alive, in
the sense of function as well as physical quality. In addition to these three categories, investigation
activities and/or research are also important to solve not only the practical problems encountered
during the course of construction works, but also to gain more advanced knowledge on design and
execution of construction. The profession of civil engineering can be divided into three broad categories:
consulting, contracting, and government (or municipal) engineering. Civil engineering itself consists of
several distinct specializations, such as structures, construction, foundation, transportation, sanitation,
and hydraulics. Nowadays, specialization of civil engineering discipline is becoming broader to include
areas such as planning and management, remote sensing, landscape, environment, energy facilities,
water management, and infrastructure systems, including national and regional planning, urban
planning, telecommunication systems, and disaster prevention systems. - - - TO ACCESS ALL THE 22
PAGES OF THIS CHAPTER, Visit: http://www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleAllChapter.aspx Bibliography
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 2000. Official Register. Reston, Va., ASCE. Brown, L. R. 2000.
State of the World 2000. Washington, D.C., World Watch Institute. [This is the annual report on bird’s-
eye views of the global environment.] Goda, Y. 1996. Civil Engineering and Civilization [in Japanese].
Tokyo, Kashima Publishing Co. 334p Heibonsha’s World Encyclopedia. 1988. Vols 9 & 20 [in Japanese].
Tokyo, Heibonsha. Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE). ICE web site: http://www.icenet.org.uk. Japan
Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE). 1989. Handbook of Civil Engineering, Vols 1 & 2 [in Japanese]. Tokyo,
JSCE. ––––. 1994. Eighty Years of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers [in Japanese]. Tokyo, JSCE. ––––.
1999. The Membership List of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers [in Japanese]. Tokyo, JSCE. New
Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1994. Vols 3 & 18. 15th edn. Chicago, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. Shabecoff,
P. 1993. A Fierce Green Fire: The American Environment Movement. New York, Hill and Wang. 352 pp.
[This book is a history of the US environmental movement written by a leading journalist.] UNESCO –
EOLSS SAMPLE CHAPTERS CIVIL ENGINEERING – Vol. I - Civil Engineering - Kiyoshi Horikawa
©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) The New Encyclopedia Americana. 1996. Vols 6 & 10.
International edn. Danbury, CA., Grolier Incorporated. Biographical Sketch Kiyoshi Horikawa is President,
Musashi Institute of Technology, and Professor Emeritus, the University of Tokyo and Saitama
University, Japan. He was born in 1927 in Tokyo and received his higher education at the University of
Tokyo. He then took the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor in Engineering in 1952 and 1964, respectively.
In 1954 he was appointed Assistant Professor at the University of Tokyo, and became Associate
Professor and Professor at the same institution in 1955 and 1967, respectively. After his retirement in
1988, he continued his work at Saitama University until February 1992. He has taken various posts
successively, including Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, the University of Tokyo, 1984–6; President of
JSCE, 1989–90; and President of Saitama University, 1992–8. In addition, he became President, Musashi
Institute of Technology in 1998. His specialty is coastal engineering. His major interests are wave
motions, including storm surges and tsunamis, nearshore currents, coastal sediment, and coastal
environment protection. He has published over 100 papers and twenty-eight reference books. He has
worked as a Visiting Professor in the United States, Germany, and China. He has received a number of
honors and awards, including JSCE Award, 1969; International Coastal Engineering Award, ASCE, 1981;
Prime Minister’s Medal for Cultural Contribution (Japan) (known as the Purple Ribbon Award), 1993;
National Citation for Cultural Contributions (Japan), 1999, and others.