Final Drainage Design Manual

RWANDA DEVELOPMENT TRANSPORT AGENCY
(RTDA)
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
DRAFT, NOVEMBER 2014
Submitted by:
RWANDA DEVELOPMENT TRANSPORT AGENCY
(RTDA)
_________
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
DRAFT
NOVEMBER 2014
Rwanda Transport Development Agency (RTDA) Drainage Design Manual
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................vi

List of Figures ..................................................................................................................vii
Abbreviations ................................................................................................................ viii
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1-1
2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations ................................................... 2-1
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 General................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.3 Flow Classification ............................................................................................... 2-1
2.4 Definitions ........................................................................................................... 2-1
2.5 Basic Principles .................................................................................................... 2-3
2.5.1 Continuity Equation ..................................................................................... 2-3
2.5.2 Energy Equation .......................................................................................... 2-4
2.5.3 Momentum Equation ................................................................................... 2-6
2.6 Weirs and Orifices ................................................................................................ 2-6
2.6.1 Weirs ........................................................................................................... 2-6
2.6.2 Orifices ........................................................................................................ 2-7
2.7 Open-Channel Flow ............................................................................................. 2-8
2.7.1 Flow Classification ...................................................................................... 2-8
2.7.2 Manning's Equation ..................................................................................... 2-9
2.7.3 Froude Number ...........................................................................................2-12
2.7.4 Specific Energy Diagram and Evaluation of Critical Depth .........................2-13
2.7.5 Critical, Subcritical, and Supercritical Flow ................................................2-15
2.8 Closed-Conduit .................................................................................................. 2-16
2.8.1 Types of Flow in Closed Conduits ..............................................................2-16
2.8.2 Energy Equation .........................................................................................2-17
3 Design Flow Considerations ........................................................................................ 3-1
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1.1 Average Recurrence Interval (ARI).............................................................. 3-1
3.1.2 Exceedance Probability ................................................................................ 3-1
3.2 Design Flows ....................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.1 General ........................................................................................................ 3-2
3.2.2 Minor and Major Drainage Systems ............................................................. 3-3
3.2.3 Selection of Design Average Recurrence Interval ........................................ 3-3
3.2.4 Environmental Impact.................................................................................. 3-4
4 Estimation of Design Flow for Ungauged Catchments ................................................. 4-1
4.1 General................................................................................................................. 4-1
4.2 Design Flow ......................................................................................................... 4-1
4.3 Time of Concentration .......................................................................................... 4-1
4.3.1 Kerby-Kirpich Method................................................................................. 4-3
4.3.2 The Kerby Method....................................................................................... 4-4
4.3.3 The Kirpich Method .................................................................................... 4-5
Table of Contents i
4.3.4 Application of the Kerby-Kirpich Method.................................................... 4-5

4.3.5 Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Method for Estimating Tc 4-6
4.3.6 Sheet Flow Time Calculation ....................................................................... 4-7
4.3.7 Shallow Concentrated Flow ......................................................................... 4-8
4.3.8 Channel Flow .............................................................................................. 4-8
4.3.9 Manning’s Roughness Coefficient Values .................................................... 4-9
4.4 Design Rainfall Intensity .................................................................................... 4-10
4.4.1 Areal Reduction Factor ...............................................................................4-12
4.4.2 Rainfall Excess ...........................................................................................4-12
4.4.3 Runoff Coefficient Rational Method ...........................................................4-13
4.4.4 Modified Rational Method (Storage Coefficient) ........................................4-14
4.4.5 Time Area Method......................................................................................4-15
4.4.6 Effects of Basin Characteristics on Runoff ..................................................4-16
4.5 Estimation of Runoff .......................................................................................... 4-18
4.5.1 General .......................................................................................................4-18
4.5.2 Rational Method .........................................................................................4-19
4.5.3 Modified Rational Method ..........................................................................4-20
4.5.4 SCS Rainfall Runoff Relation .....................................................................4-20
4.5.5 Limitations of the SCS Runoff Curve Number Method (SCS, 1986) ...........4-24
4.5.6 Design of Drainage in Built up Areas ..........................................................4-25
4.6 Local Flood Observation Flood History .............................................................. 4-25
5 Unit Hydrograph Method............................................................................................. 5-1
5.1 General................................................................................................................. 5-1
5.2 SCS Unit Hydrograph Method.............................................................................. 5-4
5.2.1 SCS Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph .......................................................... 5-4
5.2.2 Peak Discharge of the Unit Hydrograph ....................................................... 5-8
5.2.3 Convolution ................................................................................................. 5-9
5.3 TRRL East African Flood Model.......................................................................... 5-9
5.3.1 Form of Model............................................................................................. 5-9
5.3.2 Initial Retention (Y) ....................................................................................5-10
5.3.3 Contributing Area Coefficient (CA) ............................................................5-10
5.3.4 Catchment Lag Time (K) ............................................................................5-11
5.3.5 Base Time...................................................................................................5-11
6 Frequency Analysis of Gauged Data ............................................................................ 6-1
6.1 General................................................................................................................. 6-1
6.2 Analysis of Annual and Partial-Duration Series .................................................... 6-1
6.3 Frequency Analysis Concepts ............................................................................... 6-2
6.3.1 Plotting Position Formulas ........................................................................... 6-2
6.3.2 Log-Pearson Type III Distribution ............................................................... 6-3
6.3.3 Outliers ........................................................................................................ 6-3
6.3.4 Incomplete Records and Zero Flows ............................................................ 6-4
7 Detention Basin Design ............................................................................................... 7-1
7.1 General................................................................................................................. 7-1
Table of Contents ii
7.2 Retention Facilities ............................................................................................... 7-2

7.3 Detention Facilities .............................................................................................. 7-2
7.4 Storage Location and Size .................................................................................... 7-2
7.4.1 Location ...................................................................................................... 7-2
7.4.2 Size ............................................................................................................. 7-2
7.5 Triangular Hydrograph Method ............................................................................ 7-3
7.6 Stage Discharge Relationship ............................................................................... 7-3
7.7 Estimating Peak Flow Reduction (Routing Procedure).......................................... 7-4
7.8 Muskingum-Cunge Flood Routing Method........................................................... 7-5
8 Pavement Drainage ...................................................................................................... 8-1
8.1 General................................................................................................................. 8-1
8.2 Design Frequency and Spread .............................................................................. 8-2
8.2.1 Selection of Design Frequency and Design Spread....................................... 8-2
8.2.2 Selection of Check Storm and Spread .......................................................... 8-4
8.3 Surface Drainage .................................................................................................. 8-4
8.3.1 Hydroplaning ............................................................................................... 8-4
8.3.2 Longitudinal Slope ...................................................................................... 8-5
8.3.3 Cross (transverse) Slope .............................................................................. 8-6
8.3.4 Curb and Gutter ........................................................................................... 8-6
8.4 Flow in Gutters..................................................................................................... 8-7
8.4.1 Capacity Relationship .................................................................................8-10
8.4.2 Relative Flow Capacities ............................................................................8-11
8.4.3 Bridge Decks ..............................................................................................8-13
8.5 Inlets – Characteristics and Uses......................................................................... 8-13
8.5.1 Slotted Inlets ...............................................................................................8-15
8.5.2 Grate Inlets .................................................................................................8-15
8.5.3 Curb-opening ..............................................................................................8-15
8.5.4 Combination Inlets .....................................................................................8-15
8.6 Drainage Inlet Design ......................................................................................... 8-15
8.6.1 Curb-Opening Inlets ...................................................................................8-15
8.6.2 Inlet Locations ............................................................................................8-17
9 Culvert Design............................................................................................................. 9-1
9.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 9-1
9.1.1 Definition .................................................................................................... 9-1
9.1.2 Concepts ...................................................................................................... 9-1
9.1.3 Urban and Rural Road Drainage .................................................................. 9-2
9.2 Culvert Types ....................................................................................................... 9-3
9.2.1 Pipe Culverts ............................................................................................... 9-4
9.2.2 Box Culverts ................................................................................................ 9-5
9.2.3 Bottomless Culverts ..................................................................................... 9-6
9.3 End Structures ...................................................................................................... 9-6
9.3.1 Flare Angle of Wing Walls .......................................................................... 9-6
9.4 Effects of Scour.................................................................................................... 9-6
Table of Contents iii

9.4.1 Effects on Culverts ...................................................................................... 9-6

9.4.2 Effects at Bridge Sites.................................................................................. 9-6
9.4.3 Protection of Culverts Against Scour ........................................................... 9-7
9.5 Design Guidelines ................................................................................................ 9-7
9.5.1 Design Flood Frequency .............................................................................. 9-7
9.5.2 Allowable Headwater .................................................................................. 9-7
9.5.3 Tailwater Relationship ................................................................................. 9-8
9.5.4 Maximum Outlet Velocity/Energy Dissipaters ............................................. 9-8
9.5.5 Minimum Velocity ...................................................................................... 9-9
9.5.6 Minimum Required Cover and Clearances ................................................... 9-9
9.5.7 Improved Inlets............................................................................................ 9-9
9.5.8 Culvert Extensions ....................................................................................... 9-9
9.5.9 Channel Changes ......................................................................................... 9-9
9.5.10 Fall .............................................................................................................. 9-9
9.5.11 Inlet Control Calculations ...........................................................................9-10
9.5.12 Outlet Control Calculations.........................................................................9-13
9.5.13 Outlet Velocity ...........................................................................................9-17
9.5.14 Roadway Overtopping ................................................................................9-18
9.5.15 Performance Curves....................................................................................9-19
9.6 Design Data Required......................................................................................... 9-20
9.6.1 Information Required ..................................................................................9-20
9.6.2 Topographic Survey Requirements .............................................................9-21
9.7 AASHTO Design Procedure............................................................................... 9-21
10 Bridge Hydrology .......................................................................................................10-1
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 10-1
10.2 Hydraulic Design Criteria ................................................................................... 10-2
10.2.1 General Criteria ..........................................................................................10-2
10.2.2 Specific Criteria ..........................................................................................10-2
10.2.3 Design Frequencies and Freeboards ............................................................10-5
10.2.4 Backwater...................................................................................................10-7
10.2.5 Flow Velocities ...........................................................................................10-8
10.2.6 Bridge Scour...............................................................................................10-9
10.2.7 Bridge Abutment Protection........................................................................10-9
10.2.8 Guide Banks (Spur Dikes) ........................................................................10-10
10.2.9 Longitudinal Roadway Encroachments .....................................................10-10
10.2.10 Modeling Floodplain Constrictions/Obstructions and Abnormal Flood Stage
Conditions ................................................................................................10-10
10.3 Design Data Required....................................................................................... 10-11
10.3.1 Required Data from Project Manager ........................................................10-11
10.3.2 Other Plans, Reports and Miscellaneous Data ...........................................10-12
10.3.3 Computer Models .....................................................................................10-12
10.3.4 The Internet ..............................................................................................10-13
10.4 Design Methods/Procedures – Hydraulic and Hydrological Studies .................. 10-13
Table of Contents iv
10.4.1 Methods/Procedures – All Riverine Bridge Projects ..................................10-13

10.4.2 Bridge Hydraulic Design Criteria ..............................................................10-17
10.4.3 Bridge Widenings and Parallelings ........................................................... 10-17
10.4.4 Box Culverts ............................................................................................. 10-18
10.4.5 Scour Analysis ..........................................................................................10-18
10.4.6 Relief/Overflow Structures .......................................................................10-18
10.4.7 Cost Analysis ............................................................................................10-19
10.4.8 Risk Assessment .......................................................................................10-19
10.4.9 Channel Changes ......................................................................................10-19
10.4.10 Wetlands/Environmental Concerns ...........................................................10-19
11 References ...............................................................................................................11-1
Appendix A Frequency Factors (K) for the Log Pearsons Type III Distributions
Appendix B Pipe Design Charts
Appendix C Manning's n Factors, Entrance Loss Coefficients, and Culvert Design Form
Table of Contents v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Manning's Roughness Coefficients for Various Boundaries ................................. 2-10
Table 2.1 Manning's Roughness Coefficients for Various Boundaries (Continued) ............. 2-11
Table 3.1 Probability That an Event of a Given Recurrence Interval will be Equaled or
Exceeded During Periods of Various Lengths (Computed Employing Eqn. 3.1) 3-2
Table 3.2 Design Average Recurrence Intervals for Flood/Storm (Yrs) by Geometric Design 3-4
Table 4.1 Alternate Time of Concentration Calculation Methods .......................................... 4-3
Table 4.2 Kerby Equation Retardance Coefficient Values ..................................................... 4-5
Table 4.3 Overland Flow Roughness Coefficients for Use in NRCS Method in Calculating
Sheet Flow Travel Time (Not Manning’s Roughness Coefficient) (NRCS 1986) .. 4-8
Table 4.4 Manning's Roughness Coefficient for Overland Sheet Flow ................................ 4-10
Table 4.5 Typical Values of Rational Coefficients for Urban Areas .................................... 4-13
Table 4.6 Typical Values of Rational Coefficients for Rural Areas ..................................... 4-14
Table 4.7 Runoff Curve numbers for Hydrologic Soil Cover Complexes (Antecedent
Moisture Condition II, and Ia = 0.2S).................................................................. 4-22
Table 5.1 Ratio of Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph and Mass Curve .................................... 5-7
Table 5.2 Standard Contributing Area Coefficient (Wet Zone Catchment,
Short Grass Cover) .............................................................................................. 5-10
Table 5.3 Catchment Wetness Factor .................................................................................. 5-10
Table 5.4 Land Use Factor (Base assumes short grass cover) .............................................. 5-11
Table 5.5 Catchment Lag Time ........................................................................................... 5-11
Table 5.6 Rainfall Time (TP) for East African 10 year Storm.............................................. 5-12
Table 7.1 Example Inflow and Outflow Hydrograph for Muskingum-Cunge
Routing Method .................................................................................................... 7-8
Table 8.1 Suggested Minimum Design Frequency and Spread .............................................. 8-3
Table 8.2 Manning’s n for Gutter or Pavement Types ......................................................... 8-10
Table 9.1 Pipe Culvert End Treatments ................................................................................. 9-5
Table of Contents vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Sketch of Continuity Concept............................................................................... 2-4

Figure 2.2 Pen-channel Flow................................................................................................. 2-5
Figure 2.3 Closed-conduit flow ............................................................................................. 2-5
Figure 2.4 Weir Types .......................................................................................................... 2-7
Figure 2.5 Orifice ................................................................................................................. 2-8
Figure 2.6 Definition Sketch for Small Amplitude Waves ................................................... 2-13
Figure 2.7 Specific Energy Diagram ................................................................................... 2-15
Figure 4.1 Example Application of Kerby-Kirpich Method ................................................... 4-6
Figure 4.2 Modified Rational Method ................................................................................. 4-14
Figure 4.3 Rainfall Bar Graph and Catchment Showing Isochrones of Travel Time ............ 4-16
Figure 5.1 Components of the Hydrograph Method............................................................... 5-2
Figure 5.2 Steps in developing and applying the hydrograph method .................................... 5-3
Figure 5.3 Log time versus log precipitation depth ................................................................ 5-5
Figure 5.4 Dimensionless Curvilinear Unit Hydrograph and Equivalent
Triangular Hydrograph ........................................................................................ 5-6
Figure 7.1 Typical Detention and Retention Hydrographs ..................................................... 7-1
Figure 7.2 Triangular Hydrograph Method............................................................................ 7-3
Figure 7.3 Example x Schematics of River Reach ................................................................. 7-7
Figure 8.1 Flow in Triangular Gutter Sections (from HEC-12) .............................................. 8-8
Figure 8.2 Flow in Composite gutter Sections (from HEC-12) .............................................. 8-9
Figure 8.3 Relative Effects of Spread, Cross Slope, and Longitudinal Slope on Gutter ........ 8-12
Figure 8.4 Common Inlet Types .......................................................................................... 8-14
Figure 8.5 Slotted Inlets ...................................................................................................... 8-14
Figure 9.1 Unsubmerged, Transition, and Submerged ......................................................... 9-11
Figure 9.2 Unsubmerged ..................................................................................................... 9-11
Figure 9.3 Submerged ......................................................................................................... 9-13
Figure 9.4 Outlet Control Flow, TW>D .............................................................................. 9-14
Figure 9.5 Outlet Control, TW=D ....................................................................................... 9-15
Figure 9.6 Outlet Control, TW < dc .................................................................................... 9-16
Figure 9.7 Outlet Control, TW<dc ...................................................................................... 9-17
Figure 9.8 Outlet Control, TW>dc ...................................................................................... 9-17
Figure 9.9 Overall Performance Curve ................................................................................ 9-20
Table of Contents vii

ABBREVIATIONS
ADT : Average Daily traffic

AEP : Annual Exceedance Probability
ARF : Areal Reduction Factor
ARI : Average Recurrence Interval
ASCE : American Society of Civil Engineers
AVI : Average Recurrence Intervals
CN : Runoff Curve Number
EGL : Energy Grade Line
EV1 : Extreme Value Type 1
FEMA : Federal Emergency Management Agency
FHWA : Federal Highway Administration
HDS : Hydraulic Design Series
HEC : Hydrologic Engineering Center
HGL : Hydraulic Grade Line
IDF : Intensity-Duration-Frequency
LTEC : Least Total Expected Cost
NOAA : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NRCS : US National Resource Conservation Service
PC : Personal Computer
PI : Point of Intersection
PVI : Point of vertical intersection
RNAR : Rwanda natural Resources Authority
ROW : Right Of Way
RTDA : Rwanda Transport Development Agency
SCS : US Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
Tc : Time of Concentration
TRRL : Transport and Road Research Laboratory
U.S. : United States
USDOT : United states Department Of Transportation
USGS : United States Geological Survey
VPD : Vehicle Per Day
Table of Contents viii

1 INTRODUCTION
Traffic and structural safeties of roadways and their surroundings are intimately related to
surface and subsurface drainage. Rapid collection of storm water from the pavement
minimizes the conditions that can result in the hazardous phenomenon of hydroplaning. The
strength of substructures and hence the service period of roads is highly influenced by
intrusion of water. In these regards, provision of well-planned and designed storm water
drainage systems is a basic requirement in almost all road projects. On the other hand, the
high share of cost that the hydraulic and drainage structures associated with road works may
account (up to 20% of the total cost of the road work) in Uganda signifies the attention to be
given to drainage studies and designs.
This manual gives guidance and recommendations to the Engineers responsible for the
design of roads in Rwanda. It complements the Ministry’s efforts in providing guidance to
the construction industry by setting uniform standards to be used in the construction of
infrastructure facilities that meet the needs of the users.
It provides guidance for the planning and design of storm drainage systems which collect,
convey, and discharge storm water flowing within and along a road. It guides professionals
in the planning and design procedures by discussing the various options followed in design.
A number of illustrative examples are presented in the Manual to assist the user in
determining the appropriate steps to be followed in design of the different storm water
drainage components. However, this does not exclude the extra effort to be applied by the
users of this manual to make full-fledged studies and designs as the options available to the
designer are largely dependent upon the types of water courses encountered which, in turn,
are functions of the local conditions.
The Manual is divided into thirteen sections. Section 1 constitutes a brief introduction.
Basic hydraulic principles and concepts are discussed in Section 2 while design flood
considerations are covered under Section 3. Estimation of design flow for un-gauged
catchments is covered under Section 4. Section 5 covers the unit hydrograph method.
Frequency analysis of gauged data is addressed in the sixth Section. Procedures for the
planning and design of detention facilities are covered in section 7. The pavement drainage
is presented in Section 8. Hydraulics of culverts, channel hydraulics and scour protection
are treated in Section 9. Finally Section 10 covers the hydraulic design of bridges.
Further, this Manual is a technical document, which, by its very nature, requires periodic
updating from time to time arising from the dynamic technological developments and
changes. The Ministry, therefore, welcomes proposals on areas for further development and
revision stemming from the actual field experience and practice. It is hoped that the
comments will contribute to future revisions of the Manual expected to lead to better and
more economical designs.
This manual contains design theories, concepts, manuals, guidelines, and procedures in a
condensed format for use by the designer. Where appropriate, guides published by the
American Association of Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), including
Hydraulic Design Guides, are included and/or referenced. The manual has been developed
to provide a basic understanding of hydrology and hydraulics. It includes example problems
and all basic design elements so that the designer can design highway drainage elements
with minimal assistance. However, this manual is not intended to be a complete guide to all
hydrologic or hydraulic problems encountered and it does not provide guidance on complex
issues regarding those problems. Each design project is unique and this manual should not
Chapter 1 Introduction 1-1

be used as a substitute for experience and the good, sound engineering judgment that comes
with experience. The manual provides procedures for analyzing and designing effective
highway drainage facilities.
Conventions and Assumptions This manual assumes that hydraulic designers have access
to programmable calculators, computer spreadsheets, and specific hydraulic computer
programs.
Adequate drainage is essential in the design of highways since it affects the highway’s
serviceability and usable life, including the pavement’s structural strength. If ponding on the
traveled way occurs, hydroplaning becomes an important safety concern. Drainage design
involves providing facilities that collect, transport and remove storm water from the
highway. The design must also consider the storm water reaching the roadway embankment
through natural stream flow or manmade ditches.
The manual has been developed to give the designer a basic working knowledge of
hydraulics complete with example problems. All basic design elements are included such
that the designer can design highway drainage with minimal assistance. However, this
manual cannot provide guidance on complex hydrologic or hydraulic problems and is no
substitute for experience or engineering judgment. References to specific computer
programs, AASHTO guidelines, manuals and regulations will be noted within the manual. It
is expected that the designer will be knowledgeable in the use of the referenced items, since
the units shown in the Manual are typically in Imperial units and that the user will be able to
convert to SI as necessary.
Chapter 1 Introduction 1-2

2 BASIC HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS, AND EQUATIONS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Basic concepts and general equations for open-channel and closed-conduit flow will be
briefly discussed. Since these discussions will be elementary in nature and not include the
derivation of any of the equations, see many applied hydraulic textbooks or highway
publications for additional information.
2.2 GENERAL
The design of drainage structures requires the use of the continuity, energy and momentum
equations. From these fundamental equations other equations are derived by a combination
of mathematics, laboratory experiments and field studies. Open-channel flow and closed
conduits flowing full are analyzed using different formulations of these equations.
Compared to closed conduits flowing full, open-channel flow is complicated by the
presence of a free surface. Accordingly, a closed-conduit flowing partially full is analyzed
as open-channel flow because of the free surface. Another complexity in open-channel flow
is introduced when the bed of the stream or conduit is composed of natural material such as
sand, gravel, boulders or rock that is movable. In the following sections, the fundamental
equations, derived equations and definitions of terms will be given.
2.3 FLOW CLASSIFICATION
Flow can be classified as: (1) uniform or nonuniform flow; (2) steady or unsteady flow; (3)
laminar or turbulent flow; and (4) subcritical (tranquil) or supercritical (rapid) flow. In
uniform flow, the depth, discharge, and velocity remain constant with respect to distance. In
steady flow, no change occurs with respect to time at a given point. Subcritical flow is
distinguished from supercritical flow by a dimensionless number called the Froude Number,
Fr. If Fr < 1, the flow is subcritical; if Fr > 1, the flow is supercritical, and if Fr = 1, the
flow is called critical. These and other terms will be more fully explained in the following
sections.
2.4 DEFINITIONS
Discharge: The quantity of water moving past a given plane (cross section) in a given
unit of time. Units are cubic feet per second, (ft3/s). The plane or cross
section must be perpendicular to the velocity vector.
Velocity: The time rate of movement of a water particle from one point to another.
The units are meters per second, feet per second (ft/s). Velocity is a vector
quantity which has magnitude and direction.
Streamline: An imaginary line within the flow that is everywhere tangent to the
velocity vector.
Acceleration: Acceleration is the time rate of change in magnitude or direction of the
velocity vector. Units are feet per second per second (ft/s2). It is a vector
quantity. Acceleration has components both tangential and normal to the
streamline, the tangential component embodying the change in magnitude
of the velocity, and the normal component reflecting a change in direction.
Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-1

Uniform flow: In uniform flow the velocity of the flow does not change with distance.
Examples are flow in a straight pipe of uniform cross section flowing full
or flow in a straight open channel with constant slope and all cross sections
of identical form, roughness and area, resulting in a constant mean
velocity. Uniform flow conditions are rarely attained in open channels, but
the error in assuming uniform flow in a channel of fairly constant slope
and cross section is small in comparison to the error in determining the
design discharge.
Normal depth: The depth that water flows in uniform flow.
Nonuniform flow: In nonuniform flow, the velocity of flow changes in magnitude or direction
or both with distance. Changes occurring over long distances are classified
as gradually varied flow. Changes occurring over short distances are
classified as rapidly varied flow. Examples are flow around a bend or flow
in expansions or contractions.
Steady flow: Point or cross section does not change with time.
Unsteady flow: In unsteady flow, the velocity at a point or cross section varies with time.
A flood hydrograph where the discharge in a stream changes with time is
an example of unsteady flow. Unsteady flow is difficult to analyze unless
the time changes are small
Open-channel flow: Open-channel flow is flow with a free surface. Closed-conduit flow or
flow in culverts is open-channel flow if they are not flowing full and there
is a free surface.
Froude Number: The Froude Number Fr is the ratio of inertial forces to gravitational
forces. The Froude Number is also the ratio of the flow velocity V to the
celerity C of a small gravity wave in the flow.
Subcritical flow: Open-channel flow's response to changes in channel geometry depends
upon the depth and velocity of the flow. Subcritical flow (or tranquil flow)
occurs on mild slopes where the flow is deep with a low velocity and has a
Froude Number less than 1. In subcritical flow, the boundary condition
(control section) is always at the downstream end of the flow reach.
Supercritical flow: Supercritical flow occurs on steep slopes where the flow is shallow with a
high velocity and has a Froude Number greater than 1. In supercritical
flow, the boundary condition (control section) is always at the upstream
end of the flow reach
Critical flow: When the Froude Number equals 1, the flow is critical and surface
disturbances remain stationary in the flow
Pressure flow: Flow in a closed conduit or culvert that is flowing full with water in contact
with the total enclosed boundary and under pressure.
Closed-conduit Flow in a pipe, culvert, etc. where there is a solid boundary on all four
flow: sides. Examples are pipes, culverts, and box culverts. Flow conditions in a
closed conduit may occur as gravity full flow, full-pressure flow, or partly
full (open-channel flow).
Alluvial channel: Flow in an open channel where the bed is composed of material that has
been deposited by the flow.

Hydraulic radius: The hydraulic radius is a length term used in many of the hydraulic
equations that is determined by dividing the flow area by the length of the
cross section in contact with the water (wetted perimeter). The hydraulic
radius is in many of the equations to help take into account the effects of
the shape of the cross section on the flow. For example, the hydraulic
radius for a circular pipe flowing full is equal to the diameter of the pipe
divided by four (D/4).
One-dimensional A method of analysis where changes in the flow variables (velocity, depth,
flow: etc.) occur primarily in the longitudinal direction. Changes of flow
variables in the other two directions are small and are neglected.
Two-dimensional A method of analysis where acceleration can occur in two directions
flow: (longitudinal and lateral or across the flow).
Three-dimensional The flow variables can change in all three directions, longitudinal, lateral,
flow: and in the vertical.
2.5 BASIC PRINCIPLES

The basic equations of flow are continuity, energy and momentum. They are derived from
the laws of (1) the conservation of mass; (2) the conservation of energy; and (3) the
conservation of linear momentum, respectively. Conservation of mass is another way of
stating that (except for mass-energy interchange) matter can neither be created nor
destroyed. The principle of conservation of energy is based on the first law of
thermodynamics which states that energy must at all times be conserved. The principle of
conservation of linear momentum is based on Newton's second law of motion which states
that a mass (of fluid) accelerates in the direction of and in proportion to the applied forces
on the mass.
Analysis of flow problems are much simplified if there is no acceleration of the flow or if
the acceleration is primarily in one direction (one-dimensional flow), the accelerations in
other directions being negligible. However, a very inaccurate analysis may occur if one
assumes accelerations are small or zero when in fact they are not. The concepts given in
this manual assume one-dimensional flow. Therefore, equations given in the manual are
written specifically as they apply to the analysis of one-dimensional flow.
2.5.1 CONTINUITY EQUATION
The continuity equation is based on conservation of mass. For steady flow of
incompressible fluids it is:
V1A1 = V2A2 = Q = VA Eq. 2-1
where:
V = Average velocity in the cross section perpendicular to the area, ft/s
A = Area perpendicular to the velocity, ft2
3
Q = Volume flow rate or discharge, ft /s
The continuity equation is applicable when the fluid density is constant, the flow is steady,
there is no significant lateral inflow or seepage (or they are accounted for) and the velocity
is perpendicular to the area (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 Sketch of Continuity Concept
2.5.2 ENERGY EQUATION

The energy equation is derived from the first law of thermodynamics which states that
energy must be conserved at all times. The energy equation is a scalar equation. For steady
incompressible flow it is:
Eq. 2-2
where:
V = Average velocity in the cross section, ft/s
g = Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
p = Pressure, lbs/ft2
γ = Unit weight of water, 62.4 lbs/ft3 at 59°
Z = Elevation above a horizontal datum, ft
hL = Headloss due to friction and form losses, ft
A = Area of the cross section, ft2

The energy grade line (EGL) represents the total energy at any given cross section, defined
as the sum of the three components of energy represented on each side of Equation 2-2.
These components of energy are often referred to as the velocity head, pressure head, and
elevation head. The hydraulic grade line (HGL) is below the EGL by the amount of the
velocity head, or is the sum of just the pressure head and the elevation head. The
application of the energy equation in open-channel and pressure flow is illustrated in
Figures 2.2 and 2.3.
Figure 2.2 Open-channel Flow
Figure 2.3 Closed-conduit Flow

2.5.3 MOMENTUM EQUATION

The momentum equation is derived from Newton's second law which states that the
summation of all external forces on a system is equal to the change in momentum. In the x-
direction for steady flow with constant density it is:
∑Fx = ρQ(Vx2 – Vx1) Eq. 2-3
where:
Fx = Forces in the x direction, lbs
Ρ = Density, 1.94 slubs/ft3
Q = Volume flow rate or discharge, ft3/s
V = Velocity in the x direction, ft/s
The momentum equation is used to estimate forces on pipe bends and to analyze hydraulic
jumps.
2.6 WEIRS AND ORIFICES

2.6.1 WEIRS
A weir is typically a notch of regular shape (rectangular, square, or triangular), with a free
surface. The edge or surface over which the water flows is called the crest. A weir with a
crest where the water springs free of the crest at the upstream side is called a sharp crested
weir. If the water flowing over the weir does not spring free and the crest length is short,
the weir is called a not sharp crested weir, round edge weir, or suppressed weir. If the weir
has a horizontal or sloping crest sufficiently long in the direction of flow that the flow
pressure distribution is hydrostatic it is called a broad crested weir (Figure 2.4). As with
orifices, weirs can be used to measure water flow. Strictly speaking a sharp crested weir
used for measurement purposes, must be aerated on the downstream side and the pressure
on the nappe downstream be atmospheric. Examples of weir flow that are of interest to the
highway engineer are, flow into grates, flow spilling through curb inlets, flow into culverts,
outlet structures for detention basins, and flow-over approach embankment.
The discharge across a weir (sharp-crested or broad-crested) is:
Q = CD L H3/2 Eq. 2-4
where:
Q = Discharge, ft3/s
CD = Coefficient of discharge for weirs, sharp edge or broad crested
L = Flow length across the weir, ft
H = Head on the weir, ft – depth of flow above the weir crest upstream of the weir (typically
measured a distance of about 2.5H upstream of the weir)
Coefficients of discharge are given in most handbooks as well as in Section 4 of this manual
for the different types of weirs or flow conditions. Note that correction factors are also
available if the weir is submerged. As long as the tailwater is less than critical depth,
submergence is not a factor.

Figure 2.4 Weir Types

2.6.2 ORIFICES
An orifice is an opening with a regular shape (circular, square or rectangular) through which
water flows in contact with the total perimeter. If the opening is flowing only partially full,
the orifice becomes a weir. An orifice with a sharp upstream edge is called a sharp-edged
orifice. If the jet of water from the orifice discharges into the air, it is called a free
discharge. If it discharges under water, it is called a submerged orifice. Orifices are
common fluid discharge measuring devices (Figure 2.5) but orifice type flow occurs under
other circumstances where head loss, backwater etc. needs to be determined. Examples of
orifice flows of interest to highway engineers are flow through bridges when they are
overtopped, flow-through culvert inlets, curb inlets flowing full, etc. When a bridge is
overtopped the flow through the bridge is orifice flow, but the flow over the bridge is weir
flow. The discharge through an orifice is:
Q = CD A 2g HD Eq. 2-5
where:
Q = Discharge, ft3/s
CD = Coefficient of discharge
A = Area of the orifice, ft2
g = Acceleration of gravity = 32.2 ft/s2
HD = Difference in head across the orifice, ft
Coefficients of discharge are given in most handbooks. For an unsubmerged orifice, the
difference in head across the orifice is measured from the centerline of the orifice to the
upstream water surface. For a submerged orifice, the difference in head is measured from
the upstream water surface to the downstream water surface.

Figure 2.5 Orifice
2.7 OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW

Open-channel flow occurs when the water surface is at atmospheric pressure and a free
surface exists. Obviously it occurs in open channels such as curb and gutters, roadside
ditches, streams, and rivers. It may also occur in closed conduits that are not flowing full
such as storm drains and culverts. All of the basic equations apply to open channel flow:
continuity, energy and momentum equations. Open-channel flow, however, is more
complex than closed-conduit flow since the water surface may vary from steady uniform
flow conditions to rapidly varied flow situations, from one-dimensional flow to two and
three dimensional flow, and from steady to unsteady flow. Each flow variation adds
complexity to the analysis of open channel flow. The engineer should recognize which type
of flow exists and conduct the analysis accordingly.
2.7.1 FLOW CLASSIFICATION
The classification of open-channel flow can be summarized as follows:
Steady Flow
(1) Uniform Flow
(2) Non-uniform Flow
(a) Gradually Varied Flow
(b) Rapidly Varied Flow
Unsteady Flow
(1) Unsteady Uniform Flow (rare)
(2) Unsteady Non-uniform Flow
(a) Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow
(b) Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow
The steady, uniform flow case and the steady, non-uniform flow case are the most
fundamental types of flow treated in highway engineering hydraulics. For the design of
most of highway drainage structures, steady flow is often assumed and will be the basis of
the discussion in the section. However, the engineer must confirm that this assumption is
reasonable.

2.7.2 MANNING'S EQUATION

Steady-uniform flow exists when the gravitational energy resulting from the longitudinal
channel slope is balanced with the losses due to friction between the wetted perimeter and
the boundary of the channel. Therefore, the slope of the water surface, channel bed and the
energy grade line are parallel. Numerous equations have been developed to analyze this
flow condition. The one most commonly used by highway engineers was developed by
Robert Manning. The equation is:
V = (1.49/n) R2/3 S1/2 Eq. 2-6
where:
V = Mean velocity, ft/s
n = Manning's coefficient of channel roughness
R = Hydraulic radius
S = Slope, ft/ft
The hydraulic radius, R, is a way of accounting for the shape of the channel. It is given by
the equation
R = A/P, ft Eq. 2-7
where:
A = Area perpendicular to flow, ft2
P = Wetted perimeter, ft
When the Manning’s equation is combined with the continuity equation, the following
equation is then used to compute discharge:
Q = (1.49/n) A R2/3 S1/2 Eq. 2-8
Typical values of the Manning’s "n" roughness coefficient are given in Table 2.1

Table 2.1 Manning's Roughness Coefficients for Various Boundaries

Rigid Boundary Channels Manning's n
Very smooth concrete and planed timber 0.011
Smooth concrete 0.012
Ordinary concrete lining 0.013
Wood 0.014
Vitrified clay 0.015
Shot concrete, untroweled, and earth channels in best condition 0.017
Straight unlined earth canals in good condition 0.020
Mountain streams with rocky beds 0.040 -0.050
MINOR STREAMS (top width at flood stage < 30 m)
Streams on Plain
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0.025–0.033
2. Same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030–0.040
3. Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033–0.045
4. Same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035–0.050
5. Same as above, lower stages, more ineffective slopes and sections 0.040–0.055
6. Same as 4, but more stones 0.045–0.060
7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.050–0.080
8. Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways with heavy stand of timber and 0.075–0.150
underbrush
Mountain Streams, no Vegetation in Channel, Banks Usually Steep, Trees and Brush Along
Banks Submerged at High Stages
1. Bottom: gavels, cobbles and few boulders 0.030–0.050
2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040–0.070
Floodplains
Pasture, No Brush
1. Short Grass 0.025–0.035
2. High Grass 0.030–0.050
Cultivated Areas
1. No Crop 0.020–0.040
2. Mature Row Crops 0.025–0.045
3. Mature Field Crops 0.030–0.050
Brush
1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035–0.070
2. Light brush and trees in winter 0.035–0.060
3. Light brush and trees in summer 0.040–0.080
4. Medium to dense brush in winter 0.045–0.110
5. Medium to dense brush in summer 0.070–0.160
Trees
1. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110–0.200
2. Cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030–0.050
3. Same as above, but with heavy growth of sprouts 0.050–0.080
4. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees, little undergrowth, flood stage below 0.080–0.120
branches

Table 2.1 Manning's Roughness Coefficients for Various Boundaries (Continued)

5. Same as above, but with flood stage reaching branches 0.100–0.160
MAJOR STREAMS (Topwidth at flood stage > 30 m)
The n value is less than that for minor streams of similar description, because banks offer less effective
resistance.
Regular section with no boulders or brush 0.025–0.060
Irregular and rough section 0.035–0.100
Alluvial Sand-bed Channels (no vegetation)
Tranquil flow, Fr < 1
Plane bed 0.014–0.020
Ripples 0.018–0.030
Dunes 0.020–0.040
Washed out dunes or transition 0.014–0.025
Plane bed 0.010–0.013
Rapid Flow, Fr > 1
Standing waves 0.010–0.015
Antidunes 0.012–0.020
Overland Flow and Sheet Flow
Smooth asphalt 0.011
Smooth concrete 0.012
Cement rubble surface 0.024
Natural range 0.13
Dense grass 0.24
Bermuda grass 0.41
Light underbrush 0.40
Heavy underbrush 0.80
Source: (Chow, 1959)
Remember that Manning’s equation is for steady-uniform flow even though it is sometimes
used for steady-nonuniform (gradually varied flow) flow where the velocity changes from
section to section is very small. Individual structures may be constructed of several
materials with varying Manning’s “n” values. Embedded culverts are a common example
where the sides of the culvert are constructed of concrete and the bottom is embedded in
natural streambed material. In this case, a weighted Manning’s “n” value should be
calculated.
Several programs, including HEC-RAS, HY8 and FlowMaster will calculate a weighted
average n value, or composite nc, directly. Other programs, will not calculate the nc value.
In the absence of computer aid, the designer will need to calculate the nc value by hand.
Several methods are available to calculate nc. The methods all have one thing in common:
They are all some form of a finite series; that is, they all involve summing of terms. Hand
calculation of nc varies from being extremely tedious to being relatively simple depending
on the method used. The HDS-5 publication (U.S. FHWA, 2001) has a fairly straight
forward method to calculate the weighted manning’s n value:

Eq. 2-9
Where:
n = weighted Manning’s n value
G = number of different roughness; in perimeter
p1 = wetted perimeter in ft. influence by the material 1
p2 = wetted perimeter influence by materiel 2, etc.
n1 = manning’s n value for material 1
n2 = manning’s n value for material 2
p = total wetted perimeter (ft)
In the case of an embedded culvert, the formula can be reduced to the following:
Eq. 2-10
where:
pb = wetted perimeter of the bottom of the culvert. In most cases this will equal the bottom width.
nb = manning’s n value for the bottom of the culvert
ps = total wetted perimeter of both sides of the culvert. In most cases this will equal to 2 * normal
depth
ns = manning’s n value for the bottom of the culvert
P = total wetted perimeter (pb + 2 * ps)
2.7.3 FROUDE NUMBER

The Froude Number is a very important dimensionless parameter in open-channel flow. It
is defined as the ratio of the inertia forces to the gravity forces and is normally expressed as:
Eq. 2-11
where:
Fr = Froude Number
V = Velocity of flow, ft/s
g = Acceleration of gravity, ft/s2
y = Depth of flow, ft
V and y can be the mean velocity and depth in a channel or the velocity and depth in the
vertical. If the former are used, then the Froude Number is for the average flow conditions
in the channel. If the latter are used, then it is the Froude Number for that vertical at a
specific location in the cross section. The Froude Number uniquely describes the flow
pattern in open-channel flow. Note that the denominator of the Froude Number is the same
as the celerity of a shallow (Figure 2.6).

Eq. 2-12
Figure 2.6 Definition Sketch for Small Amplitude Waves
When the velocity of the flow is less than the celerity of the wave, a small amplitude wave
moves upstream, and the Froude number will be less than one (Fr < 1). This flow is also
known as subcritical or tranquil flow. In other words, the effects of flow disruption will be
propagated upstream and energy losses will be carried upstream, etc.
When the velocity in the flow is greater than the celerity of the wave, the effect of a flow
disruption will not be carried upstream, and the Froude number will be greater than one (Fr
> 1). This flow condition is known as supercritical or rapid flow. The fact that waves or
surges cannot move upstream when the Froude Number is equal to or greater than 1.0 is
important to remember when determining when the stage-discharge relation at a cross
section can be affected by downstream conditions. If the velocity of flow is the same as the
celerity of the wave, the small amplitude wave is stationary, and the Froude number will be
one ( Fr = 1) This condition is called critical flow, the depth of this flow is known as critical
depth. Critical depth will be downstream of subcritical flow and upstream of supercritical
flow. Flow going from subcritical to supercritical must pass through critical depth.
2.7.4 SPECIFIC ENERGY DIAGRAM AND EVALUATION OF CRITICAL DEPTH
If the elevation head is removed from the energy equation, the sum of the two remaining
terms is called the specific energy or specific head, H, and defined as:
Eq. 2-13
where:
H = Specific energy, ft
q = Unit discharge, defined as the discharge per unit width (ft3/s/ft) in a rectangular channel
g = Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
y = Depth of flow, ft
The specific energy, H, is the height of the total energy above the channel bed. The
relationship between the three terms in the specific energy equation, q, y, and H, are
evaluated by considering q constant and determining the relationship between H and y

(specific energy diagram) or considering H constant and determining the relationship

between q and y (specific discharge diagram). These diagrams for a given discharge or
energy are then used in the design or analysis of transitions or flow through bridges. They
are explained in the next two sections.
For a given q, Equation 2-13 can be solved for various values of H and y. When y is
plotted as a function of H, Figure 2.7 is obtained. There are two possible depths called
alternate depths for any H larger than a specific minimum. Thus, for specific energy larger
than the minimum, the flow may have a large depth with small velocity or small depth with
large velocity. Flow for a given unit discharge q cannot occur with specific energy less than
the minimum. The single depth of flow at the minimum specific energy is called the critical
depth, yc, and the corresponding velocity, the critical velocity, Vc = q/yc. The relation for yc
and Vc for a given q (for a rectangular channel) is:
Eq. 2-14
Note that for critical flow:
and
Thus, flow at minimum specific energy has a Froude Number equal to 1. Flows with
velocities larger than critical (Fr > 1) are called rapid or supercritical and flow with
velocities smaller than critical (Fr < 1) are called tranquil or subcritical.
Figure 2.7 Specific Energy Diagram

Distinguishing between the types of flow and how the water surface reacts with changes in
cross section is important in channel design; thus, the location of critical depth and the

determination of critical slope for a cross section of given shape, size, and roughness
becomes necessary. Equations for direct solution of the critical depth are available for
several prismatic shapes; however, some of these equations were not derived for use in the
metric system. (12)
For any channel section, regular or irregular, critical depth may be found by a trial-and-error
solution of the following equation:
Eq. 2-15
Where:
Ac and Tc and the area and top width at critical flow. An expression for the critical velocity (Vc) of
any cross section at critical flow conditions is:
Eq. 2-16
where: yc = Ac / Tc
Uniform flow within about 10% of the critical depth is unstable and should be avoided in
design. The reason for unstable flow can be seen by referring to the specific head diagram
(Figure 2.7). As the flow approaches the critical depth from either limb of the curve, a very
small change in energy is required for the depth to abruptly change to the alternate depth on
the opposite limb of the specific head curve. If the unstable flow region cannot be avoided
in design, the least favorable type of flow should be assumed for the design.
2.7.5 CRITICAL, SUBCRITICAL, AND SUPERCRITICAL FLOW
To summarize the importance of the Froude number and the types of flow: when the Froude
Number is 1.0, the flow is critical; values of the Froude Number greater than 1.0 indicate
supercritical or rapid flow and smaller than 1.0 indicate subcritical or tranquil flow. The
velocity and depth at critical flow are called the critical velocity and critical depth. The
channel slope that produces critical depth and critical velocity is the critical slope. The
change from supercritical to subcritical flow is often abrupt (particularly if the Froude
Number is larger than 2.0) resulting in a phenomenon known as the hydraulic jump.
Critical depth and velocity for a particular discharge are only dependent on channel size and
shape and are independent of channel slope and roughness. Critical slope depends upon the
channel roughness, channel geometry, and discharge. For a given critical depth and
velocity, the critical slope for a particular roughness can be computed by Manning's
equation.
Supercritical flow is difficult to control because abrupt changes in alignment or in cross
section produce waves that travel downstream, alternating from side to side, sometimes
causing the water to overtop the channel sides. Changes in channel shape, slope, alignment,
or roughness cannot be reflected upstream. In supercritical flow, the control of the flow is
located upstream. Supercritical flow is common in steep flumes, channels, and mountain
streams. The depth of water in a channel flowing in supercritical flow will always be less
than critical depth. Subcritical flow is relatively easy to control for flows with Froude
Numbers less than 0.8. Changes in channel shape, slope, alignment, and roughness affect

the flow for small distances upstream. The control in subcritical flow is located
downstream. Subcritical flow is common in channels, flumes and streams located in the
plains regions and valleys where slopes are relatively flat. The depth of water in a channel
flowing in subcritical flow will always be greater than critical depth.
Critical depth is important in hydraulic analysis because it is always a hydraulic control.
The flow must pass through critical depth in going from subcritical flow to supercritical or
going from supercritical flow to subcritical. Although, in the latter case a hydraulic jump
usually occurs. Typical locations of critical depth are:
1. At abrupt changes in slope when a flat (subcritical) slope is sharply increased
to a steep (supercritical) slope.
2. At channel constrictions such as a culvert entrance, flume transitions, etc.
under some conditions.
3. At the unsubmerged outlet of a culvert or flume on a subcritical slope,
discharging into a wide channel, steep slope channel (supercritical), or with a
free fall at the outlet.
4. At the crest of an overflow dam, weir, or embankment.
5. At bridge constrictions where the bridge chokes the flow.
The location and magnitude of critical depth and the determination of critical slope for a
cross section of a given shape, size, and roughness are important in channel design and
analysis. The equations for determining the critical depth are provided in the discussion of
specific discharge and specific energy in steady rapidly varied flow.
2.8 CLOSED-CONDUIT
2.8.1 TYPES OF FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS
Flow conditions in a closed conduit can occur as open-channel flow, gravity full flow or
pressure flow. In open-channel flow the water surface is exposed to the atmosphere, which
can occur in either an open conduit or a partially full closed conduit. The analysis of open-
channel flow in a closed conduit is no different than any other type of open-channel flow,
and all the concepts and principles previously discussed are applicable. Gravity full flow
occurs at that condition where the conduit is flowing full, but not yet under any pressure.
Pressure flow occurs when the conduit is flowing full and under pressure.
Due to the additional wetted perimeter and increased friction that occurs in a gravity full
pipe, a partially full pipe will actually carry greater flow. For a circular conduit the peak
flow occurs at 93% of the height of the pipe, and the average velocity flowing one-half full
is the same as gravity full flow. Gravity full flow condition is usually assumed for purposes
of storm drain design. The Manning's equation combined with the continuity equation for
circular section flowing full can be rewritten as:
Eq. 2-17
where:
Q = Discharge, ft3/S
n = Manning's coefficient

D = Pipe diameter, ft
S = Slope ft/ft
This equation allows for a direct computation of the required pipe diameter. Note that the
computed diameter must be increased in size to a larger nominal dimension in order to carry
the design discharge without creating pressure flow.
2.8.2 ENERGY EQUATION
The energy equation was reviewed earlier. In very simple terms the equation states that the
energy head at any cross section must equal that in any other downstream section plus the
intervening losses. The energy head is divided into three components: the velocity head, the
pressure head and the elevation head. The energy grade line (EGL) represents the total
energy at any given cross section. The energy losses are classified as friction losses and
form losses.
The hydraulic grade line (HGL) is below the EGL by the amount of the velocity head. In
open-channel flow the HGL is equal to the water surface elevation in the channel, while in
pressure flow the HGL represents the elevation water would rise to in a stand pipe
connected to the conduit. For example, in a storm drain designed for pressure flow the
HGL should be lower than the roadway elevation or water in the storm drain will rise up
through inlets and access hole covers and flood the roadway. Similarly, if an open-channel
flow condition in a storm drain is supercritical, care must be taken to insure that a hydraulic
jump does not occur which might create pressure flow and a HGL above the roadway
elevation.

3 DESIGN FLOW CONSIDERATIONS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Design of a drainage system involves determination of flow magnitudes in every line in the
system. Hydrologic considerations determine the flow magnitudes or flow hydrographs, as
the case may be, at each point in the drainage system. The resulting flow hydrographs are
then routed downstream according to hydraulic principles.
Design flow is determined based on the statistical (frequency) analysis on historic records
of flow for gauged sites or rainfall and the associated hydrologic parameters for un-gauged
sites. Generally, the longer the length of data, the more reliable the estimation of design
flow will be.
3.1.1 AVERAGE RECURRENCE INTERVAL (ARI)
As all magnitudes of flow have some chance of occurrence, the design flow is decided by
attaching an average recurrence interval. Average recurrence interval is defined as the
average interval in years between the occurrence of a flow of specified magnitude or larger
flow. It is the long term average of the intervals between successive exceedances of a flow
magnitude.
The word “average” is the important part of the definition of recurrence interval. As
hydrological events are generally random in their occurrences, it cannot be inferred that a
flow of particular average recurrence interval is equaled or exceeded at regular interval.
This important point is also to be explained to decision makers and to the public at large
who are affected by them.
3.1.2 EXCEEDANCE PROBABILITY
Exceedance probability is the probability that an event of a given average recurrence
interval will be equaled or exceeded during a given period of time. Consideration of the
probability of exceedance during a given span of time, particularly the design life of a
structure can be used as an aid in the selection of the level of serviceability to be provided.
The equation below is used to compute the probability that at least one event which equals
or exceeds the nth-yr event will occur in any series of years. The equation is also used to
compute the probability J that at least one event which equals or exceeds the t p -yr event
will occur in any series of N years.
J = 1 - (1 –1P)N Eq. 3-1

where: P = 1 / t p
The probability that an event of a given recurrence interval will be equaled or exceeded
during periods of various lengths is depicted in Table 3.1.
Chapter 3 Design Flow Considerations 3-1

Table 3.1 Probability That an Event of a Given Recurrence Interval will be Equaled or
Exceeded During Periods of Various Lengths (Computed using Eqn. 3.1)
* In this case the probability can never be 1, but for practical purposes its value may be taken as unity
3.2 DESIGN FLOWS

3.2.1 GENERAL
Design flow is defined as discharge that may be expected from the sever combination of
meteorological and hydrologic conditions that are reasonably considered to reflect
characteristics of the area involved, excluding extremely rare combinations.
Adequate storm water drainage system or adequate waterway is a system or a waterway
which has the hydraulic characteristics to accommodate the maximum expected flow
(design flow) of storm water for a given watershed or a portion/s thereof. Adequate
system/s:
1) should be designed to account for both off-site and on-site storm water, including
storm water coming into a given tract of land from upstream;
2) should discharge the flow in to natural drainage line or other appropriate outlets;
and
3) should carry water to a point where it should flow downstream into a stream
channel or water way.
Design flood standards are influenced by many factors including:
• safety;
• the level of hydraulic performance required;
• environmental impact;
• construction and operation costs;
• maintenance requirements;
• serviceability; and,
• Legal and statutory requirements.
The standards are expressed by average recurrence intervals adopted. These measures
determine the magnitude of a design rainfall or runoff event with which the system can

cope. Past practice has often been based on one level of operation. But it is usually
appropriate to design for several performance levels which include:
• A maintenance requirement (frequent event), related to a short design
average recurrence interval;
• A convenience or nuisance reduction requirement (infrequent event), one to
five years of average recurrence interval
• A flood damage prevention requirement (severe or rare event), 50 to 100
years of average recurrence interval; and,
• A disaster management requirement (extreme event), related to extreme
events such as probable maximum floods.
The first two are relevant to minor drains, and all but the second to major drains discussed
under 3.2.2.
Assigning an average recurrence interval takes into account the level of safety (standard)
required. The required level of safety in turn depends upon potential losses to occur
following the probable failure (both structural and serviceability) of an element of a
drainage system or a combination thereof. Generally, the longer the average recurrence
interval, the higher the magnitude of flow will be and the safer the level of protection.
3.2.2 MINOR AND MAJOR DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Minor Drainage System (span < 6.0 meters)
The minor system, sometimes referred to as the “Convenience” system, consists of the
components that have been historically considered as part of the “storm drainage system”.
These components include curbs, gutters, ditches, inlets, access holes, pipes and other
conduits, open channels, pumps, detention basins, water quality control facilities, etc.
The minor drainage systems are part of the total drainage system which are intended to
collect the maximum run off from the initial storm and convey runoff from frequent storm
events such that nuisance is minimized, while the major systems are intended to safely
convey runoff not collected by the minor drainage system to receiving waters.
Major Drainage System (span > 6.0 meters)
The major system provides overland relief for storm water flows exceeding the capacity of
the minor system. This usually occurs during more infrequent storm events. The major
system is composed of pathways that are provided for the runoff to flow to natural or
manmade receiving channels such as streams, creeks, or rivers.
The major system typically consists of a network of overland flow paths including roads,
natural channels and streams, engineered waterways, culverts, and detention basins which
ultimately discharge into receiving waters.
3.2.3 SELECTION OF DESIGN AVERAGE RECURRENCE INTERVAL
The selection of design average recurrence interval values must be made by the designer in
relation to the cost of a facility, amount of traffic and expected level of service; potential
flood hazard to property; the magnitude and risk associated with damages from larger flood
events; and conditions for practical detour during probable failure. In selecting a design
frequency, all potential upstream land use for the anticipated life of the drainage facility
must be considered.

Review of existing drainage system should be carried out using the same general sequence
as planning and design of new drainage projects. The first step will take into account the
existing (constructed) drainage system. It is often found that older existing systems are
lacking considerations of the major system flows. Minor system is normally designed to
carry runoff from up to 10 year frequency storm events. Major systems are designed for
floods of average recurrence intervals 25, 50, and 100-year.
The design frequency value depends on particular site and catchment conditions. This
being the case, the values rendered in Table 3.2 are based on geometric design criteria that
could be used for initial planning, design, and analysis.
Table 3.2 Design Average Recurrence Intervals for Flood/Storm (Yrs) by Geometric
Design
3.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

PHYSICAL
There is no published information available on the average recurrence interval of the flow
that should be used for assessing and minimizing possible environmental damage. Each site
should be investigated for possible environmental impact that might occur with a range of
flow events, with emphasis on the more frequent ones due to increased runoff due to
clearing and creation of more impervious surfaces. The following factors need be
considered when assessing any potential environmental damage.
• Selection of suitable site;
• Provision of adequate opening to limit backwater effects and excessive
localized bed scour;

• Protection of stream channel from erosion that comes as a result of

redirection of flow, turbulence or excessive increase in velocity;
• Protection of natural vegetation, especially where it protects or stabilizes;
and,
• Control of road side drainage where it enters streams, to limit bank erosion.
WATER QUALITY
When runoff flows, it collects pollutant loads. Plotting variation of pollutants with time
results in pollutant-load graphs. The pollutant-load is then routed downstream according to
hydraulic principles. Water quality may then be improved by natural process or introduction
of treatment devices. Because of the interaction between hydrology, hydraulics, and water
quality, all aspects need to be considered in an integrated manner.

4 ESTIMATION OF DESIGN FLOW FOR UNGAUGED CATCHMENTS

4.1 GENERAL
The method to be used to estimate the design flood depends upon the type and quality of
data. For gauged sites, flood frequency analysis may be employed to determine the design
flow. For this a reasonably long record of annual maximum flows may suffice. If the
coverage of flow data is short, it may be complemented with results of regional flood
frequency analysis. Design discharges for un-gauged sites could either be estimated by
transforming, discharges from gauge sites or by using models that synthesize storm data in
to discharge magnitude.
4.2 DESIGN FLOW

The process of design flow estimation for a watershed from rainfall data generally involves
the following main steps.
1. Determination of time of concentration
2. Design rainfall estimation
3. Estimation of rainfall excess
4. Estimation of runoff
4.3 TIME OF CONCENTRATION

The time of concentration is defined as the period required for water to travel from the most
hydraulically distant point of the watershed to the point of the storm drain system under
consideration. The designer is usually concerned about two different times of
concentration: one for inlet spacing and the other for pipe sizing. As one progresses
downstream in a storm drain system there will be a major difference between the two times.
The inlet time will be a function of the overland flow path to the inlet and not be altered by
the subsurface flow paths. The pipe sizing time of concentration is the sum of time
increments upstream of that pipe.
Time of concentration (Tc) is the time required for an entire watershed to contribute to
runoff at the point of interest for hydraulic design. This time is calculated as the time for
runoff to flow from the most hydraulically remote point of the drainage area to the point
under investigation. Travel time and Tc are functions of length and velocity for a particular
watercourse. A long but steep flow path with a high velocity may actually have a shorter
travel time than a short but relatively flat flow path. There may be multiple paths to
consider in determining the longest travel time. The designer must identify the flow path
along which the longest travel time is likely to occur. In some situations, the Tc will be
very short which will result in large runoff values. A value of 5 minutes should be the
minimum Tc values used.
In watersheds with low (flat) topographic slope, the calculation of Tc using commonly
accepted equations with slope in the denominator often results in unreasonably large values.
That is, as the slope approaches zero, the travel time approaches infinity. In addition, since
intensity is a function of depth divided by Tc, a long Tc produces a very small intensity and
thus small flowrate. Cleveland et al. 2012 recommends an adjustment of 0.0005 to the
Chapter 4 Estimation of Design Flow for Ungauged Catchments 4-1

slope in both the Kerby and Kirpich methods to allow more realistic results for low
topographic slope watersheds.
• If the slope is less than 0.002 ft/ft (0.2%), a low slope condition exists and
the adjusted slope should be used.
• The adjusted slope becomes Slow(low) = S0 + 0.0005 (dimensionless)
• If the slope is between 0.002 ft/ft (0.2%) and 0.003 ft/ft (0.3%), the situation
is transitional and the user must use judgment on whether or not to use the
low slope adjustment.
When runoff is computed using the rational method, Tc is the appropriate storm duration
and in turn determines the appropriate precipitation intensity. When peak discharge and
streamflow timing are computed using the hydrograph method, Tc is used to compute
certain rainfall-runoff parameters for the watershed. The value of Tc is used as an input to
define the appropriate storm duration and appropriate precipitation depth. When applicable,
the Kerby-Kirpich method (Roussel et al. 2005) is to be used for estimating Tc. The
National Resources Conservation Service (1986) method is also commonly used and
acceptable. It should be noted that the NRCS method was known as and is often referred to
as the SCS method. Both of these methods estimate Tc as the sum of travel times for
discrete flow regimes. Figure 4.1 illustrates some of the alternative methods for calculating
Tc.

Table 4.1 Alternate Time of Concentration Calculation Methods
4.3.1 KERBY-KIRPICH METHOD

Roussel et al. 2005 conclude that, in general, Kirpich-inclusive approaches, [and
particularly] the Kerby-Kirpich approach for estimating watershed time of concentration are

preferable. The Kerby-Kirpich approach requires comparatively few input parameters, is

straightforward to apply, and produces readily interpretable results. The Kerby-Kirpich
approach produces time of concentration estimates consistent with watershed time values
independently derived from real-world storms and runoff hydrographs. Similar to other
methods for calculation of Tc, the total time of concentration is obtained by adding the
overland flow time (Kerby) and the channel flow time (Kirpich):
Tc = tov + tch Eq. 4-1
where:
tov = overland flow time
tch = channel flow time
The Kerby-Kirpich method for estimating Tc is applicable to watersheds ranging from 0.25
square miles to 150 square miles, main channel lengths between 1 and 50 miles, and main
channel slopes between 0.002 and 0.02 (ft/ft) (Roussel et al. 2005).
Main channel slope is computed as the change in elevation from the watershed divide to the
water-shed outlet divided by the curvilinear distance of the main channel (primary flow
path) between the watershed divide and the outlet.
No watersheds with low topographic slopes are available in the underlying database.
Therefore, the Kerby and Kerpich methods are not usually applicable to watersheds with
limited topographic slope. However, Cleveland et al. 2012 makes recommendations for
adjustments to the method to allow more realistic results for low topographic slope
watersheds.
4.3.2 THE KERBY METHOD
For small watersheds where overland flow is an important component of overall travel time,
the Kerby method can be used. The Kerby equation is:
tov = K(L× N)0.467 S 0.235 Eq. 4-2
where:
tov = overland flow time of concentration, in minutes)
K = a units conversion coefficient, in which K = 0.828 for traditional units and K = 1.44 for SI units
L = the overland-flow length, in feet or meters as dictated by K
N = a dimensionless retardance coefficient
S = the dimensionless slope of terrain conveying the overland flow
In the development of the Kerby equation, the length of overland flow was as much as
1,200 feet (366 meters). Hence, this length is considered an upper limit and shorter values
in practice generally are expected. The dimensionless retardance coefficient used is similar
in concept to the well-known Manning's roughness coefficient; however, for a given type of
surface, the retardance coefficient for overland flow will be considerably larger than for
open-channel flow. Typical values for the retardance coefficient are listed in Table 4.2.
Roussel et al. 2005 recommends that the user should not interpolate the retardance
coefficients in Table 4.2. If it is determined that a low slope condition or a transitional

slope condition exists, the user should consider using an adjusted slope in calculating the
time of concentration.
Table 4.2 Kerby Equation Retardance Coefficient Values
4.3.3 THE KIRPICH METHOD

For channel-flow component of runoff, the Kirpich equation is:
Eq. 4-3
where:
tch = the time of concentration, in minutes
K = a units conversion coefficient, in which K = 0.0078 for traditional units and K = 0.0195 for SI
units
L = the channel flow length, in feet or meters as dictated by K
S = the dimensionless main-channel slope
If it is determined that a low slope condition or a transitional slope condition exists, the user
should consider using an adjusted slope in calculating the time of concentration.
4.3.4 APPLICATION OF THE KERBY-KIRPICH METHOD
An example (shown below) illustrating application of the Kerby-Kirpich method is
informative. For example, suppose a hydraulic design is needed to convey runoff from a
small watershed with a drainage area of 0.5 square miles. On the basis of field examination
and topographic maps, the length of the main channel from the watershed outlet (the design
point) to the watershed divide is 5,280 feet. Elevation of the watershed at the outlet is 700
feet. From a topographic map, elevation along the main channel at the watershed divide is
estimated to be 750 feet. The analyst assumes that overland flow will have an appreciable
contribution to the time of concentration for the watershed. The analyst estimates that the
length of overland flow is about 500 feet and that the slope for the overland-flow
component is 2% (S = 0.02). The area representing overland flow is average grass (N =
0.40). For the overland-flow Tc, the analyst applies the Kerby equation,
Eq. 4-4

from which tov is about 25 minutes. For the channel tch, the analyst applies the Kirpich
equation, but first dimensionless main-channel slope is required,
Eq. 4-5
or about 1%. The value for slope and the channel length are used in the Kirpich equation,
Eq. 4-6
from which tch is about 32 minutes. Because the overland flow tov is used for this
watershed, the subtraction of the overland flow length from the overall main-channel length
(watershed divide to outlet) is necessary and reflected in the calculation. Adding the
overland flow and channel flow components of gives a watershed of about 57 minutes.
Finally, as a quick check, the analyst can evaluate the Tc by using an ad hoc method
representing Tc, in hours, as the square root of drainage area, in square miles. For the
example, the square root of the drainage area yields a Tc estimate of about 0.71 hours or
about 42 minutes, which is reasonably close to 57 minutes. However, 57 minutes is
preferable. This example is shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Example Application of Kerby-Kirpich Method
4.3.5 NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION SERVICE (NRCS) METHOD FOR

ESTIMATING TC
The NRCS method for estimating Tc is applicable for small watersheds, in which the
majority of flow is overland flow such that timing of the peak flow is not significantly
affected by the contribution flow routed through underground storm drain systems. With
the NRCS method:
Eq. 4-7
where:
tsh = sheet flow travel time
tsc = shallow concentrated flow travel time
tch = channel flow travel time

NRCS 1986 provides the following descriptions of these flow components:

Sheet flow is flow over plane surfaces, usually occurring in the headwater of streams. With
sheet flow, the friction value is an effective roughness coefficient that includes the effect of
raindrop impact; drag over the plane surface; obstacles such as litter, crop ridges, and rocks;
and erosion and transportation of sediment.
After a maximum of 300 ft, sheet flow usually becomes a shallow concentrated flow.
Open channels are assumed to begin where surveyed cross section information has been
obtained, where channels are visible on aerial photographs or, generally speaking, where
blue lines (indicating streams) appear on quadrangle sheets (such as topographic maps or
quadrangle sheets).
For open channel flow, consider the uniform flow velocity based on bank-full flow
conditions. That is, the main channel is flowing full without flow in the overbanks. This
assumption avoids the significant iteration associated with rainfall intensity or discharges
(because rainfall intensity and discharge are dependent on time of concentration).
For conduit flow, in a proposed storm drain system, compute the velocity at uniform depth
based on the computed discharge at the upstream. Otherwise, if the conduit is in existence,
determine full capacity flow in the conduit, and determine the velocity at capacity flow.
You may need to compare this velocity later with the velocity calculated during conduit
analysis. If there is a significant difference and the conduit is a relatively large component
of the total travel path, recompute the time of concentration using the latter velocity
estimate. If it is determined that a low slope condition or a transitional slope condition
exists, the user should consider using an adjusted slope in calculating the time of
concentration. A PC Windows based version of TR-55 (WinTR55) can be downloaded
from the NRCS website.
4.3.6 SHEET FLOW TIME CALCULATION

Sheet flow travel time is computed as:
Eq. 4-8
where:
tsh = sheet flow travel time (hr.)
nol = overland flow roughness coefficient (provided in Table 4.3)
Lsh = sheet flow length (ft) (300 ft. maximum)
P2 = 2-year, 24-h rainfall depth (in.)
Ssh = sheet flow slope (ft/ft)

Table 4.3 Overland Flow Roughness Coefficients for Use in NRCS Method in
Calculating Sheet Flow Travel Time (Not Manning’s Roughness Coefficient) (NRCS
1986)
4.3.7 SHALLOW CONCENTRATED FLOW

Shallow concentrated flow travel time is computed as:
Eq. 4-9
where:
tsc = shallow concentrated flow time (hr.)
Lsc = shallow concentrated flow length (ft)
K = 16.13 for unpaved surface, 20.32 for paved surface
Ssc = shallow concentrated flow slope (ft/ft)
4.3.8 CHANNEL FLOW
Channel flow travel time is computed by dividing the channel distance by the flow rate
obtained from Manning’s equation. This can be written as:
Eq. 4-10
where:
tch = channel flow time (hr.)
Lch = channel flow length (ft)
Sch = channel flow slope (ft/ft)
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
R = channel hydraulic radius (ft), and is equal to a/pw
where:

a = cross sectional area (ft2)

pw = wetted perimeter (ft), consider the uniform flow velocity based on bank-full flow conditions.
That is, the main channel is flowing full without flow in the over-banks. This assumption avoids the
significant iteration associated with other methods that employ rainfall intensity or discharges
(because rainfall intensity and discharge are dependent on time of concentration).
4.3.9 MANNING’S ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT VALUES
Manning’s roughness coefficients are used to calculate flows using Manning’s equation.
Values from American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1992, FHWA 2001, and Chow
1959 are presented in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Manning's Roughness Coefficient for Overland Sheet Flow
4.4 DESIGN RAINFALL INTENSITY

Rainfall intensity (i): Rainfall intensity is the intensity of rainfall in inches per hour for a
duration equal to the time of concentration. Intensity is the rate of rainfall per hour for the
total amount of rainfall over an interval of time such that intensity multiplied by duration
equals amount of rain, i.e., an intensity of 6 inches/hr for a duration of 10 min indicates a
total rainfall amount of 6 × 10/60 = 1.0 in. The user will need Intensity-Duration

information for computation of discharge for areas that have a time of concentration greater
than the minimum.
Rainfall is the critical variable for all storm water studies and designs. Understanding of
rainfall process and the significance of the variables used to arrive at the design rainfall is
very important to prepare reasonable drainage and other storm water management designs.
Design rainfall intensity represents the average rainfall intensity of duration equal to the
time of concentration for the catchment.
The total storm rainfall depth at a point, for a given rainfall duration and Average
Recurrence Interval, ARI, is a function of the local climate. Rainfall depths can be further
processed and converted into rainfall intensities (intensity = depth/duration), which are then
presented in the form of “Intensity-Duration-Frequency” (IDF) curves. Such curves are
particularly useful in storm water drainage design because many computational procedures
require rainfall input in the form of average rainfall intensity.
The three variables, intensity duration and frequency are all related to each other. The data
are normally presented as curves displaying two of the variables, intensity and duration, for
a range of frequencies. Following are the major steps to develop Intensity Duration
Frequency Equations (Curves).
Step 1. Compile Maximum Annual Precipitation Data of the available shorter durations.
Step 2. Compute the mean and standard deviations of precipitation records of each
duration.
Step 3. For precipitation records of each duration, apply Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type 1
(EV1) distribution to compute values of different average recurrence intervals
(AVI’s).
Step 4. Employ bi-variate linear regression model on the standard IDF equation (for trial
values of ) on the standard IDF equation converted in to linear form by taking
logarithms of both sides to get ‘b‘ and ‘c‘ values. The trial value of ‘b‘ that results
in the highest correlation coefficient remains the ‘b‘ value of the equation.

4.4.1 AREAL REDUCTION FACTOR

It is important to understand that IDF curves give the rainfall intensity at a point. Spatial
characteristics storms are important for larger catchments. In general, the larger the
catchment and the longer the rainfall duration, the less uniformly the rainfall is distributed
over a catchment. Generally, for any specified ARI and duration, the average rainfall depth
over an area is less than the point rainfall depth. The ratio of the areal average rainfall with
a specified duration and ARI to the point rainfall with the same duration and ARI is termed
as the areal reduction factor.
Areal reduction factors are applied to only design point rainfall intensities, to account for
the fact that it is not likely that rainfall will occur at the same intensity over the entire area
of a storm (the principle of design storms assumes that the design storm is centered over the
catchment). The areal reduction is expressed as a factor less than 1.0. No areal reduction
factor is to be used for catchment areas of up to 10 km2. For larger catchments, the
following areal reduction factor equation developed for East Africa by Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, Department of the Environment (TRRL Laboratory Report 623) could
be used.
ARF = 1- 0.044A0.275 Eq. 4-11
where:
ARF = Areal Reduction Factor
A = Area of catchment (km2)
Storm direction and movement can have marked effects, particularly in areas with
predominating weather patterns and are particularly relevant to the case of operation and/or
control of a large system of storm water drainage networks. However it is common practice
to neglect such effects on small catchments.
4.4.2 RAINFALL EXCESS

There is a time gap between the beginning of rainfall and commencement of runoff. This is
mainly because of initial abstraction. Any type of urban land and land cover has some
abstraction capacity. The magnitude depends on the surface characteristics and the
antecedent moisture content. Filling of depressions is the other requirement. It is after
filling all these volumes that runoff commences.
Even after rainfall commences, some amount infiltrates at a rate that again depends on
surface and soil characteristics. The infiltration rate is nil for impervious surfaces. A
rainfall, therefore, whose magnitude does not exceed the volume of initial abstraction and
depression storage and whose intensity does not override the infiltration rate of the
watershed will not produce runoff. From the above statements, it is seen that the actual
rainfall duration needs to be longer than the computed time of concentration by the time
require to fill the initial abstraction and depression storage.
There are three models used to determine the pattern of loss.
A. Constant loss rate: - In this model, the rainfall excess is the residual left after
a selected constant rate of infiltration.
B. Initial loss and continuing loss: - This model is similar to (a) except that no
runoff is assumed to occur until a given initial loss capacity has been

satisfied, regardless of the intensity of rainfall. The continuing loss is at a

constant rate. A variation of this model is to have an initial loss followed a
loss consisting of a constant fraction of the rainfall in the remaining time.
C. Infiltration Curve: - In this model, the basic assumption is the reduction of
infiltration with time.
Loss values are derived by analyzing observed rainfall and runoff data. For design an
average value is usually needed and since there is no reason for expecting loss rate values
for a catchment to conform to a particular distribution, the median of the derived values is
probably the most appropriate for design.
4.4.3 RUNOFF COEFFICIENT RATIONAL METHOD

The estimation of rainfall excess depends on the method used to estimate the discharge. In
Rational Method, the amount of excess rainfall is determined through an appropriate
determination of the Rational Coefficient. Representative values of rational coefficients for
urban and rural areas are depicted in Table 4.12 and 4.13.
The runoff coefficient (rational coefficient) is difficult to determine precisely and can be
interpreted in different ways. Engineering judgment is necessary in selecting the
appropriate procedure. Selection of coefficients should be based on ultimate catchment
development and weighted average (calculated through equation 4.12) need be computed
where more than one land use is encountered in a catchment.
Eq. 4-12
Where:
A1, A2, An = areas of relatively uniform land use or surface character each compromising the total area
A.
C1, C2, C n = the corresponding runoff coefficients
Table 4.5 Typical Values of Rational Coefficients for Urban Areas

Table 4.6 Typical Values of Rational Coefficients for Rural Areas
4.4.4 MODIFIED RATIONAL METHOD (STORAGE COEFFICIENT)

As the catchment area gets larger, the effect of storage on the attenuation of the flood waves
becomes more pronounced. To allow for this effect, the peak discharge calculated by the
basic Rational Formula should be multiplied by a storage coefficient factor for
modification.
Two approaches are known to determine such effects. The runoff from larger catchments
stays longer than duration equal to time of concentration after stoppage of rainfall. This is
attributed to the cumulative effect of micro storages of and gradual release from the
catchment. The effect of such storage is estimated to prolong the duration of flow for as
long as 1.67tc after stoppage of rainfall. For the maximum prolongation Tc + Td = 1.67t
(Figure 4.2) the peak flow by Basic Rational Method is reduced by 25%.
Figure 4.2 Modified Rational Method

The reduction in flow could also be estimated by this equation:
Eq. 4-13
where:
Cs = a reduction factor of the discharge estimated by the Rational Method
tc = time of concentration
td = time of flow in the drain
For design purposes the lesser of the two could be adopted.
4.4.5 TIME AREA METHOD

The time area method of obtaining runoff or discharge from rainfall, illustrated in Figure
4.3, can be considered as an extension and improvement of the rational method. It is
usually used for sensitive quantification works as it is rather rigorous. The peak discharge
is the sum of flow contributed from sub divisions of the catchment defined by time contours
(called isochrones) which are lines of equal flow time to the point where the discharge is
required. In this method flow from each contributing area bounded by two isochrones (T -
ΔT, T) is obtained from the product of the mean intensity of effective rainfall, i, from time
T-ΔT to time T and the area ΔA. For instance the flow at time at X at time 4h is given by:
Q4 = i3 ΔA1 i2 ΔA2 i1 ΔA3 i0 ΔA4 Eq. 4-14

i.e.:
As before, the whole catchment is taken to be contributing to the flow after time equals Tc.
Using the above nomenclature, it is seen that the peak flow at X when the whole catchment
is contributing to the flow, a period Tc after commencement of rainfall, is:
Eq. 4-15
Where:
n, the number of incremental areas between successive isochrones, is given by Tc/ΔT, and k is a
counter.

Figure 4.3 Rainfall Bar Graph and Catchment Showing Isochrones of Travel Time
The crude assumption made in the Rational method of uniform rainfall intensity over the
whole catchment and during the whole Tc is avoided in the time - area method, where the
catchment contributions are subdivided in time. The varying intensities within a storm are
averaged over discrete period according to the isochrone time interval selected. Hence in
deriving flood peaks for design purposes, a design storm with critical sequence of intensities
can be used for the maximum intensities applied to the contributing areas of the catchment
that have most rapid runoff.
To fix isochrones, a considerable knowledge of the catchment is required. Isochrones for
urban areas are more readily obtained by direct observation during storm periods and are
more simply determined for small catchments. The simple discrete form of time – area
method can be generalized by making T very small and considering increases in
contributing area to be continuous with time.
4.4.6 EFFECTS OF BASIN CHARACTERISTICS ON RUNOFF

The spatial and temporal variations of precipitation and the concurrent variations of the
individual abstraction processes determine the characteristics of the runoff from a given
storm. These are not the only factors involved, however. Once the local abstractions have
been satisfied for a small area of the watershed, water begins to flow overland and
eventually into a natural drainage channel such as a gully or a stream valley. At this point,
the hydraulics of the natural drainage channels have a large influence on the character of the
total runoff from the watershed.
A few of the many factors that determine the hydraulic character of the natural drainage
system are drainage area, slope, hydraulic roughness, natural and channel storage, drainage
density, channel length, antecedent moisture conditions, and other factors. The effect that
each of these factors has on the important characteristics of runoff is often not simple to
quantify.

a. Drainage Area
Drainage area is the most important watershed characteristic that affects runoff. The
larger the contributing drainage area, the larger will be the flood runoff. Regardless
of the method utilized to evaluate flood flows, peak flow is directly related to the
drainage area.
b. Slope
Steep slopes tend to result in rapid runoff responses to local rainfall excess and
consequently higher peak discharges. The runoff is quickly removed from the
watershed, so the hydrograph assumes short duration with a high peak. The total
volume of runoff is also affected by slope. If the slope is very flat, the rainfall will
not be removed rapidly. The process of infiltration will have more time to affect the
rainfall excess, thereby increasing the abstractions and resulting in a reduction of the
total volume of rainfall that appears directly as runoff.
Slope is very important in how quickly a drainage channel will convey water, and
therefore, it influences the sensitivity of a watershed to precipitation events of
various time durations. Watersheds with steep slopes will rapidly convey incoming
rainfall, and if the rainfall is characterized by high intensity and relatively short
duration, the watershed will respond very quickly with the peak flow occurring
shortly after commencement of precipitation. If these convective storms occur with
a given frequency, then the resulting runoff can be expected to occur with a similar
frequency. On the other hand, for a watershed with a flat slope, the response to the
same storm will not be as rapid, and depending on a number of other factors, the
frequency of the resulting discharge may be dissimilar to the storm frequency.
c. Hydraulic Roughness
Hydraulic roughness is a composite of the physical characteristics that influence the
depth and speed of water flowing across the surface, whether natural or channelized.
It affects both the time response of a drainage channel and the channel storage
characteristics. Hydraulic roughness has a marked effect on the characteristics of
the runoff resulting from a given storm. The peak rate of discharge is usually
inversely proportional to hydraulic roughness. Roughness affects the runoff
hydrograph in a manner opposite of slope.
Roughness also has an influence on the frequency of discharges of certain
magnitudes by affecting the response time of the watershed to precipitation events of
specified frequencies.
d. Storage
It is common for a watershed to have natural or manmade storage that greatly affects
the response to a given precipitation event. Common features that contribute to
storage within a watershed are lakes, marshes, heavily vegetated over-bank areas,
and the storage in the floodplains of large, wide rivers. Storage can have a
significant effect in reducing the peak rate of discharge, although this reduction is
not necessarily universal.
Storage will redistribute the volume over time, but will not directly change the
volume. By redistributing the runoff over time, storage may allow other abstraction
processes to decrease the runoff as was the case with slope and roughness.

Storage tends to dampen the response of a watershed to very short events and to
accentuate the response to very long events. This alters the relationship between
frequency of precipitation and the frequency of the resultant runoff.
e. Drainage Density
Drainage density can be defined as the ratio between the number of well defined
drainage channels and the total drainage area in a given watershed. Drainage
density is usually assumed to equal the total length of continuously flowing streams
(km) divided by the drainage area (km2).
Drainage density has a strong influence on both the spatial and temporal response of
a watershed to a given precipitation event. If a watershed is well covered by a
pattern of interconnected drainage channels, and the overland flow time is relatively
short, the watershed will respond more rapidly than if it were sparsely drained and
overland flow time was relatively long.
Drainage density has impact on the total volume of runoff since some of the
abstraction processes are directly related to how long the rainfall excess exists as
overland flow. Therefore, the lower the density of drainage, the lower will be the
volume of runoff from a given precipitation event.
f. Channel Length
Channel length is an important watershed characteristic. The longer the channel, the
more time it takes for water to be conveyed from the headwaters of the watershed to
the outlet. Consequently, if all other factors are the same, a watershed with a longer
channel length will usually have a slower response to a given precipitation input
than a watershed with a shorter channel length. As the hydrograph travels along a
channel, it is attenuated and extended in time due to the effects of channel storage
and hydraulic roughness.
g. Antecedent Moisture Conditions

Antecedent moisture conditions, which are the soil moisture conditions of the
watershed at the beginning of a storm, affect the volume of runoff generated by a
particular storm event. Runoff volumes are related directly to antecedent moisture
levels. The smaller the moisture in the ground at the beginning of precipitation, the
lower will be the runoff. Conversely, the larger the moisture content of the soil, the
higher the runoff attributable to a particular storm.
h. Other Factors
There can be other factors within the watershed that determine the characteristics of
runoff, including the extent and type of vegetation, the presence of channel
modifications, and flood control structures. These factors modify the runoff by
either augmenting or negating some of the basin characteristics described above.
4.5 ESTIMATION OF RUNOFF

4.5.1 GENERAL
Design methods determine the arrangement of a drainage system and the characteristics and
sizes of its components. They can involve full analysis or simplified procedures.
Generally, the larger, more complex and expensive the project, the more elaborate the

method to be used. Consequences of failure which involve an assessment of the resulting

risk should also influence the choice of the method.
There are two basic approaches to estimate discharges from rainfall. The first approach
relates peak runoff to rainfall intensity through a proportionality factor. The second
approach starts with a rainfall intensity hyetograph, accounts the losses and temporary
storage effects and yields a discharge hydrograph. Strictly speaking, the approach adopted
by the first method could also be interpreted in such a way that it results in a simplified
hydrograph. Classified under the first approach are Rational and Modified Rational
Models. Numerous methods are available under the second approach.
For larger developments and for schemes which can have implication for the drainage
system into which the outfall discharges or the receiving water, time-varying design
precipitation and computer-based flow simulation models are recommended. For any
application, it is necessary to select a method where the appropriate balance between cost,
complexity and required accuracy is achieved.
Many methods that are based on mathematical models of the physical process involved are
available. These are expressed as a set of computations performed by hand, programmable
calculator or computer program. They include:
• hydrological models which calculate peak flow rates, storage volumes or
flow hydrographs for system components; and
• other models and computations concerning water quality, maintenance
requirements and economics.
4.5.2 RATIONAL METHOD

The rational method is the most common method in use for the design of storm drains when
the momentary peak flow rate is desired. Its use should be limited to systems with drainage
areas of 160 acres or less. Drainage systems involving detention storage and pumping
stations require the development of a runoff hydrograph.
The formula for the Rational Method is:
Q=CIA Eq. 4-17
where:
Q = peak discharge, cfs
C = runoff coefficient
I = average rainfall intensity, in./hr, for a storm duration equal to the time of concentration, Tc
A = drainage area, acres
This method is a simplified model of the hydrologic process. Therefore, it should only be
used for small drainage areas, and preferably for areas with the same general basin
characteristics. It should be used to determine the peak discharge for pavement drainage
design.
The following assumptions are inherent in the Rational Formula:
• The peak flow occurs when the entire watershed is contributing to the flow.
• The rainfall intensity is the same over the entire drainage area.

• The rainfall intensity is uniform over time duration equal to the time of
concentration, Tc. The time of concentration is the time required for water
to travel from the hydraulically most remote point of the basin to the point of
interest.
• The frequency of the computed peak flow under the Rational Method is the
same as that of the rainfall intensity, i.e., the 10-yr rainfall intensity is
assumed to produce the 10-year peak flow under the Rational Method.
• The coefficient of runoff is the same for all storms of all recurrence
probabilities. Because of these inherent assumptions, the Rational Formula
should only be applied to drainage areas smaller than 160 acres.
Runoff Coefficient (C)
The runoff coefficient is a general representation of the drainage basin characteristics.
These include antecedent precipitation, soil moisture, infiltration, detention, evaporation,
and ground slope and cover. The coefficient "C" can be determined in one of two ways.
Exhibit 8-8 provides coefficients based on the overall character of the drainage area. The
second method develops a composite coefficient based on the percentages of different
surface types in the drainage area.
To determine C for a design frequency of 10 years or less, follow this procedure:
1. Document the predominant types of surfaces within the drainage area.
Estimate the percentage each represents.
2. Select a C for each type of surface from
3. Calculate a weighted C value for the drainage area. If a design frequency
greater than 10 years is needed, use the modified Rational formula.
4.5.3 MODIFIED RATIONAL METHOD

If a design frequency greater than 10 years is needed, determine a Ca. The modified
rational formula is:
Q = Ca C I A Eq. 4-18
Where:
Ca x C must be less than or equal to 1.0.
4.5.4 SCS RAINFALL RUNOFF RELATION

The volume of runoff (Q) depends on the volume of precipitation (P) and the volume of
runoff that is available for retention. The actual retention (P) is the difference between the
volume of precipitation and runoff. Furthermore, a certain volume of precipitation at the
beginning of the storm which is called the initial abstraction (Ia), will not appear as runoff.
The SCS assumes the following rainfall runoff relations.
Eq. 4-19

where:
S = the potential maximum retention
The actual retention, when the initial abstraction is considered, is:
F = (P - Ia) - Q Eq. 4-20
Substituting the second equation into the first results in the following:
Eq. 4-21
Rearranging yields
Eq. 4-22
Since:
Ia = 0.2S Eq. 4-23
Substituting and rearranging yields:
Eq. 4-24
Empirical studies indicate that S can be estimated by:
Eq. 4-25
Curve Number Estimation

The volume and rate of runoff depends on both meteorology and watershed characteristics,
and the estimation of runoff requires an index to represent these two factors. The
precipitation volume is probably the single most important meteorological characteristic in
estimating the volume of runoff. The soil type, land use and the hydrologic conditions of
the cover are the watershed factors that will have the most significant impact in estimating
the volume of runoff. The antecedent soil moisture will also be an important determinant of
runoff volume.
The SCS developed an index, which was called the runoff curve number (CN), to represent
the combined hydrologic effect of soil, land use, agricultural land treatment class,
hydrologic condition, and antecedent soil moisture. Curve Numbers for different soil
groups are depicted in Table 4.7. Please note that the SCS CN is not the same as the
Rational Methods “C”.

Soil Group Classification

SCS developed a soil classification system that consists of four groups, which are identified
by the letters A, B, C, and D. Soil characteristics that are associated with each group are as
follows.
Group A: Deep sand, deep loess, aggregated silt
Group B: Shallow loess, sandy loam
Group C: Clay loams, shallow sand loam, soil low in organic content, and soil
usually high in clay
Group D: Soil that swells significantly when wet, heavy plastic clays, and certain
saline soil
Table 4.7 Runoff Curve numbers for Hydrologic Soil Cover Complexes (Antecedent
Moisture Condition II, and Ia = 0.2S)

Table 4.7 Runoff Curve numbers for Hydrologic Soil Cover Complexes
(Antecedent Moisture Condition II, and Ia = 0.2S) (continued…)

Table 4.7 Runoff Curve numbers for Hydrologic Soil Cover Complexes
(Antecedent Moisture Condition II, and Ia = 0.2S) (continued…)
4.5.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE SCS RUNOFF CURVE NUMBER METHOD (SCS, 1986)
SCS could be used for larger catchments with due consideration for the following
limitations it has:
• Curve numbers describe average conditions that are useful for design
purposes. If the rainfall event used is a historical storm, the modeling
accuracy decreases.
• Use the runoff curve number equation with caution when recreating specific
features of an actual storm. The equation does not contain an expression for
time and, therefore, does not account for rainfall duration or intensity.
• The user should understand the assumption reflected in the initial abstraction
term (Ia) and should ascertain that the assumption that applies to the
situation, which consists of interception, initial infiltration, depression
storage, evapotranspiration, and other factors, was generalized as 0.2S based
on data from agricultural watersheds (S is the potential maximum retention
after runoff begins). This approximation can be especially important in
urban areas because the combination of impervious areas with pervious areas
can imply a significant initial loss that may not take place. The opposite
effect, a greater initial loss, can occur if impervious areas have surface
depressions that store some runoff.
The CN procedure is less accurate when runoff is less than 12 mm. As a check, use
another procedure to determine runoff.

• When the weighted CN is less than 40, use another procedure to determine
runoff.
4.5.6 DESIGN OF DRAINAGE IN BUILT UP AREAS
The design of a drainage line in built up areas could be affected employing the design
methods discussed in the different sections of this manual. The design of a network of
drainage lines which is usually encountered in built up portions of urban areas requires
systematic handling of the design procedure. This could be facilitated using Design
Formats. The design format adopted for the Manual is given in Appendix A.
4.6 LOCAL FLOOD OBSERVATION FLOOD HISTORY
The history of past floods and their effect on existing structures is of paramount importance
in making flood hazard evaluation studies, and for sizing of structures. Helpful and
necessary information in determining the peak runoff is flood mark observation. Vital
information could be obtained from the local residents in the vicinity of the site or flood
marks at the site. Information may also be obtained from road maintenance authorities and
newspaper accounts. The flood marks could be employed in methods such as Slope Area
for estimation of peak floods in the past.
When the duration and intensity of the relevant rainstorm are known values, storm losses
can be calculated and a more accurate discharge computed. Changes in channel and
catchment conditions since the occurrence of the flood shall be evaluated in relating
historical floods to present conditions.

5 UNIT HYDROGRAPH METHOD

5.1 GENERAL
A hydrograph represents runoff as it varies over time at a particular location within the
watershed. The area integrated under the hydrograph represents the volume of runoff.
Estimation of a runoff hydrograph, as opposed to the peak rate of runoff, is necessary for
water-sheds with complex runoff characteristics. The hydrograph method also should be
used when storage must be evaluated, as it accounts explicitly for volume and timing of
runoff. The hydro-graph method has no drainage area size limitation.
In cases for which a statistical distribution cannot be fitted and a regression equation will
not predict adequately the design flow, some sort of empirical or conceptual rainfall-runoff
model can be used to predict the design flow. Such application is founded on the principle
that the Annual Exceedance Probability (AEP) of the computed runoff peak or volume is
the same as the AEP of the rainfall used as input to (the boundary condition for) the model.
The hydrograph method is applicable for watersheds in which Tc is longer than the duration
of peak rainfall intensity of the design storm. Precipitation applied to the watershed model
is uniform spatially, but varies with time. The hydrograph method accounts for losses (soil
infiltration for example) and transforms the remaining (excess) rainfall into a runoff
hydrograph at the outlet of the watershed. Figure 5.1 shows the different components that
must be represented to simulate the complete response of a watershed.
Because the resulting runoff hydrograph is a time series of flow values, the method provides
a peak flow value as well as volume of runoff. This makes the method suitable for design
problems requiring runoff volume as a design parameter.
Successful application of the hydrograph method requires the designer to:
• Define the temporal and spatial distribution of the desired AEP design storm.
• Specify appropriate loss model parameters to compute the amount of
precipitation lost to other processes, such as infiltration, and does not run off
the watershed.
• Specify appropriate parameters to compute runoff hydrograph resulting from
excess (not lost) precipitation.
• If necessary for the application, specify appropriate parameters to compute
the lagged and attenuated hydrograph at downstream locations. Basic steps
to developing and applying a rainfall-runoff model for predicting the
required design flow are illustrated in Figure 5.2. These steps are described
in more detail below.
Chapter 5 Unit Hydrograph Method 5-1

Figure 5.1 Components of the Hydrograph Method

Figure 5.2 Steps in developing and applying the hydrograph method
A unit hydrograph is a special case of flood hydrograph. Specifically a unit hydrograph is

the hydrograph that results from 1 millimeter of excess rainfall generated uniformly over
the watershed at a uniform rate during a specified period of time. While discussing unit
hydrographs, the following five points warrant emphasis.
1. The rainfall occurs from excess rainfall.
2. The volume of runoff is 1 millimeter.
3. The excess rainfall is applied at a uniform rate.
4. The excess is applied with uniform spatial
distribution.

5. The intensity of rainfall excess is constant

over a specified period of time, which is
termed as the duration of the rainfall.
5.2 SCS UNIT HYDROGRAPH METHOD
There are several types of unit hydrographs. The ones of interest herein are the
dimensionless and D-hour unit hydrograph in which case the duration of excess rainfall is
D-hours. A dimensionless unit hydrograph is a hydrograph the ordinates of which are given
as a ratio of the time to peak discharge (qp) and the time axis of which is measured as a ratio
of the time to peak (tp); that is, it is a graph of q/qp versus t/tp, where q is the discharge at
any time t.
Two steps are employed to calculate the hydrograph, the runoff Curve Number method and
the Tabular Hydrograph Method. The Runoff Curve Number method is used to determine
the runoff and the Tabular Hydrograph method is used to calculate the composite
hydrograph at the watershed outlet.
To calculate a hydrograph the simplified method known as TR-55 methodology begins with
imposing a specific time distribution of rainfall uniformly in space over the watershed. The
rainfall is converted to runoff with the Runoff Curve Number method. A unit hydrograph is
obtained based on sub-area and event specific variables. The unit hydrograph is then scaled
by the rainfall to obtain the hydrograph using the Tabular Hydrograph method.
5.2.1 SCS DIMENSIONLESS UNIT HYDROGRAPH
The SCS methods use dimensionless unit hydrographs that are based on an extensive
analysis of measured data. Unit hydrographs were evaluated for a large number of actual
watersheds and then made dimensionless. An average of these dimensionless unit
hydrographs was developed. The time base of unit hydrograph was approximately five
times the time-to-peak and approximately 3/8 of the total volume accrued before the time-
to-peak. The inflection point on the recession limb occurs at approximately 1.7 times the
time-to-peak and the unit hydrograph has a curvilinear shape. The average dimensionless
unit hydrograph is shown in Figure 5.3 and the discharge ratios for selected values of the
time ratio are given in Table 5.1.

Figure 5.3 Log time versus log precipitation depth

The curvilinear hydrograph can be approximated by a triangular unit hydrograph that has
more or less similar characteristics. Figure 5.4 shows the comparison of the two unit
hydrographs. While the time base of the triangular unit hydrograph is only 8/3 of the time-
to-peak (compared to 5 for the curvilinear unit hydrograph, the area under the rising limbs
of the two unit hydrographs are the same (~37.5%).

Figure 5.4 Dimensionless Curvilinear Unit Hydrograph and Equivalent Triangular

Hydrograph

Table 5.1 Ratio of Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph and Mass Curve

5.2.2 PEAK DISCHARGE OF THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH

The area under the unit hydrograph equals the volume of direct runoff, which was estimated
by:
Q = ½ qp (tp + tr) Eq. 5-1

Where:
tp = time-to-peak
tr = the recession time
qp = the peak discharge.
Solving the above equation for qp and rearranging yields:
Eq. 5-2
Letting K replace the contents within the bracket yields:
Eq. 5-3
Considering area to be measured in km2, p t to be measured in hours, and the discharge to be

obtained in m3/s, the formula could be rearranged as:
Eq. 5-4
For mountainous watershed, the constant may go as high as 0.258 and for flat swampy areas
it may come down as low as 0.129.
The time-to-peak in the peak discharge equation may be expressed in terms of the duration
of unit precipitation excess and the time of concentration. Figure 5.4 provides the following
relationships:
Eq. 5-5
Where:
D= rainfall duration

5.2.3 CONVOLUTION
The dimensionless unit hydrograph is made dimensional by computing the peak discharge
and time-to-peak. The design hydrograph is computed by translating the excess
precipitation employing the unit hydrograph by a process named as convolution.
Analytically speaking, convolution is referred to as the theory of linear super positioning.
5.3 TRRL EAST AFRICAN FLOOD MODEL
5.3.1 FORM OF MODEL
The most widely used dimensionless unit hydrograph is that of the US National Resource
Conservation Service (NRCS), previously known as the US Soil Conservation Service
(SCS). The similar results for the ratio of time to peak to base time for other catchments is
not satisfactorily applicable in East African catchments studied by TRRL. In the TRRL
East African Flood Model the base time is assumed to be the time from 1% of peak flow on
the rising limb to 10% of peak flow on the falling limb of the hydrograph. Defined this
way, the ratio of base time to time to peak is approximately 3.0 for US hydrographs. For
East African catchments it varied between 2.7 and 11.0. The use of a single hydrograph
base on time to peak was therefore not appropriate.
A much more stable ratio was found to be the peak flow (Q) divided by the average flow
measured over the base time ( ) (Peak Flow Factor):
Eq. 5-6
The peak flow can therefore be simply estimated if the average flow during the base time of
the hydrograph can be calculated.
The total volume of runoff is given by:
RO = (P - Y) CA * A * 103 , in m3 Eq. 5-7

where:
P = rainfall (mm) during time period equal to the base time
Y = initial retention
CA = contributing area coefficient
A = catchment area (km2)
If the hydrograph base time is measured to a point on the recession curve at which the flow
is one tenth of the peak flow, then the volume under the hydrograph is approximately 7%
less than the total run off given the equation.
The average flow ( ) is therefore given by:
Eq. 5-8
where:
TB = hydrograph base time (hrs.)

Estimates of Y and CA are required to calculate RO and lag time K to calculate TB.
5.3.2 INITIAL RETENTION (Y)
In arid and semi arid zones an initial retention of 5 mm could be considered. Elsewhere
zero initial retention could be assumed.
5.3.3 CONTRIBUTING AREA COEFFICIENT (CA)
Contributing area coefficient is a coefficient that reflects the effects of the catchment
wetness and the land use. A grassed catchment at field capacity is taken as a standard value
of contributing area coefficient. The design value of the contributing area coefficient could
be estimated from the following equation.
CA = CS * CW * C L Eq. 5-9
Where:
CS = the standard value of contributing area coefficient for a grassed catchment at field capacity
(Table 5.2)
CW = the catchment wetness factor (Table 5.3)
CL = the land use factor (Table 5.4)
Table 5.2 Standard Contributing Area Coefficient (Wet Zone Catchment, Short Grass
Cover)
Table 5.3 Catchment Wetness Factor

Table 5.4 Land Use Factor (Base assumes short grass cover)
5.3.4 CATCHMENT LAG TIME (K)

The appropriate value of lag time can be estimated from Table 5.5. In assessing which
category to place a given catchment, it should be remembered that generally only small
areas either side of the stream are contributing to the flood hydrograph. It is these areas,
therefore, which must be assessed.
Table 5.5 Catchment Lag Time
5.3.5 BASE TIME

The rainfall time (TP) is the time during which the rainfall intensity remains at high level.
This can be approximated by the time during which 60% of the total rainfall occurs. Using
the general intensity duration frequency equation,
Eq. 5-10
the time to give 60% of the total rainfall is given by solving the above equation.
Eq. 5-11
Values for the various rainfall zones of East Africa are given in Table 5.6.

Table 5.6 Rainfall Time (TP) for East African 10 year Storm
The flood wave attenuation (TA) could be estimated from the previous equation.
Eq. 5-12
where:
L = length of main stream (km)
= average flow during base time (m3/s)
S = average slope along main stream
The base time is, therefore, estimated:
TB = TP + 2.3K + TA Eq. 5-13

6 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF GAUGED DATA

6.1 GENERAL
Analysis of gauged data permits an estimate of the peak discharge in terms of its probability
or frequency of exceedance at a given site. This is done by statistical methods provided
sufficient data are available at the site to permit a meaningful statistical analysis to be made.
It is suggested that at least 10 years of record are necessary to warrant a statistical analysis
by method presented therein.
At some sites, historical data may exist on large floods prior to or after the period over
which stream flow data were collected. Whenever possible, these data should be compiled
and documented to improve frequency estimates.
6.2 ANALYSIS OF ANNUAL AND PARTIAL-DURATION SERIES
Before analyzing data, it is necessary to arrange it in a systematic manner. Data can be
arranged in a number of ways depending on the specific characteristics that are to be
examined. An arrangement of data by a specific characteristic is called a distribution or a
series.
The most common arrangement of hydrologic data is by magnitude of the annual peak
discharge. This arrangement is called an annual series. Another method used in flood data
arrangement is the partial-duration series. This procedure uses all peak flows (for instance
all flows above the discharge of approximately bank-full stage) above some base value.
Partial-duration series are used primarily in defining annual flood damages when more than
one event that causes flood damages can occur in any year. The partial-duration series
avoids a problem with the annual-maximum series. Annual maximum series analyses
ignore floods that are not the highest flood of that year even though they are larger than the
highest floods of other years. While partial-duration series produce larger sample sizes than
annual maximum series, they require a criterion that defines independence of the discharges
to be considered for the frequency analysis.
The difference between the results of the two methods is large at the lower flows and
becomes very small at the higher peak discharges. If the recurrence interval of these peak
flows is computed as the order divided by the number of events (not years), the recurrence
interval of the partial-duration series can be computed in terms of the annual series by the
equation:
Eq. 6-1
where:
TB and TA are the recurrence intervals of the partial-duration series and annual series, respectively.
Comparison between analyses results of the two methods shows that the maximum
deviation between the two series occurs for flows with recurrence intervals less than 10
years. At this interval the deviation is about 5% and for the 5-year discharge, the deviation
is about 10%. For the less frequent floods, the two series approach one another.
When using the partial-duration series, one must be especially careful that the selected flood
peaks are independent events. This is a tough practical problem since secondary flood
Chapter 6 Frequency Analysis of Gauged Data 6-1

peaks may occur during the same flood as a result of high antecedent moisture conditions.
In this case, the secondary flood is not an independent event. One should also be cautious
with the choice of the lower limit or base flood since it directly affects the computation of
the properties of the distribution (i.e., the mean, the variance and standard deviation, and the
coefficient of skew) all of which may change the peak flow determinations.
For this reason, it is probably best to utilize the annual series and convert the results to a
partial-duration series through use of Equation 6-1. For the less frequent events (greater
than 5 to 10 years), the annual series is entirely appropriate and no other analysis is
required.
6.3 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS CONCEPTS
Future floods cannot be predicted with certainty. Therefore, their magnitude and frequency
are treated using probability concepts. To do this, a sample of flood magnitudes are
obtained and analyzed for the purpose of estimating a population that can be used to
represent flooding at that location. The assumed population is then used in making
projections of the magnitude and frequency of floods. It is important to recognize that the
population is estimated from sample information and that the assumed population, not the
sample, is then used for making statements about the likelihood of future flooding. The
purpose of this section is to introduce concepts that are important in analyzing sample flood
data in order to identify a probability distribution that can represent the occurrence of
flooding.
6.3.1 PLOTTING POSITION FORMULAS
When making a flood frequency analysis, it is common to plot both the assumed population
and the peak discharges of the sample. To plot the sample values on frequency paper, it is
necessary to assign an exceedance probability to each magnitude. A plotting position
formula is used for this purpose. A number of different formulas have been proposed for
computing plotting position probabilities, with no unanimity on the preferred method. A
general formula for computing plotting positions is:
Eq. 6-2
where:
i = the rank of the ordered flood magnitudes, with the largest flood having a rank of 1
n = the record length
a and b = constants for a particular plotting position formula

The Weibull, Pw (a = b =0), Hazen, Ph ( a = b =0.5), and Cunnane, Pc ( a = b =0.4) are three
possible plotting position formulas:
Eq. 6-3
The data are plotted by placing a point for each value of the flood series at the intersection
of the flood magnitude and the exceedance probability computed with the plotting position
formula. The plotted data should approximate the population line if the assumed population
model is a reasonable assumption.
6.3.2 LOG-PEARSON TYPE III DISTRIBUTION

Flood frequency analysis uses sample information to fit a population, which is a probability
distribution. These distributions have parameters that must be estimated in order to make
probability statements about the likelihood of future flood magnitudes. A number of
methods for estimating the parameters are available. The method of moments, which is just
one of the parameter-estimation methods is applied in this manual.
Several cumulative frequency distributions are commonly used in the analysis of hydrologic
data, and as a result they have been studied extensively and are now standardized. The
frequency distributions that have been found most useful in hydrologic data analysis are the
normal distribution, the log-normal distribution, the Gumbel extreme value distribution, and
the log-Pearson Type III distribution.
Log-Pearson Type III Distribution has found wide application in hydrologic analysis. It is a
three-parameter gamma distribution with a logarithmic transform of the variable. It is
widely used for flood analyses because the data quite frequently fit the assumed population.
The log-Pearson Type III distribution differs from most of other distributions in that three
parameters (mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of skew) are necessary to describe the
distribution. By judicious selection of these three parameters, it is possible to fit just about
any shape of distribution.
An abbreviated table of the table of the log-Pearson III distribution function is given in
Appendix A. Using the mean, standard deviation, and skew coefficient for any set of log-
transformed annual peak flow data, in conjunction with Appendix A, the flood with any
exceedance frequency can be computed.
6.3.3 OUTLIERS
Outliers, which may be found at either or both ends of a frequency distribution, are
measured values that occur, but appear to be from a longer sample or different population.
This is reflected when one or more data points do not follow the trend of the remaining data.
If the station skew is greater than 0.4, tests are applied for high outliers first; and if less than
-0.4, low outliers are considered first. If the station skew is between ± 0.4, both high and

low outliers are tested before any data are eliminated. The detection of high and low
outliers is obtained with the following equations, respectively:
Eq. 6-4
and
Eq. 6-5
where:
YL is the log of the high or low outlier limit
is the deviation of the sample
KN is the critical deviate taken from Appendix A
If the sample is found to contain high outliers, the peak flows should be checked against
historical data and data from nearby stations. It is recommended that high outliers be
adjusted for historical information or retained in the sample as a systematic peak. The high
outlier should not be discarded unless the peak flow is shown to be seriously in error. If a
high outlier is adjusted based on historical data, the mean and standard deviation of the log
distribution should be recomputed for the adjusted data before testing for low outliers.
To test for low outliers, the low outlier threshold YL of Equation 6-5 is computed. The
corresponding discharge XL = 10 YL is then computed. If any discharges in the flood series
are less than XL, then they are considered to be low outliers and should be deleted from the
sample.
6.3.4 INCOMPLETE RECORDS AND ZERO FLOWS

Stream flow records are often interrupted for a variety of reasons. Gages may be removed
for some period of time, there may be periods of zero flow and there may be periods when a
gage is inoperative either because the flow is too low to record or it is too large and causes a
gage malfunction. If the break in the record is not flood related, such as the removal of a
gage, no special adjustments are needed and the segments of the interrupted record can be
combined together to produce a record equal to the sum of the length of the segments.
When a gage malfunctions during a flood, it is usually possible to estimate the peak
discharge from high water marks or slope-area calculations. The estimate is made a part of
the record, and a frequency analysis performed without further adjustment.
Zero flows or flows that are too low to be recorded present more of a problem since in the
log transform, these flows produce undefined values. In this case, an adjustment based on
conditional probability that is applicable if not more than 25% of the sample is eliminated.
The adjustment for zero flows also is applied only after all other data adjustments have been
made. The adjustment is made by first calculating the relative frequency that the annual
peak will exceed the level below which flows are zero, or not considered (the truncation
level):
Eq. 6-6

where:
M is the number of flows above the truncated level
n is the total period of record.
The exceedance probabilities, P, of selected points on the frequency curve are recomputed
as a conditional probability as follows:
P = Pa * Pd Eq. 6-7
where:
Pd is the selected probability
Eq. 6-8
Since the frequency curve adjusted by Equation 6-8 has unknown statistics, its properties,
synthetic values, are computed by the equations:
Eq. 6-9
and
Eq. 6-10
where:
QS , Ss , and Gs are the mean, standard deviation, and skew of the synthetic frequency curve, Q0.01 ,
Q0.10 and Q0.50 are discharges with exceedance probabilities of 0.01, 0.10 and 0.50, respectively,
K0.01 and K0.50 are the log-Pearson III deviates for exceedance probabilities of 0.01 and 0.50,
respectively.
The values of Q0.01, Q0.10 and Q0.50 must usually be interpolated since probabilities
computed with Equation 6.11 are not normally those needed to compute the properties of
the synthetic or truncated distribution.
The log-Pearson III distribution can then be computed in the conventional manner using the
synthetic statistical properties. It is recommended that the distribution be compared with
the observed flows since data adjusted for conditional probability may not follow a log-
Pearson III distribution.
The procedures for the aforementioned discussions could be summarized as follows:
1. Obtain site information, the systematic station data, and historic information.
This data should be examined for changes in watershed conditions, gage
datum, flow regulation, etc. It is in this initial step that missing data should
be estimated if indicated by the project.
2. Order the flood data, determine the plotting position, and plot the data on
selected probability graph paper (usually log-probability). Examine the data
trend to select the standard distribution that best describes the population
from which the sample is taken. Use a mixed-population analysis if indicated
by the data trend and the watershed information.

3. Compute the sample statistics and the frequency curve for the selected
distribution. Plot the frequency curve with the station data to determine how
well the flood data are distributed according to the selected distribution.
4. Check for high and low outliers. Adjust for historic data, retain or eliminate
outliers, and recompute the frequency curve.
5. Adjust data for missing low flows and zero flows and recompute the
frequency curve.
6. Check the resulting frequency curve for reliability.

7 DETENTION BASIN DESIGN

7.1 GENERAL
The temporary storage or detention of excess storm water runoff as a means of controlling
the quantity and quality of storm water is a fundamental principle in storm water
management and a necessary element of a growing number of highway storm drainage
systems. Previous concepts that called for the rapid removal of storm water runoff from
developed areas, usually by channelization, are now being combined with methods for
storing storm water runoff to prevent overloading of existing downstream drainage systems
and to control their quality.
The storage of storm water can reduce the frequency and extent of downstream flooding,
soil erosion, sedimentation, and water pollution. Detention facilities have also been used to
reduce the costs of large storm drainage systems by reducing the required size for
downstream storm drain conveyance systems. Storm water quantity control facilities can be
classified by function as either detention or retention facilities. The primary function of
detention is to store and gradually release or attenuate storm water runoff by way of a
control structure or other release mechanism. True retention facilities provide for storage of
storm water runoff, and release via evaporation and infiltration only. Retention facilities
which provide for slow release of storm water over an extended period of several days or
more are referred to as extended detention facilities. Typical detention and retention
hydrographs are shown in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 Typical Detention and Retention Hydrographs

Reduction of peak flows can be achieved by the storage of runoff in detention basins, storm
sewer pipes, swales or channels, and other detention storage facilities. Storm water can
then be released to the downstream conveyance facility at a reduced flow rate. This concept
Chapter 7 Detention Basin Design 7-1

should be considered at locations where existing downstream conveyance facilities are

inadequate to handle peak flow rates from highway storm sewer facilities. In many
locations highway agencies or developers are not permitted to increase rates of runoff over
existing conditions, thus necessitating detention storage facilities. Additional benefits may
include the reduction of downstream pipe sizes and the improvement of water quality by
removing sediment and/or pollutants.
7.2 RETENTION FACILITIES
Retention facilities include extended detention facilities, infiltration basins, and swales. In
addition to storm water storage, retention may be used for water supply, recreation,
pollutant removal, aesthetics, and/or groundwater recharge. Retention facilities are
typically designed to provide the dual functions of storm water quantity and quality control.
Design criteria for retention facilities are the same as those for detention facilities except
that it may not be necessary to remove all runoff after each storm.
7.3 DETENTION FACILITIES
Detention storage may be provided at one or more locations. These locations may exist as
impoundments, collection and conveyance facilities, and on-site facilities such as parking
lots, pavements, and basins. Detention ponds are the most common type of storage facility
used for controlling storm water runoff peak discharges. Detention facilities should be
provided where they are shown to be beneficial by hydrologic, hydraulic, health, and cost
analysis.
7.4 STORAGE LOCATION AND SIZE
7.4.1 LOCATION
Storage can be classified by location as on-site, off-site, upstream, downstream, channel (or
on-stream) and off-stream. Based on function, storage facilities may be for single or
multipurpose use and temporary (detention) or permanent (retention). Site selection
involves (in addition to hydrologic, hydraulic, health and cost analysis) a number of
selection points of which the following are the important ones:
• The size, shape, and depth of a detention facility must provide sufficient
volume to satisfy the projects’ storage requirements. This is best determined
by routing the inflow hydrograph through the facility;
• The site must be accessible both for construction and maintenance; and,
• The geology should be suitable for weir construction and other elements
thereof.
7.4.2 SIZE
Estimating the required volume of storage to accomplish the necessary peak reduction is an
important task since an accurate first estimate will reduce the number of trials involved in
the routing procedure. The following sections present methods for determining an initial
estimate of the storage required to provide a specific reduction in peak discharge. All of the
methods presented provide preliminary estimates only. It is recommended that the designer
apply several of the methods and a degree of judgment to determine the initial storage
estimate.

7.5 TRIANGULAR HYDROGRAPH METHOD

A preliminary estimate of the storage volume required for peak flow attenuation may be
obtained from a simplified design procedure that replaces the actual inflow and outflow
hydrographs with standard triangular shapes. This method should not be applied if the
hydrographs cannot be approximated by a triangular shape. This would introduce
additional errors of the preliminary estimate of the required storage. The procedure is
illustrated by Figure 7.2. The required storage volume may be estimated from the area
above the outflow hydrograph and inside the inflow hydrograph as defined by Equation 7-
1.
VS = 0.5ti (Qi – Qo) Eq. 7-1
where:
Vs = storage volume estimate, m3
Qi = peak inflow rate into the basin, m3 /s
Qo = peak outflow rate out of the basin, m3 /s
ti = duration of basin inflow, s
Figure 7.2 Triangular Hydrograph Method

The duration of basin inflow should be derived from the estimated inflow hydrograph.
Maximum allowable discharge may be determined by the modified rational method for
tributary areas of less than 500 acres.
7.6 STAGE DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP

A stage-discharge curve defines the relationship between the depth of water and the
discharge or outflow from a storage facility. A typical storage facility will have both a
principal and an emergency outlet. The principal outlet is usually designed with a capacity
sufficient to convey the design flood without allowing flow to enter the emergency
spillway. The structure for the principal outlet will typically consist of a pipe culvert, weir,
orifice, or other appropriate hydraulic control device. Multiple outlet control devices are
often used to provide discharge controls for multiple frequency storms. Development of a

composite stage-discharge curve requires consideration of the discharge rating relationships

for each component of the outlet structure.
7.7 ESTIMATING PEAK FLOW REDUCTION (ROUTING PROCEDURE)
The reservoir routing is based on the storage equation:
I - O=ΔS/Δt Eq. 7-2
where:
I = the input;
O = the output;
Δt = the routing time interval; and
ΔS = the change in storage that occurs during the time interval Δt .
Both the inflow I and outflow O are time varying functions, with I being the inflow
hydrograph and O being the outflow hydrograph. While the inflow hydrograph is known,
the objective of the reservoir routing is to compute the outflow hydrograph. The storage
equation can be rewritten as:
IΔt – OΔt = S Eq. 7-3
If the subscripts 1 and 2 are used to indicate time t and t + Δt, respectively, the average
inflow and average outflow can be used to expand Eqn. 7.3:
½(I1 + I2) Δt – ½ (O1 + O2) Δt = S2 – S1 Eq. 7-4
Eqn. 7.4 can be rearranged such that the known are placed on one side and the unknowns on
the other side:
½(I1 + I2) Δt + (S1 – ½ O1 Δt ) = S2 + ½ O2 Δt Eq. 7-5
In order to find the outflow hydrograph, it is only necessary to compute the outflow storage
relationship, which is easily obtained for site data.
A solution for Eqn. 7.5 can be obtained by deriving the storage-indication curve, which is
the relationship between O and (S + ½ O Δt). Given the storage discharge curve, O vs. S,
the following four-step procedure can be used to develop the storage indication curve:
1. Select a value of O;
2. Determine the corresponding value of S from the storage-discharge curve;
3. Use the values of S and O to compute (S + ½ OΔt); and
4. Plot O vs. (S + ½ OΔt).
These four steps are repeated for a sufficient number of values of O to define the storage
indication curve.
The objective of the storage-indication method is to derive the outflow hydrograph. There
are five data requirement:
1. The storage-discharge relationship;
2. The storage-indication curve;
3. The inflow-hydrograph;
4. Initial values of the storage and outflow rate; and
5. The routing increment.

The following five-step procedure can be used to derive the outflow hydrograph, with the
storage-time relationship as a by-product:
Step 1 Determine the average inflow: ½ (I1 + I2 ) Δt;
Step 2 Determine (S1 – ½ O1 Δt) ;
Step 3 Using Eqn. 7.5 and the values from steps 1 and 2, compute (S2 + ½ O2Δt) ;
Step 4 Using the value computed in step 3, as input, find O2 from the storage
indication curve; and
Step 5 Use O2 with the storage-discharge relationship and obtain S2.
These five steps are repeated for the next time increment using I2, O2 , and S2 as the new
values of I1, O1, S1, respectively. The process is solved iteratively until the outflow
hydrograph is computed.
7.8 MUSKINGUM-CUNGE FLOOD ROUTING METHOD
The Muskingum-Cunge routing method has gained popularity in recent years as a method
that does not require extensive hydrologic data for calibration. The method is considered a
“hybrid” routing method; it is like hydrologic methods, but contains more physical
information typical of hydraulic routing methods. The coefficients are functions of the
physical parameters of the channel. The model physically accounts for the diffusion that is
present in most natural channels. The diffusion wave equation is derived from the
equations of continuity and momentum. The Muskingum-Cunge method is one method of
solution of the diffusion equation. The computational equation is:
O2 = COI2 + C1I1 + C2O1 Eq. 7-6
However, the computation of Ci differs:
Eq. 7-7
and
Eq. 7-8
and
Eq. 7-9
where:
t = time (s),

Δx = distance along the channel (m),

c = celerity (m/s),
qo = is discharge per unit channel width (m2/s), and
So = slope
Celerity c is obtained from a rating curve as βV with velocity V based on the peak
discharge. The unit discharge, qo , is based on a reference discharge, typically the peak
flow. In this method, Co + C1 + C2 = 1. The following guidelines produce the best results
when using the Muskingum-Cunge method.
1. The sum of C and D should be greater than or equal to 1;
2. C1 and C2 can be positive or negative, unlike the Muskingum method;
3. C should be kept close to 1, but not greater than 1, to avoid numerical
dispersion;
4. The ratio of the time to peak of the flood wave to the time interval Δt should
be greater than or equal to
The Muskingum-Cunge method is appropriate for use on most stream channels. It accounts
for diffusion of the flood wave. However, if there are significant backwater effects caused
by upstream or downstream controls, then this method should not be used (actually, only the
full dynamic equation can account for backwater effects). The main advantage of using the
Muskingum-Cunge over the Muskingum routing method is that the Muskingum-Cunge
method is physically based and requires minimal streamflow data. The parameters are
based on the rating curve and slope. Therefore, this method is ideal for use in un-gauged
streams.
Consider a river shown in Example Figure 7.1. It has a 4.8 km reach between A and B with
an inflow hydrograph (peak discharge of 84 m3/s) given in Example Table 7.2. The average
discharge for this hydrograph is 34 m3/s. Using the trapezoidal cross section given in
Example Figure 7.1 and a flow depth of 2 m, the average velocity is computed from the
continuity equation and travel time = length/velocity. The cross-sectional area
corresponding to Q = 34 m3/s is 24 m2, which yields a velocity of 1.4 m/s (= 34 m3/s/24
m2). The travel time at this velocity is 4800 m/[1.4 m/s (3600 s/h)] = 0.95 hours.

Figure 7.3 Example X Schematics of River Reach

Assuming β= 5/3 and Δt = 1,800 s, the inflow hydrograph can be routed using the
Equation 7.9 through Equation 7.11, and using the following Δx and Δt values. D and
the C values shall then be:
D = 0.718
C = 0.875
C o = 0.2287
C1 = 0.4462
C2 = 0.3251
The outflow hydrograph is computed from Equation 7-6 and is given in Example Table
7.2. The peak flow attenuates to 79 m3/s, and translates to hour 4.5.

Table 7.1 Example Inflow and Outflow Hydrograph for Muskingum-Cunge Routing
Method

8 PAVEMENT DRAINAGE
8.1 GENERAL
Effective drainage of highway pavements is essential to maintain the levels of service and to
traffic safety of roads. Water on the pavement can interrupt traffic, reduce skid resistance,
increase potential for hydroplaning, limit visibility due to splash and spray, and cause
difficulty in steering a vehicle when the front wheels encounter puddles. The substructures of
a roadway are also highly influenced by intrusion of water.
Pavement drainage requires consideration of surface drainage, gutter flow, and inlet capacity.
The design of these elements is dependent on storm frequency and the allowable spread of
storm water on the pavement surface. This chapter presents design guidance for the design of
these elements.
A storm drainage system for a street or highway is a collection of structures to collect and
convey storm water runoff from land areas to a discharge location in a manner that
adequately drains the roadway and minimizes the potential for flooding and erosion to
adjacent properties.
The system begins with a concentration system such as gutters and channels, a system of
inlets that pass the collected flows into a conveyance system of pipes or channels that have
structures to allow the connection or access to them. The collected flows are eventually
conveyed to an outfall. The outfall may discharge to a pump station, storage facilities, or a
larger conveyance, such as a storm drain channel. The cost of drainage facilities is neither
incidental nor minor on most roads. The quality of the final system usually reflects the
attention given to every aspect of the design. The design of a drainage system must address
the needs of the traveling public as well as those impacted by the project.
The storm drain system may be categorized as a surface system and a subsurface system.
The surface system usually involves gutter flow and inlet interception. This system is used to
control the location and amount of water flowing along the gutters or ponding at sags to
quantities that will minimize interference with the passage of traffic at the design storm
event. This is accomplished by placing inlets at such points and at such intervals to intercept
and capture flows as necessary to satisfy the spread and depth criteria for the specified storm
frequency.
The subsurface system includes the pipes that convey the flow and the structures that connect
the inlets to the pipes. There may be additional structures that allow access to the subsurface
system while not being intended for capturing of flows into the subsurface system. The
subsurface system allows for the entry of water at each inlet and conveys the collected flows
to the discharge location in a manner that contains the flows for the design event. This is
accomplished by sizing the pipes and evaluating the energy losses so that the hydraulic grade
line is just near the top of the pipes for the design storm event.
Some of the constraints in meeting the hydraulic goals are the available ROW, utilities,
budget, alignment, and regulations. The successful design meets the stated hydraulic goals at
the lowest total economic costs: construction, maintenance, right-of-way and environmental.
Chapter 8 Pavement Drainage 8-1

8.2 DESIGN FREQUENCY AND SPREAD

Two of the more significant variables considered in the design of highway pavement drainage
are the frequency of the design runoff event and the allowable spread of water on the
pavement. A related consideration is the use of an event of lesser frequency to check the
drainage design.
Spread and design frequency are not independent. The implications of the use of a criteria
for spread of one-half of a traffic lane is considerably different for one design frequency than
for a lesser frequency. It also has different implications for a low-traffic, low-speed highway
than for a higher classification highway. These subjects are central to the issue of highway
pavement drainage and important to highway safety.
8.2.1 SELECTION OF DESIGN FREQUENCY AND DESIGN SPREAD
The objective of highway storm drainage design is to provide for safe passage of vehicles
during the design storm event. The design of a drainage system for a curbed highway
pavement section is to collect runoff in the gutter and convey it to pavement inlets in a
manner that provides reasonable safety for traffic and pedestrians at a reasonable cost. As
spread from the curb increases, the risks of traffic accidents and delays, and the nuisance and
possible hazard to pedestrian traffic increase.
The process of selecting the recurrence interval and spread for design involves decisions
regarding acceptable risks of accidents and traffic delays and acceptable costs for the
drainage system. Risks associated with water on traffic lanes are greater with high traffic
volumes, high speeds, and higher highway classifications than with lower volumes, speeds,
and highway classifications. A summary of the major considerations that enter into the
selection of design frequency and design spread follows.
1. The classification of the highway is a good starting point in the selection process
since it defines the public’s expectations regarding water on the pavement surface.
Ponding on traffic lanes of high- speed, high-volume highways is contrary to the
public’s expectations and thus the risks of accidents and the costs of traffic delays
are high.
2. Design speed is important to the selection of design criteria. At speeds greater than
70 km/hr, it has been shown that water on the pavement can cause hydroplaning.
3. Projected traffic volumes are an indicator of the economic importance of keeping
the highway open to traffic. The costs of traffic delays and accidents increase with
increasing traffic volumes.
4. The intensity of rainfall events may significantly affect the selection of design
frequency and spread. Risks associated with the spread of water on pavements
may be less in arid areas subject to high intensity thunderstorm events than in areas
accustomed to frequent but less intense events.
5. Capital costs are neither the least nor last consideration. Cost considerations make
it necessary to formulate a rational approach to the selection of design criteria.
“Tradeoffs” between desirable and practicable criteria are sometimes necessary
because of costs. In particular, the costs and feasibility of providing for a given
design frequency and spread may vary significantly between projects. In some
cases, it may be practicable to significantly upgrade the drainage design and reduce
risks at moderate costs.

Other considerations include inconvenience, hazards, and nuisances to pedestrian traffic.

These considerations should not be minimized and, in some locations such as in commercial
areas, may assume major importance. Local design practice may also be a major
consideration since it can affect the feasibility of designing to higher standards, and it
influences the public’s perception of acceptable practice.
The relative elevation of the highway and surrounding terrain is an additional consideration
where water can be drained only through a storm drainage system, as in underpasses and
depressed sections. The potential for ponding to hazardous depths should be considered in
selecting the frequency and spread criteria and in checking the design against storm runoff
events of lesser frequency than the design event.
Spread on traffic lanes can be tolerated to greater widths where traffic volumes and speeds
are low. Spreads of one-half of a traffic lane or more are usually considered a minimum type
design for low-volume local roads. The selection of design criteria for intermediate types of
facilities may be the most difficult. For example, some arterials with relatively high traffic
volumes and speeds may not have shoulders which will convey the design runoff without
encroaching on the traffic lanes. In these instances, an assessment of the relative risks and
costs of various design spreads may be helpful in selecting appropriate design criteria.
Table 8.1 provides suggested minimum design frequencies and spread based on the type of
highway and traffic speed.
Table 8.1 Suggested Minimum Design Frequency and Spread

8.2.2 SELECTION OF CHECK STORM AND SPREAD

A check storm should be used to assess the impact of flooding during less frequent events.
Also, inlets should always be evaluated for a check storm when a series of inlets terminate at
a sag vertical curve where ponding to hazardous depths could occur.
The frequency selected for the check storm should be based on the same considerations used
to select the design storm, i.e., the consequences of spread exceeding that chosen for design
and the potential for ponding. Where no significant ponding can occur, check storms are
normally unnecessary.
8.3 SURFACE DRAINAGE
When rain falls on a sloped pavement surface, it forms a thin film of water that increases in
thickness as it flows to the edge of the pavement. Factors which influence the depth of water
on the pavement are the length of flow path, surface texture, surface slope, and rainfall
intensity.
As the depth of water on the pavement increases, the potential for vehicular hydroplaning
increases. For the purposes of highway drainage, a discussion of hydroplaning is presented
and design guidance for the following drainage elements is presented:
• longitudinal pavement slope;
• cross or transverse pavement slope;
• curb and gutter design; and
• bridge decks.
8.3.1 HYDROPLANING
As the depth of water flowing over a roadway surface increases, the potential for
hydroplaning increases. When a rolling tire encounters a film of water on the roadway, the
water is channeled through the tire tread pattern and through the surface roughness of the
pavement. Hydroplaning occurs when the drainage capacity of the tire tread pattern and the
pavement surface is exceeded and the water begins to build up in front of the tire. As the
water builds up, a water wedge is created and this wedge produces a hydrodynamic force
which can lift the tire off the pavement surface. This is considered as full dynamic
hydroplaning and, since water offers little shear resistance, the tire loses its tractive ability
and the driver has a loss of control of the vehicle.
Hydroplaning is a function of the water depth, roadway geometry, vehicle speed, tread depth,
tire inflation pressure, and conditions of the pavement surface. It has been shown that
hydroplaning can occur at speeds of 87 km/hr with a water depth of 2 mm. The hydroplaning
potential of a roadway surface can be reduced by the following:
1. Design the highway geometries to reduce the drainage path lengths of the water
flowing over the pavement. This will prevent flow build-up.
2. Increase the pavement surface texture depth by such methods as grooving of
Portland cement concrete. An increase of pavement surface texture will increase
the drainage capacity at the tire pavement interface.
3. The use of open graded asphalt pavements has been shown to greatly reduce the
hydroplaning potential of the roadway surface. This reduction is due to the
ability of the water to be forced through the pavement under the tire. This

releases any hydrodynamic pressures that are created and reduces the potential
for the tire to hydroplane.
4. The use of drainage structures along the roadway to capture the flow of water
over the pavement will reduce the thickness of the film of water and reduce the
hydroplaning potential of the roadway surface.
8.3.2 LONGITUDINAL SLOPE

Experience has shown that the recommended minimum values of roadway longitudinal slope
given in the AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design will provide safe, acceptable pavement
drainage. In addition, the following general guidelines are presented.
1. A minimum longitudinal gradient is more important for a curbed pavement
than for an un-curbed pavement since the water is constrained by the curb.
However, flat gradients on un-curbed pavements can lead to a spread problem
if vegetation is allowed to build up along the pavement edge.
2. Desirable gutter grades should not be less than 0.5% for curbed pavements
with an absolute minimum of 0.3%. Minimum grades can be maintained in
very flat terrain by use of a rolling profile, or by warping the cross slope to
achieve rolling gutter profiles.
3. To provide adequate drainage in sag vertical curves, a minimum slope of 0.3%
should be maintained within 15 meters of the low point of the curve. This is
accomplished where the length of the curve in meters divided by the algebraic
difference in grades in percent is less than or equal to 50. This is represented
as:
Eq. 8-1
where:
K = vertical curve constant m/percent
L = horizontal length of curve, m
Gi = grade of roadway, percent
A minimum longitudinal gradient is more important for a curbed pavement than for an
uncurbed pavement since it is susceptible to the spread of storm water against the curb.
Desirable gutter grades should not be less than 0.3% for curbed pavements with a minimum
of 0.2%. Minimum grades can be achieved in very flat terrain by use of a rolling profile.
To provide adequate drainage in sag vertical curves, a minimum slope of 0.3% should be
maintained within 50 feet of the level point in the curve. This is accomplished where the
length of the curve divided by the algebraic difference in grades is equal to or less than 150;
K = L/A, (Lc/(g1-g2)). Although ponding is not usually a problem at crest vertical curves, on
extremely flat curves a similar minimum gradient should be provided to facilitate drainage.

8.3.3 CROSS (TRANSVERSE) SLOPE

Table 8.2 indicates an acceptable range of cross slopes as specified in AASHTO’s policy on
geometric design of highways and streets. These cross slopes are a compromise between the
need for reasonably steep cross slopes for drainage and relatively flat cross slopes for driver
comfort and safety. These cross slopes represent standard practice.
As reported in Pavement and Geometric Design Criteria for Minimizing Hydroplaning, cross
slopes of 2% have little effect on driver effort in steering or on friction demand for vehicle
stability. Use of a cross slope steeper than 2% on pavements with a central crown line is not
desirable. In areas of intense rainfall, a somewhat steeper cross slope (2.5%) may be used to
facilitate drainage.
On multi-lane highways where three lanes or more are sloped in the same direction, it is
desirable to counter the resulting increase in flow depth by increasing the cross slope of the
outermost lanes. The two lanes adjacent to the crown line should be pitched at the normal
slope, and successive lane pairs, or portions thereof outward, should be increased by about
0.5 to 1%. The maximum pavement cross slope should be limited to 4%. Additional
guidelines related to cross slope are:
1. Although not widely encouraged, inside lanes can be sloped toward the
median if conditions warrant.
2. Median areas should not be drained across travel lanes.
3. The number and length of flat pavement sections in cross slope transition areas
should be minimized. Consideration should be given to increasing cross
slopes in sag vertical curves, crest vertical curves, and in sections of flat
longitudinal grades.
4. Shoulders should be sloped to drain away from the pavement, except with
raised, narrow medians and super elevations. The design of pavement cross
slope is often a compromise between the need for reasonably steep cross
slopes for drainage and relatively flat cross slopes for driver comfort. The
USDOT, FHWA (FHWA-RD-79-30, 31, 1979) reports that cross slopes of 2%
have little effect on driver effort in steering, especially with power steering, or
on friction demand for vehicle stability.
8.3.4 CURB AND GUTTER

Curbs are used where there is a need to control runoff from the pavement. This may be due
to locations where concentration of runoff would erode fill slopes or would flow off the right-
of-way at unwanted locations. Curbing may also serve other purposes that include traffic
control, providing pavement delineation, containing the surface runoff within the roadway
and away from adjacent properties, preventing erosion and enabling the orderly development
of property adjacent to the roadway.
Curbs may be either mountable or barrier type. Mountable curbs are less than 6 inches in
height and have rounded or plane sloping faces. If mountable curb is used, the gutter and
shoulder grades should be the same to maximize the amount of flow than can be carried along
the curb. Where barrier curbs are used, a steeper gutter cross slope can be effective at
increasing gutter capacity and reducing spread on the pavement.
A curb and gutter forms a triangular channel that can be an efficient hydraulic conveyance
facility that can convey runoff of a lesser magnitude than the design flow without interruption

of the traffic. When a design storm flow occurs, there is a spread or widening of the
conveyed water surface and the water spreads to include not only the gutter width, but also
parking lanes or shoulders, and portions of the traveled surface. This is the width the
hydraulic engineer is most concerned about in curb and gutter flow, and limiting this width
becomes a very important design criterion.
Shoulders should generally be sloped to drain away from the pavement, except with raised,
narrow medians. Shoulder gutter and/or curbs may be appropriate to protect fill slopes from
erosion caused by water from the roadway pavement. Shoulder gutter and/or curbs may be
appropriate at bridge ends where concentrated flow from the bridge deck would otherwise
run down the fill slope. This section of gutter should be long enough to include the
transitions; it is usually located behind the guardrail at the end of the bridge. Shoulder gutters
are not required on the high side of super-elevated sections or adjacent to barrier walls on
high fills.
8.4 FLOW IN GUTTERS

Gutter flow calculations are necessary in order to relate the quantity of flow (Q) in the curbed
channel to the spread of water on the shoulder, parking lane, or pavement section. The
nomograph on Figure 8.1, Flow in Triangular gutter Sections, can be utilized to solve
discharge or spread for uniform cross slope channels, composite gutter sections, and V-shape
gutter sections. Figure 8.4, Flow in Composite Gutter Sections, is also very useful in solving
composite gutter section problems.
Composite gutter sections have a greater hydraulic capacity for normal cross slopes than
uniform gutter sections and are, therefore, preferred. Table 8.2 is a list of acceptable
Manning n values for gutters or pavement.

Figure 8.1 Flow in Triangular Gutter Sections (from HEC-12)

Figure 8.2 Flow in Composite Gutter Sections (from HEC-12)

Table 8.2 Manning’s n for Gutter or Pavement Types
8.4.1 CAPACITY RELATIONSHIP

Gutter flow calculations are necessary to establish the spread of water on the shoulder,
parking lane, or pavement section. A modification of the Manning equation can be used for
computing flow in triangular channels. The modification is necessary because the hydraulic
radius in the equation does not adequately describe the gutter cross section, particularly
where the top width of the water surface may be more than 40 times the depth at the curb. To
compute gutter flow, the Manning equation is integrated for an increment of width across the
section.
The resulting equation is:
Eq. 8-2
where:
K c = 0.377
n = Manning's coefficient (Table 8.2)
Q = flow rate, m3/sec
T = width of flow (spread), m
Sx = cross slope, m/m
SL = longitudinal slope, m/m

8.4.2 RELATIVE FLOW CAPACITIES

Equation 8.3 can be used to examine the relative effects of changing the values of spread,
cross slope, and longitudinal slope on the capacity of a section with a straight cross slope.
To examine the effects of cross slope on gutter capacity, Equation 8-2 can be transformed as
follows into a relationship between Sx and Q as follows:
Let
Eq. 8-3
Similar transformations can be performed to evaluate the effects of changing longitudinal

slope and width of spread on gutter capacity resulting in Equation 8-4.
Eq. 8-4
The effects of spread on gutter capacity are greater than the effects of cross slope and
longitudinal slope, as would be expected due to the larger exponent of the spread term. The
magnitude of the effect is demonstrated when gutter capacity with a 3 meter spread is 18.8
times greater than with a 1 meter spread, and 3 times greater than a spread of 2 meters).
The effects of cross slope are also relatively great as illustrated by a comparison of gutter
capacities with different cross slopes. At a cross slope of 4%, a gutter has 10 times the
capacity of a gutter of 1% cross slope. A gutter at 4% cross slope has 3.2 times the capacity
of a gutter at 2% cross slope.
Little latitude is generally available to vary longitudinal slope in order to increase gutter
capacity, but slope changes which change gutter capacity are frequent. Figure 8.3 shows that
a change from = 0.04 to 0.02 will reduce gutter capacity to 71% of the capacity at = 0.04.

Figure 8.3 Relative Effects of Spread, Cross Slope, and Longitudinal Slope on Gutter

8.4.3 BRIDGE DECKS

Drainage of bridge decks is similar to other curbed roadway sections. It is often less
efficient, because cross slopes are flatter, parapets collect large amounts of debris and small
drainage inlets or scuppers have a higher potential for clogging by debris. Bridge deck
construction usually requires a constant cross slope. Zero gradients and sag vertical curves
and super elevation transitions with flat pavement sections should be avoided on bridges.
The minimum desirable longitudinal slope for bridge deck drainage should be 0.5%.
Because of the difficulties in providing and maintaining adequate deck drainage systems,
gutter flow from roadways should be intercepted before it reaches a bridge. In many cases,
deck drainage must be carried several spans to the bridge end for disposal.
Many bridges will not require any drainage structures at all. The Rational equation and the
spread equation can be combined to determine the length of deck possible without drainage
structures and without exceeding the allowable spread. In many situations, scuppers are the
recommended method of deck drainage because they can reduce the problems of transporting
a relatively large concentration of runoff in an area of generally limited right-of-way. They
also have a low initial cost and are relatively easy to maintain. However, the use of scuppers
should be evaluated for site-specific concerns. Scuppers should not be located over
embankments, slope pavement, slope protection, driving lanes, or railroad tracks. Runoff
collected and transported to the end of the bridge should generally be collected by inlets and
down drains, although flumes may be used for extremely minor flows in some areas.
Bridge deck drainage is similar to that of curbed roadway sections. Effective bridge deck
drainage is important for the following reasons:
• Deck structural and reinforcing steel is susceptible to corrosion from deicing
salts; Hydroplaning often occurs at shallower depths on bridges due to the
reduced surface texture of concrete bridge decks.
• Bridge deck drainage is often less efficient than roadway sections because
cross slopes are flatter, parapets collect large amounts of debris, and drainage
inlets or typical bridge scuppers are less hydraulically efficient and more
easily clogged by debris. Because of the difficulties in providing for and
maintaining adequate deck drainage systems, gutter flow from roadways
should be intercepted before it reaches a bridge. For similar reasons, zero
gradients and sag vertical curves should be avoided on bridges. Additionally,
runoff from bridge decks should be collected immediately after it flows onto
the subsequent roadway section where larger grates and inlet structures can be
used.
8.5 INLETS – CHARACTERISTICS AND USES

Inlets are drainage structures utilized to collect surface water through grate, curb openings, or
slotted drain and convey it to storm drains or directly outletting to culverts. This section will
discuss the various types of inlets in use and recommend guidelines on the use of each type.
Figures 8.4 and 8.5 illustrate some of the more common inlet types.

Figure 8.4 Common Inlet Types
Figure 8.5 Slotted Inlets

8.5.1 SLOTTED INLETS

These inlets consist of a vertical slot opening in the gutter with bars perpendicular to the slot
opening. For shallow flow slotted inlets function as weirs with flow entering from the side.
They are used to intercept sheet flow and collect gutter flow with or without curbs. Grate
inlets are used at the downstream end of slotted drain inlets to provide access and reduce the
overall length of slotted drain.
8.5.2 GRATE INLETS
A drainage inlet composed of a grate in the roadway section or at the roadside in a low point,
swale or channel.
These inlets consist of an opening in the gutter covered by one or more grates. On
continuous grades they are most efficient in capturing frontal flow. In sag locations, they are
more susceptible to clogging with debris, the use of standard grate inlets at sag points should
be limited to minor sag point locations without debris potential. Special design (oversize)
grate inlets or grate with curb opening can be utilized at major sag points if sufficient
capacity is provided for clogging. In this case, flanking inlets are definitely recommended.
Grates shall be bicycle safe unless bike traffic is specifically excluded and structurally
designed to handle the appropriate loads when subject to traffic.
8.5.3 CURB-OPENING
These inlets are vertical openings in the curb. They are best suited for use at sag points since
they can convey large quantities of water and debris. They are a viable alternative to grates
in many locations where grates would be hazardous for pedestrians or bicyclists. They are
not very efficient on steep continuous grades. They shall not be used with pump station
collection systems
8.5.4 COMBINATION INLETS
Combination inlets provide the advantages of both curb opening and grate inlets. This
combination results in a high capacity inlet which offers the advantages of both grate and
curb-opening inlets. When the curb opening precedes the grate in a “Sweeper” configuration,
the curb-opening inlet acts as a trash interceptor during the initial phases of a storm. Used in
a sag configuration, the sweeper inlet can have a curb opening on both sides of the grate.
8.6 DRAINAGE INLET DESIGN

The hydraulic capacity of a storm drain inlet depends upon its geometry as well as the
characteristics of the gutter flow. Inlet capacity governs both the rate of water removal from
the gutter and the amount of water that can enter the storm drainage system. Inadequate inlet
capacity or poor inlet location may cause flooding on the roadway resulting in a hazard to the
traveling public. As they are highly efficient and their interference with carriageways is
rather limited, the design of curb opening inlets is further discussed
8.6.1 CURB-OPENING INLETS
Curb-opening inlets are effective in the drainage of highway pavements were flow depth at
the curb is sufficient for the inlet to perform efficiently. Curb openings are less susceptible to
clogging and offer little interference to traffic operation. They are viable alternative to grates
on flatter grades where grates would be in traffic lanes or would be hazardous for pedestrians
or bicyclists. Curb opening heights vary in dimension. However, a typical maximum height
is approximately 100 to 150 mm. The length of the curb-opening inlet required for total

interception of gutter flow on a pavement section with a uniform cross slope is expressed by
Equation 8-5. The efficiency of curb-opening inlets shorter than the length required for total
interception is expressed by Equation 8-6
Eq. 8-5
where:
L = curb-opening length, m
The length of inlet required for total interception by depressed curb-opening inlets or curb-
openings in depressed gutter sections can be found by the use of an equivalent cross slope,
Se, in Equation 8.9 in place of Sx Se can be computed using Equation 8-6.
Se = SX + S’WEO Eq. 8-6
where:'
S’W = cross slope of the gutter measured from the cross slope of the pavement, SX,
m/m
S’W = a / [1000W]
Sx = cross slope, m/m
a = gutter depression, mm
The capacity of a curb-opening inlet in a sag depends on water depth at the curb, the curb
opening length, and the height of the curb opening. The inlet operates as a weir to depths
equal to the curb opening height and as an orifice at depths greater than 1.4 times the opening
height. At depths between 1.0 and 1.4 times the opening height, flow is in a transition stage.
Spread on the pavement is the usual criterion for judging the adequacy of a pavement
drainage inlet design.
The weir location for a depressed curb-opening inlet is at the edge of the gutter, and the
effective weir length is dependent on the width of the depressed gutter and the length of the
curb opening.
The equation for the interception capacity of a depressed curb-opening inlet operating as a
weir is:
Qi = CW (L + 1.8W) d1.5 Eq. 8-7
where:
CW = 1.25
L = length of curb opening, m
W = lateral width of depression, m
d = depth at curb measured from the normal cross slope, m,
The weir equation for curb-opening inlets without depression becomes:
Qi CW Ld1.5 Eq. 8-8

Without depression of the gutter section, the weir coefficient, C W, becomes 1.70 (3.0,
English system). The depth limitation for operation as a weir becomes d <= h.
Curb-opening inlets operate as orifices at depths greater than approximately 1.4 times the
opening height. The interception capacity can be computed by Equation 8.14 and Equation
8.15. These equations are applicable to depressed and undepressed curb opening inlets. The
depth at the inlet includes any gutter depression.
Eq. 8-10
where:
C o = orifice coefficient (0.77)
do = effective head on the center of the orifice throat, m
L = length of orifice opening, m
Ag = clear area of opening, m 2
di = depth at lip of curb opening, m
h = height of curb-opening orifice, m
h = TSx + a/1000
The height of the orifice in Equation 8-10 assumes a vertical orifice opening. The location
and spacing of curb inlets depend on the following factors:
• amount of runoff
• grade profile
• geometry of intersection
• width of flow limitation
• inlet capacity.
8.6.2 INLET LOCATIONS

Inlets are required at locations needed to collect runoff within the design controls specified in
the design criteria. In addition, there are a number of locations where inlets may be necessary
with little regard to contributing drainage area. These locations should be marked on the
plans prior to any computations regarding discharge, water spread, inlet capacity, or
carryover.
The following are some other considerations for choosing inlet locations:
• Inlets should be placed at all low points in gutter grades.
• Inlets should be placed at points either side of the low point that are 0.2 foot
higher than the low point, or a maximum of 75 feet either side of the low
point. Other alternatives, such as slotted drains, may be considered in lieu of
additional catch basins. This applies in long sags.
• Inlets should be placed upslope of driveways (or entrances), where possible.

• For concrete pavements, catch basins should not be placed at spring points of
street intersections as they interfere with the construction of the expansion
joint at that location. They should be placed 10 feet either side of the spring
line, or at the midpoint of the arc if detailed grades indicate that location as the
low spot in the grade. Water should be intercepted before it crosses any areas
used by pedestrians, especially in commercial or business areas.
• Inlets should be placed on both sides of cross streets that drain toward the
roadway. Water should never be carried across intersections in valley gutters
or troughs.
• Inlets should be placed behind shoulders or back of sidewalks to drain low
spots.
• Inlets should be placed on the low side of super-elevated or tilted pavement
sections.
• Provide a sufficient number of catch basins in the transition to super-elevated
sections to prevent gutter flow from crossing the pavement.
• Inlets should be placed at any location where there will be a heavy
concentration of water. The designer may reference the maximum spacing
guidelines shown in FHWA’s Urban Drainage Design Manual, HEC-22.
• The use of 24-inch-diameter catch basins should be limited to upstream ends
of sewer runs where the run to the next drainage structure is 65 feet or less,
and where the structure depth does not exceed 8 feet. Use 48-inch-diameter
drainage structures for catch basins in all other locations.
• Do not locate drainage structures in line with a sidewalk ramp. Except where
existing structures are being used, the location of the ramp takes precedence
over the location of the drainage structures. Grades may need to be adjusted
to accomplish this.
• Where flat grades or multi-lanes occur, consider placing a larger cover, such
as a Cover V, or double catch basins.
• Inlets should not be located in paths where pedestrians are likely to walk.

9 CULVERT DESIGN
9.1 INTRODUCTION
This section considers the hydraulics of conventional culverts and the requirements for
selecting a culvert size for a given set of conditions. Guidelines are provided to enable the
designer to make use of standard design charts adopted from AASHTO-Model Drainage
Manual, as well as other relevant documents (HEC manuals, BPR-5, HY-8, etc.). However,
the designer retains the right to deviate from the standard on the basis of well-proven and
applicable state-of-the-art knowledge on the subject and with the approval of the concerned
authority.
9.1.1 DEFINITION
A culvert is defined as the following:
• Structure that is usually designed hydraulically to take advantage of
submergence to increase hydraulic capacity.
• Structure used to convey surface runoff through embankments.
• Structure, as distinguished from bridges, that is usually covered with
embankment and is composed of structural material around the entire
perimeter, although some are supported on spread footings with the
streambed serving as the bottom of the culvert.
• Structure that is 20 ft or less in centerline span width between extreme ends
of openings for multiple boxes. However, a structure designed hydraulically
as a culvert is treated in this Chapter, regardless of its span.
9.1.2 CONCEPTS
Following are discussions of concepts that are important in culvert design:
Critical Depth. In channels with regular cross section, critical depth is the depth at
which the specific energy of a given flow rate is at a minimum. For a given discharge
and cross-section geometry, there is only one critical depth. Appendix B contains
critical depth charts for different shapes.
Crown. The crown is the inside top of the culvert.
Flow Type. USGS has established seven culvert flow types, which assist in
determining the flow conditions at a particular culvert site. Diagrams of these flow
types are provided in the design methods
Free Outlet. A free outlet has a tailwater equal to or lower than critical depth. For
culverts having free outlets, lowering of the tailwater has no effect on the discharge or
the backwater profile upstream of the tailwater.
Headwater. Headwater is the depth of water that is be ponded at the upstream end of
the culvert during the flood event.
Improved Inlet. An improved inlet has an entrance geometry that decreases the flow
contraction at the inlet and thus increases the capacity of the culvert. These inlets are
referred to as either side- or slope-tapered (walls or increased flow-line slope at the
entrance).
Chapter 9 Culvert Design 9-1

Invert. The invert is the flow line of the culvert (inside bottom).
Normal Flow. Normal flow occurs in a channel reach when the discharge, velocity and
depth of flow do not change throughout the reach. The water surface and channel
bottom will be parallel. This type of flow will exist in a culvert operating on a constant
slope provided that the culvert is sufficiently long.
Slope.
• Steep slope occurs where critical depth is greater than normal depth
• Mild slope occurs where critical depth is less than normal depth
• Critical slope occurs where the specific energy of a given flow rate is at a
minimum. For a given discharge and cross-section geometry there is only
one critical slope.
Submerged. A submerged outlet occurs where the tailwater elevation is higher than the
crown of the culvert. A submerged inlet occurs where the headwater is greater than
1.2D where D is the culvert diameter or barrel height.
Tailwater. Tailwater is the depth of water that is at the downstream end of the culvert
during the flood event.
9.1.3 URBAN AND RURAL ROAD DRAINAGE
Rural Road Drainage:
A road is considered as a dyke that divides the countryside into two parts, and therefore
disturbs the water flow characteristics of the area, whether it be sheet overland flow or
channel flow in defined water courses. The importance of continuity in surface drainage is
illustrated by the fact that most road embankment failures are caused by water problems.
Drainage design will influence the road geometry on the higher standard road to a large
extent. An efficient drainage system is an essential contribution to the overall design of the
road. A vital factor in rural areas is to ensure continuity of flow from one side of the road to
the other, whatever class of road is involved.
The road, which functions as a barrier, will cause storm runoff to flow parallel to the road
embankment until a discharge point is reached, whether it be a relieving culvert or a culvert
at a low point.
Between two watersheds there is generally one low point in the road. The distance from a
watershed to this low point can be several kilometers, dependent on the nature of the terrain.
Provision should be made to discharge the runoff across the road at regular intervals to
avoid such a concentration of runoff at the low point and to maintain a balance of runoff.
These intervals depend upon the locality and type of road and could be in excess of 500m in
flat semi arid terrain.
There the situation arises that a road is aligned parallel to and close upstream or
downstream of an existing railway line, the siting and sizing of the road drainage structures
may need artificial adjustment to match that of the railway structures. The designer is
encouraged to liaise closely with the relevant authorities in all such cases.
To prevent the collection of water and ponding on the road surface, roads should be
cambered as follows:
• Surface roads 2.5% camber

• Gravel roads 4.0% camber

• Earth roads 5.0% camber
Urban Road Drainage:

Roads passing through urban areas should generally be constructed high enough not to act
as collector channels for surrounding runoff during a storm. The designer should at the
same time take into account the damage that might occur as a result of a major storm.
The type of drainage required should be interactive with the type of urban road. It might be
considered that a road passing though a minor village or small town would have a drainage
design typical of that for a rural road. Open side-channel drainage combined with normal
cross culverts at selected points should be considered for roads passing through the larger
towns.
For major towns in Rwanda with a developed infrastructure, a more sophisticated drainage
system could be designed with curb inlets and underground pipe systems. An underground
drainage system must not, however, be incorporated at the expense of a satisfactory surface
drainage layout.
9.2 CULVERT TYPES

Hydraulic performance is one of several factors which influence the selection of type of
culvert for a particular location. However, the shape and type of culvert to be used should
not be determined by hydraulic performance alone. The economics and availability of
different culvert types in the various regions should also be considered. The guidelines in
this manual indicate the common types of culverts in use. Whenever the designer feels that
other appropriate culvert types are applicable to specific local conditions, he can use his
professional experience to select the appropriate type after getting the permission of the
concerned authority.
Different shapes of culverts and a description of their applicability is given in the form of a
table in Appendix B, Figure 17. Land use requirements can dictate a larger or different
barrel geometry than required for hydraulic consideration. Arch or oval shapes are used
only if required by hydraulic limitations, site characteristics, structural criteria, or
environmental criteria. Transport and purchase costs play a major role in selecting the
culvert type for a particular region. In evaluating the suitability of alternate materials, the
selection process shall be based on a comparison of the total cost of alternate materials over
the design life of the structure that is dependent upon the following:
• durability (service life);
• cost;
• availability;
• construction and maintenance ease;
• structural strength;
• traffic delays;
• abrasion and corrosion resistance; and
• water tightness requirements;

Concrete is the preferred material for construction of culverts, if aggregate materials are
available locally. However, other materials may be more suitable for a particular location,
hydraulic roughness, bedding condition, etc. A pipe material other than concrete may be
accepted as an alternate if the substitution is supported by evidence that the hydraulic
capacity, strength, durability, abrasion, and corrosion resistance of the concrete pipe
specified is equaled or exceeded. In addition, any substitution must be analyzed in terms of
cost and availability. The advantages of corrugated metal pipe sections should be
considered for small to medium sized culverts and the corrugated metal multi-plated arch
for larger culverts. Such culverts usually require protection from corrosion. They shall be
protected at the ends by headwalls. Use of corrugated metal pipes with projecting ends is
not permitted under any circumstances. Prefabricated concrete pipe and portal units are
encouraged, wherever they can be economically and practically justified.
A newly developed plastic pipe with radial ribs may also be considered for the smaller
range of culvert sizes.
9.2.1 PIPE CULVERTS
Pipe culverts that cross under a roadway shall have a minimum diameter of 18 inches
provided proper cover is achieved. Pipe culverts that cross under a driveway shall have a
minimum diameter of 18 inches provided proper cover is achieved. For allowable end
treatments for pipe culverts, see Table 9.1. Pipe culvert material alternates shall be as
recommended by The Office of Materials and Research in the project Soil Survey. Pipe
alternates as recommended in the Soil Survey shall be shown in the plans. When alternate
materials are used that are different from what is assumed in the design calculations, the
contractor must perform a hydraulic analysis to account for the different roughness factors.
Different materials may require different size structures.

Table 9.1 Pipe Culvert End Treatments
9.2.2 BOX CULVERTS

Box culverts shall have a minimum size of 4 ft X 4 ft. Box culverts shall not be used for
drainage areas greater than 20 square miles. Box culverts are to be used at sites that have
favorable floodplain conditions, which include a well-defined creek channel and a site that
is not likely to accumulate silt in the culvert barrels.
Multiple barrel culverts shall fit within the natural dominant channel with only minor
widening of the channel permissible so as to avoid conveyance loss through sediment
deposit in some of the barrels.

9.2.3 BOTTOMLESS CULVERTS

Bottomless culverts are to be used in locations where it is necessary to keep the natural
streambed through the culvert for environmental purposes only. The footings for a
bottomless culvert shall be placed below the streambed elevation on scour resistant
material. The culvert foundations shall be placed deep enough to withstand the possible
channel migration and scour. Due to the potential for scour problems at these sites, a scour
analysis shall be performed for all bottomless culverts. The following are possible
alternates to using a bottomless culvert:
• Construct an embedded box culvert as described in section 9.2.6.
• Build a small bridge at the site
9.3 END STRUCTURES
Inlet and outlet structures are required to prevent scouring of the roadway embankment, to
provide a transition from a channel to the culvert, and to improve the hydraulic performance
of the culvert.
In the higher class roads the design and type of inlet and outlet structures should be aimed at
providing a balance between hydraulic performance and cost. In the lower class roads the
emphasis should be on the cost saving aspect. Unless hydraulic or other considerations
require special end structures, the least expensive type of end structure should be adopted
throughout the project for continuity.
9.3.1 FLARE ANGLE OF WING WALLS
Inlet and outlet wingwalls should be flared at an angle of 45 degrees to the culverts center
line on all pipe culverts and minor box culverts up to 1.2 m span. The wingwalls on major
structures should preferably be flared at an angle of 30 degrees as any increase in this flare
angle will only aggravate the potential scour at the outlet particularly for large culvert.
9.4 EFFECTS OF SCOUR

9.4.1 EFFECTS ON CULVERTS
Unchecked erosion is a prime cause of culvert failure. The greatest scour potential is at the
culvert outlet where high velocities may necessitate scour protection or energy dissipation.
Road embankments that are designed to be overtopped in a flood should also be protected
against scour, if this is deemed desirable.
9.4.2 EFFECTS AT BRIDGE SITES
The need for scour protection can be minimized by locating bridges on stable tangential
reaches of rivers and by placing foundations on non-erodible materials. However, such a
solution is not always practicable, economic or desirable from the road alignment
standpoint.
In such cases the designer is reminded to check for local scour at bridge sites, which is
caused by macro-turbulence resulting from the concentration of energy. Potential scour
around piers and abutments should also be checked and allowed for if necessary. Where
scour around the abutments of major bridges is likely to be a serious problem, particularly
where the bridge is sited in a wide flood plain, consideration should be given to the

allowance of guide banks or spur dykes. The issue of scour at bridge sites and
recommended measures of river training is discussed in section 10 which treats the topic of
hydraulic design of bridges.
Before finally fixing the level of the pier and abutment foundation footings, consideration
should be given to the possible shifting of the river channel during a flood.
9.4.3 PROTECTION OF CULVERTS AGAINST SCOUR
Scour can be eliminated by the effective use of:
• gabion mattresses;
• hand placed or dumped rip-rap;
• stone pitching (plain or grouted);
• concrete (in situ or interlocking blocks); and
• cutoff walls at the culvert exit;
Embankments and training works should always be protected against undermining. The
choice of protection to be used should be determined by materials availability and cost at
the site.
9.5 DESIGN GUIDELINES

The following design goals are specific to culverts.
• All culverts that are to convey a quantifiable discharge (design flow) shall be
hydraulically designed.
• The design flood selected shall be consistent with the class of highway and
commensurate with the risk at the site.
• Culvert location in both plan and profile shall be investigated to avoid
sediment build-up in culvert barrels.
• Culverts shall be designed with consideration of debris by either providing
debris screens or by using an enlarged opening.
• Culverts in urban situations may need to have access barriers.
• Where practical, some means shall be provided for personnel and equipment
access to facilitate maintenance.
9.5.1 DESIGN FLOOD FREQUENCY
The flood frequency used to design the culvert shall be based on:
• the roadway classification
• existence of mapped floodplains, and
• the level of risk associated with the 100-year event to adjacent property.
9.5.2 ALLOWABLE HEADWATER
Allowable headwater is the depth of water that can be ponded at the upstream end of the
culvert during the design flood that is limited by one or more of the following:
• non-damaging to upstream property,

• 3 inches below the edge of the pavements,

• equal to the elevation above which flow diverts around the culvert to another
watercourse,
• May be limited to an elevation that does not adversely affect the performance
of upstream culverts.
9.5.3 TAILWATER RELATIONSHIP
Tailwater Relationship - Channel
• Evaluate the hydraulic conditions of the downstream channel to determine a
tailwater depth for a range of discharges.
• Calculate backwater curves at sensitive locations or use a single cross section
analysis. (Backwater curves yield the most accurate tailwater.)
• Use the critical depth and equivalent hydraulic grade line if the culvert outlet
is operating with a free outfall.
• Use the headwater elevation of any nearby, downstream culvert if it is
greater than the channel depth. A backwater surface profile may be
appropriate if the tailwater significantly impacts the culvert under
consideration.
Tailwater Relationship - Confluence or Large Water Body
• Use the high water elevation that has the same frequency as the design flood
if events are known to occur concurrently (statistically dependent).
• If statistically independent, the tailwater should be evaluated for two
conditions; 1.) that from the design peak flow of the culvert concurrent with
the 10-year peak flow in the main watercourse, 2.) that from the 10-year
peak flow in the culvert with the design peak flow in the main watercourse.
9.5.4 MAXIMUM OUTLET VELOCITY/ENERGY DISSIPATERS
At the design flow, the maximum velocity at the culvert exit shall be compared with the
velocity in the natural channel as described in local design guidelines.
• No protection is generally required in the natural stream if the outlet velocity
is less than 1.5 times the natural stream velocity.
• Dumped rock riprap is generally sufficient for ratios between 1.5 and 2.0
with an outlet velocity less than 10 fps.
• Wire-tied rock riprap should generally be used where the ratio is 1.5 to 2.5
with an outlet velocity between 10 and 15 fps.
• Energy dissipaters are required when the ratio between outlet and natural
stream velocities is greater than 2.5 or the outlet velocity is greater than 15
fps.

9.5.5 MINIMUM VELOCITY

The minimum velocity in the culvert barrel shall result in a tractive force (τ=γdS) greater
than critical τ of the transported streambed material at low flow rates.
• Use 2.5 ft/sec. when streambed material size is not known.
• If clogging is probable, consider installation of a sediment trap or size
culvert to facilitate cleaning.
9.5.6 MINIMUM REQUIRED COVER AND CLEARANCES
All pipe and box culverts shall have a minimum cover of 1 ft. The minimum roadway
clearance over a culvert shall be 1 ft measured from the bottom of the pavement structure to
the exterior crown of the culvert. Underground utilities shall have a minimum clearance of
0.5 ft from the exterior crown of the culvert.
9.5.7 IMPROVED INLETS
An improved inlet has an entrance geometry which decreases the flow contraction at the
inlet and thus increases the capacity of culverts. These inlets are referred to as either side-
or slope-tapered (walls or bottom tapered).
Economic considerations are important factors in determining the use of inlet improvement
beyond the standard beveled edge. Such improvements should be evaluated comparing cost
and benefit.
9.5.8 CULVERT EXTENSIONS
All culvert extensions should be evaluated using the hydraulic principles discussed in this
chapter. When culverts have bends and transitions, they may be analyzed as if they are a
storm drain. Energy losses within the culvert barrel will need to be considered for all bends
and transitions when the culvert is operating in outlet control. Culverts shall only be
extended with barrel sizes that are equal to or greater than the existing culvert barrel size. If
additional fill is being placed on an existing culvert, the designer must ensure that the
culvert can handle the weight of the additional fill. Culvert extensions should be made
along the same alignment as the existing culvert barrel. When it is not possible or feasible
to extend a culvert along the same alignment as the existing culvert, then the maximum
allowable deflection angle from the existing culvert alignment shall be 30°. Extensions
requiring multiple bends shall be limited to a 15° maximum deflection angle at each bend
and a minimum distance of 20 ft before the next deflection. Circular pipe used to extend a
box culvert shall have a diameter equal to or greater than the diagonal width of the box
culvert.
9.5.9 CHANNEL CHANGES
To eliminate environmental mitigation and to minimize costs associated with structural
excavation and/or channel work; channel changes should be avoided if at all possible. In
those cases where a channel change is necessary and cannot be avoided, then abrupt stream
transitions at either end of the culvert should be avoided. Environmental coordination with
the Office of Environment/Location will be required for any necessary channel change,
which takes into account the downstream condition.
9.5.10 FALL
When a culvert is depressed below the stream bed at the inlet, the depression is called the
FALL. For culverts without tapered inlets, the FALL is defined as the depth from the

natural stream bed at the face to the inlet invert. For culverts with tapered inlets, the FALL
is defined as the depth from the natural stream bed at the face to the throat invert. When
FALL is used, a note should be placed on the plans so that the contractor will build it below
the natural ground.
9.5.11 INLET CONTROL CALCULATIONS
For inlet control, the control section is at the upstream end of the barrel (the inlet). The
flow passes through critical depth near the inlet and becomes shallow, high velocity
(supercritical) flow in the culvert barrel. Depending on the tailwater, a hydraulic jump may
occur downstream of the inlet.
Headwater Factors
• Headwater depth is measured from the inlet invert of the inlet control section
to the surface of the upstream pool.
• Inlet area is the cross-sectional area of the face of the culvert. Generally, the
inlet face area is the same as the barrel area.
• Inlet edge configuration describes the entrance type. Some typical inlet edge
configurations are thin edge projecting, mitered, square edges in a headwall
and beveled edge.
• Inlet shape is usually the same as the shape of the culvert barrel. Typical
shapes are rectangular, circular, elliptical and arch. Check for an additional
control section, if different than the barrel.

Hydraulics
Three regions of flow are shown in the Figure 9.1: unsubmerged, transition and submerged:
Figure 9.1 Unsubmerged, Transition, and Submerged

Unsubmerged
For headwater below the inlet crown, the entrance operates as a weir.
• A weir is a flow control section where the upstream water surface
elevation can be predicted for a given flow rate.
• The relationship between flow and water surface elevation must be
determined by model tests of the weir geometry or by measuring prototype
discharges.
• Empirical tests are then used to develop equations, see Figure 9.2,
Unsubmerged.
Figure 9.2 Unsubmerged

Submerged
• For headwaters above the inlet, the culvert operates as an orifice.
• An orifice is an opening, submerged on the upstream side and flowing freely on the
downstream side, which functions as a control section.
• The relationship between flow and headwater can be defined based on results from
model tests. Appendix A of HDS 5 (U.S. FHWA, 1996) contains flow equations
that were developed from model test data. See Figure 10.3, Submerged.
Transition Zone
The transition zone is located between the unsubmerged and the submerged flow conditions
where the flow is poorly defined. This zone is approximated by plotting the unsubmerged
and submerged flow equations and connecting them with a line tangent to both curves.

Figure 9.3 Submerged
Nomographs
The inlet control flow versus headwater curves which are established using the above
procedure are the basis for constructing the inlet control design nomographs. Note that in
the inlet control nomographs, HW is measured to the total upstream energy grade line
including the approach velocity head.
9.5.12 OUTLET CONTROL CALCULATIONS
Outlet control has depths and velocity that are subcritical. The control of the flow is at the
downstream end of the culvert (the outlet). The tailwater depth is either assumed to be
critical depth near the culvert outlet or the downstream channel depth, whichever is higher.
In a given culvert, the type of flow is dependent on all of the barrel factors. All of the inlet
control factors also influence culverts in outlet control.
Barrel Roughness
Barrel roughness is a function of the material used to fabricate the barrel. Typical materials
include concrete and corrugated metal. The roughness is represented by a hydraulic
resistance coefficient such as the Manning n value.
Barrel Area
Barrel area is measured perpendicular to the flow.
Barrel Length
Barrel length is the total culvert length from the entrance crown to the exit crown of the
culvert. Because the design height of the barrel and the slope influence the actual length, an
approximation of barrel length is usually necessary to begin the design process.
Barrel Slope
Barrel slope is the actual slope of the culvert barrel, and is often the same as the natural
stream slope. However, when the culvert inlet or outlet is raised or lowered, the barrel
slope is different from the stream slope.

Tailwater Elevation
Tailwater is based on the downstream water surface elevation. Backwater calculations from
a downstream control, a normal depth approximation, or field observations are used to
define the tailwater elevation (see Section 9.3.3).
Hydraulics
Full flow in the culvert barrel is assumed for the analysis of outlet control hydraulics.
Outlet control flow conditions can be calculated based on an energy balance from the
tailwater pool to the headwater pool
Figure 9.4 Outlet Control Flow, TW ≥ D
Losses: HL= HE + Hf + Ho + Hb + Hj+Hg Eq. 9-1

Where:
HL = total energy loss, ft.
HE = entrance loss, ft.
Hf = friction losses, ft.
Ho = exit loss (velocity head), ft.
Hb = bend losses, ft (U.S. FHWA, 2001)
Hj = losses at junctions, ft. (U.S. FHWA, 2001)
Hg = losses at grates, ft. (U.S. FHWA, 2001)
Velocity: V =Q/A Eq. 9-2

Where:
V = average barrel velocity, ft/sec
Q = flow rate, ft3/sec
A = cross sectional area of flow with the barrel full, ft2
Velocity head: Hv = V2/2g Eq. 9-3
Where: g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2
Entrance loss: HE = KE (V2/2g) Eq. 9-4A
Where: KE = entrance loss coefficient, see table in Appendix C

Friction loss: Hf = [(29n2L)/R1.33] [V2/2g] Eq. 9-4B

Where:
n = Manning's roughness coefficient, see table in Appendix C
L = length of the culvert barrel, ft.
R = hydraulic radius of the full culvert barrel = A/P, ft.
P = wetted perimeter of the barrel, ft.
2 2
Exit loss: Ho = 1.0 [(V /2g) - (Vd /2g)] Eq. 9-4C
Where: Vd = channel velocity downstream of the culvert, ft./sec
(usually neglected, see equation 8.4d).
Ho = Hv = V2/2g (8.4d) Eq. 9-4D
Barrel losses: H = HE + Ho + Hf
H = [1 + Ke + (19.63n2L/R1.33)] [V2/2g] Eq. 9-5
Energy Grade Line
The energy grade line represents the total energy at any point along the culvert barrel.
Equating the total energy at sections 1 and 2, upstream and downstream of the culvert barrel
in Figure 9.4, the following relationship results:
HWo + (Vu2/2g) = TW+(Vd2/2g) + HL Eq. 9-6
Where:
HWo = headwater depth above the outlet invert, ft.
Vu = approach velocity, ft./sec
TW = tailwater depth above the outlet invert, ft.
Vd = downstream velocity, ft/sec
HL = sum of all losses (Equation 9.1)
Hydraulic Grade Line

The hydraulic grade line is the depth to which water would rise in vertical tubes connected
to the sides of the culvert barrel. In full flow, the energy grade line and the hydraulic grade
line are parallel lines separated by the velocity head except at the inlet and the outlet.
Figure 9.5 Outlet Control, TW = D

Figure 9.6 Outlet Control, TW < dc
Nomographs (full flow)

The nomographs were developed assuming that the culvert barrel is flowing full and:
• TW ≥ D, (see Figure 9.4) or
• dc ≥ D, (see Figure 9.5)
• Vu is small and its velocity head can be considered to be a part of the available
headwater (HW) used to convey the flow through the culvert.
• Vd is small and its velocity head can be neglected.
Equation (8.6) becomes:
HW = TW + H - SoL Eq. 9-7
Where:
HW = depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, ft.
H = is the value read from the nomographs (equation 9.5), ft.
SoL = drop from inlet to outlet invert, ft.
Nomographs (Partly full flow)

Equations 9-1 through 9-7 were developed for full barrel flow. The equations also apply to
the flow situations which are effectively full flow conditions, if TW < dc, as in Figure 9.6.
Backwater calculations may be required which begin at the downstream water surface and
proceed upstream. If the depth intersects the top of the barrel, a full flow extends from that
point upstream to the culvert entrance.
Nomographs (Partly full flow) - Approximate method
Based on numerous backwater calculations performed by the FHWA staff, it was found that
the hydraulic grade line pierces the plane of the culvert outlet at a point approximately one-
half way between critical depth and the top of the barrel or (dc + D)/2 above the outlet
invert. TW should be used if higher than (dc + D)/2. The following equation should be used:
HW = ho + H - SoL Eq. 9-8
Where:

ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D)/2, ft.
Figure 9.7 Outlet Control, TW < dc

Adequate results are obtained down to a HW = 0.75D. For lower headwaters, backwater
calculations are required. (See Figure 9.7 if TW < dc and Figure 9.8 if TW > dc)
Figure 9.8 Outlet Control, TW > dc
9.5.13 OUTLET VELOCITY

Culvert outlet velocities shall be calculated to determine need for erosion protection at the
culvert exit. Culverts usually result in outlet velocities that are higher than the natural
stream velocities. These outlet velocities may require flow readjustment or energy
dissipation to prevent downstream erosion. If outlet erosion protection is necessary, the
flow depths and Froude number may also be needed (see Chapter 9, Energy Dissipaters).
Inlet Control
The velocity is calculated from equation 9.2 after determining the outlet depth. Either of
the following methods may be used to determine the outlet depth.
• Calculate the water surface profile through the culvert. Begin the
computation at dc at the entrance and proceed downstream to the exit.
Determine at the exit the depth and flow area.
• Assume normal depth and velocity. This approximation may be used if the
culvert is of adequate length so that the water surface profile converges
towards normal depth. This outlet velocity may be slightly higher than the
actual velocity at the outlet. Normal depths may be obtained from design
aids in Chapter 7. If the culvert is steep and sufficiently long that normal

depth occurs, high tailwater may force a hydraulic jump. It may be

necessary to evaluate the location of the hydraulic jump.
Outlet Control
The cross sectional area of the flow is defined by the geometry of the outlet and either
critical depth, tailwater depth, or the height of the conduit.
• Critical depth is used when the tailwater is less than critical depth.
• Tailwater depth is used when tailwater is greater than critical depth, but
below the top of the barrel.
• The total barrel area is used when the tailwater exceeds the top of the barrel.
9.5.14 ROADWAY OVERTOPPING
Roadway overtopping will begin when the headwater rises to the elevation of the roadway.
The overtopping will usually occur at the low point of a sag vertical curve on the roadway.
The flow will be similar to flow over a broad crested weir. Flow coefficients for flow
overtopping roadway embankments are found in Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts,
HDS No. 5. For flow overtopping a median barrier, the weir will no longer function as a
broad crested weir. H must be measured from the top of barriers.
Qr= Cd L HWr1.5 Eq. 9-8
where:
Qr = overtopping flow rate, ft3/sec
Cd = overtopping discharge coefficient (weir coefficient) = kt Cr
kt = submergence coefficient
Cr = discharge coefficient
L = length of the roadway crest, ft.
HWr = the upstream depth, measured above the roadway crest, ft.
Height
The height is measured above the point where the flow “crests” over the “dam”. It may be
the top of guardrail or barrier, if these are present.
Length
The length is difficult to determine when the crest is defined by a roadway sag vertical
curve.
• Recommend subdividing into a series of segments. The flow over each segment is
calculated for a given headwater. The flows for each segment are added together to
determine the total flow.
• The length can be represented by a single horizontal line (one segment). The length
of the weir is the horizontal length of this segment. The depth is the average depth
(area/length) of the upstream pool above the roadway.
Total Flow
• Roadway overflow plus culvert flow must equal total design flow.
• Roadway overflow is calculated for a given upstream water surface elevation using
equation 9.8

A trial and error process is necessary to determine the flow passing through the culvert and
the amount flowing across the roadway.
9.5.15 PERFORMANCE CURVES

Performance curves are plots of flow rate versus headwater depth or elevation, velocity, or
outlet scour. The culvert performance curve is made up of the controlling portions of the
individual performance curves for each of the following control sections. Performance
curves for the culvert and the road overflow may be summed to yield an overall
performance. (See Figure 9.8):
Inlet
The inlet performance curve is developed using the inlet control nomographs. (see
Appendix B).
Outlet
The outlet performance curve is developed using equations 9.1 through 9.7, the outlet
control nomographs (see Appendix B), or backwater calculations.
Roadway
Roadway performance curve is developed using equation 9.8.
Overall
Overall performance curve is the sum of the flow through the culvert and the flow across
the roadway and can be determined by performing the following steps.
5. Select a range of flow rates and determine the corresponding headwater
elevations for the culvert flow alone. These flow rates should fall above and
below the design discharge and cover the entire flow range of interest. Both
inlet and outlet control headwaters may need to be calculated.
6. Combine the inlet and outlet control performance curves to define a single
performance curve for the culvert.
7. When the culvert headwater elevations exceed the roadway crest elevation,
overtopping will begin. Calculate the upstream water surface depth above the
roadway for each selected flow rate. Use these water surface depths and
equation 8.9 to calculate flow rates across the roadway.
8. Add the culvert flow and the roadway overtopping flow at the corresponding
headwater elevations to obtain the overall culvert performance curve as
shown in Figure 9.9.

Figure 9.9 Overall Performance Curve
9.6 DESIGN DATA REQUIRED

9.6.1 INFORMATION REQUIRED
The minimum data are:
• site and location maps,
• embankment cross section,
• roadway profile,
• field visit (sediment, debris)
Desirable Data includes
• photographs, and

• design data at nearby structures.

Studies by other agencies including:
• small dams
• canals
• floodplain, and
• storm drain -- local or private.
Environmental constraints including:
• commitments contained in project and environmental documents,
Design criteria
• allowable headwater elevation
• allowable outlet velocity.
9.6.2 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

The hydraulic design of culverts or bridge openings should be carried out using the
procedure described in this and the next section respectively, calling to organize the
topographic surveys as the first step of coherent data collection. Topographic survey
activity consists of performing detailed ground survey along the entire established
alignment of the roadway opening. Surveys information should be collected for river
profile at the culvert or bridge site and also for the cross-section of the opening. It is
recommendable to conduct detailed survey operations including cross sections, stream
alignment center line on different sections to be determined by the designer.
Wherever available the coordinates should be tied into the project’s coordinate system and
recorded automatically using total station theodolites or GPS equipment. Total stations
enable to carry out the whole topographic survey by recording all data directly into
electronic data recording books, which will be retrieved by a computer system for drainage
design. Modern total stations are also programmed for construction stakeout and for road
infrastructure surveys. Total stations have made trigonometric levels as accurate as many of
the differential level techniques in areas possessing large relief landforms.
If a total station is not available non-digital theodolites may be used. The question of field
note is an important issue. Based on availability of facilities, field notes can be kept, or data
collector may be used to replace field notes with electronic field book”.
9.7 AASHTO DESIGN PROCEDURE

The following design procedure adapted from AASHTO provides a convenient and
organized method for designing culverts for a constant discharge, considering inlet and
outlet control. The designer should be familiar with all the equations in section 9.4 before
using these procedures. Following the design method without an understanding of culvert
hydraulics can result in an inadequate, unsafe, or costly structure. The common steps to be
followed in the design are enumerated here below.
Step 1 Assemble Site Data and Project File
a. Hydrographic Survey - Data include

• topographic, site, and location maps;

• embankment cross section;
• roadway profile;
• photographs;
• field visit (sediment, debris); and,
• design data of nearby structures;
b. Studies by other agencies including Ministry in charge of Water
c. Environmental constraints contained in environmental review documents
d. Design criteria.
Step 2 Determine Hydrology
Minimum data required—drainage area maps and discharge-frequency plots
a. Determine flood frequency from criteria.
b. Identify discharges to be used in determining culvert size.
Step 3 Evaluate Downstream Channel
a. Determine tailwater depth/elevation information
b. Minimum data are cross section of channel and the rating curve for channel.
Step 4 Summarize Data On Design Form
a. See Chart in Appendix C.
b. Data from steps 1-3.
Step 5 Identify Design Alternative
a. Choose culvert material, shape, size and entrance type.
Step 6 Select Design Discharge Qd
a. Divide design Q by the number of barrels.
Step 7 Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (HWi)
Use the inlet control nomograph (Appendix B).
a. Locate the size or height on the scale.
b. Locate the discharge.
• For a circular shape use discharge.
• For a box shape use Q per foot of width.
c. Locate HW/D ratio.
• Use a straight edge.
• Extend a straight line from the culvert size through the flow rate.
• Mark the first HW/D scale. Extend a horizontal line to the desired scale and
read HW/D and note on

Culvert Design Form (Appendix C).

• If the design case falls above the nomograph, the trial culvert size is too
small.
• If the line falls below the nomograph, the trial culvert size is too large.
Sometimes the minimum culvert size is controlled by factors other than
hydraulics. If a calculated headwater surface is needed.
d. Calculate headwater depth (HWi).
• Multiply HW/D by D to obtain HW to energy gradeline.
• Neglecting the approach velocity HWi = HW.
• Including the approach velocity HWi = HW - approach velocity head.
Step 8 Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth At Inlet (HWoi)
a. Calculate the tailwater depth (TW) using the design flow rate and normal depth
(single section) or using a water surface profile.
b. Calculate critical depth (dc) using appropriate chart in Appendix B.
• Locate flow rate and read dc.
• dc cannot exceed D.
• If dc > 0.9D, consult Handbook of Hydraulics (King and Brater) for a more
accurate dc, if needed, since curves are truncated where they converge.
c. Calculate (dc + D)/2.
d. Determine (ho).
ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D/2).
e. Determine (KE). Entrance loss coefficient from Table 2 in the Appendix C.
f. Determine losses through the culvert barrel (H).
• Use nomograph (Appendix B) or equation 8-5 or 8-6 if outside range.
• Locate appropriate KE scale.
• Locate culvert length (L) or (L1):
- use (L) if Manning's n matches the n value of the culvert and
- use (L1) to adjust for a different culvert n value.
L1= L(n1/n)2 Eq. 9-10
Where: L1= adjusted culvert length, ft
L = actual culvert length, ft
n1 = desired Manning n value
n = Manning n value on chart
Mark point on turning line:
- use a straight edge and
- connect size with the length.
• Read (H):
- use a straight edge,
- connect Q and turning point and
- read (H) on Head Loss scale.

g. Calculate outlet control headwater (HWoi).

• Use equation 8.11, if Vu and Vd are neglected:
HWoi = H + ho - SoL Eq. 9-11
• Use equation 8.1, 8.4c and 8.6 to include Vu and Vd.
• If HWoi is less than 1.2D and control is outlet control:
- the barrel may flow partly full,
- the approximate method of using the greater of tailwater or (dc + D)/2 may not be
applicable,
- backwater calculations should be used to check the result and
- if the headwater depth falls below 0.75D, the approximate nomograph method
shall not be used. A
backwater analysis can be performed from the outlet to just inside the inlet and the
ponded Headwater
can be directly computed.
Step 9 Determine Controlling Headwater (HWc)

Compare HWi and HWoi, use the higher as HWc.
Step 10 If appropriate, Compute Discharge Over The Roadway (Qr)
a. Calculate depth above the roadway (HWr).
HWr = HWc - HWov
HWov = height of road above inlet invert
b. If HWr <= 0, Qr = 0
If HWr > 0, determine Cd from Appendix D
c. Determine length of roadway crest (L).
d. Calculate Qr using equation 8.12.
1.5
Qr = Cd L HWr Eq. 9-12
Step 11 Compute Total Discharge (Qt)

Qt = Qd + Qr Eq. 9-13
Step 12 Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo) And Depth (dn)
If inlet control is the controlling headwater:
a. Calculate flow depth at culvert exit.
• use normal depth (dn) or
• use water surface profile
b. Calculate flow area (A).
c. Calculate exit velocity (Vo) = Q/A.
If outlet control is the controlling headwater:
a. Calculate flow depth at culvert exit.
• use (dc) if dc > TW
• use (TW) if dc < TW < D

• use (D) if D < TW

b. Calculate flow area (A).
c. Calculate exit velocity (Vo) = Q/A.
Step 13 Review Results

Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions. If any of the following are
exceeded, repeat steps 5 through 12:
• the barrel must have adequate cover,
• the length shall be close to the approximate length,
• the headwalls and wingwalls must fit site,
• the allowable headwater shall not be exceeded, and
• the allowable overtopping flood frequency shall not be exceeded.
Step 14 If needed, Plot Performance Curve

a. Repeat steps 6 through 12 with a range of discharges.
b. Use the following upper limit for discharge:
• • Q100 if Qo <= Q100
• • Q500 if Qo > Q100
Step 15 Related Designs
Consider the following options (See Sections 8.3.4 and 8.3.5).
• Energy dissipaters if Vo is larger than the normal V in the downstream
channel
• Tapered inlets if culvert is in inlet control and has limited available
headwater;
• Flow routing if a large upstream headwater pool exists; and,
• Consider energy dissipater if Vo is larger than the normal V in the
downstream channel;
Step 16 Documentation
Prepare report and file with background information.

10 BRIDGE HYDROLOGY
10.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides general design guidance for the design of stream crossing system
utilizing bridges through:
• presentation of the appropriate design philosophy, goals, and considerations.
• discussion of the technical aspects of hydraulic design including a design
procedure which emphasizes hydraulic analyses using the computer program
HEC-RAS.
• presentation of equations and methodology for scour analysis.
Waterway bridges are structures that carry traffic over a waterway: the stream crossing
system includes the approach roadway, relief openings, when present, and the bridge
structure. A more in-depth discussion of the philosophy of Bridge Hydraulics is presented
in the AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Chapter VII(1). Hydraulics of culverts
used for stream crossings should be analyzed in accordance with Chapter 9, Culverts.
The objective in performing a hydraulic design of a stream crossing system is to provide a
cost-effective crossing that satisfies criteria regarding the desired level of hydraulic
performance at an acceptable level of risk. The relevant areas for consideration are impact
on the stream environment, hydraulic performance, and total economic costs for the stream
crossing system: the total cost includes construction, maintenance and risk costs of traffic
delay, repair and liability.
The desired level of hydraulic performance can be generally described as:
• to not adversely impact adjacent properties
• to not significantly adversely impact the stream and its environment outside
the project
• to have the bridge withstand all flow events up to and including a
“Superflood” event
These are further quantified in section 10.3. To meet the stated goals, a hydraulic analysis
of the stream crossing system must be performed. The questions to be addressed are:
• Determine the changes in stream behavior at the project-crossing site. This
includes both the naturally occurring changes as part of the stream
morphology and those related to the construction of the project.
• The methods used to quantify the changes include a multi-level geomorphic
analysis, a steady state hydraulic analysis, and prediction of scour at the
project site.
Chapter 10 Bridge Hydrology 10-1

The design of a cost-effective stream crossing system requires a comprehensive engineering

approach that includes data collection, formulation of alternatives, selection of the most cost
effective alternative satisfying the established criteria, and documentation of the final
design. Water surface elevations and profiles affect the highway and bridge design and are
the mechanism for determining the effect of a bridge opening on upstream and downstream
water levels.
10.2 HYDRAULIC DESIGN CRITERIA

10.2.1 GENERAL CRITERIA
Design criteria are the tangible means for placing accepted policies into action and become
the basis for the selection of the final design configuration of the stream-crossing system.
The following are the general criteria related to the hydraulic analyses for the location and
design of bridges:
• Backwater will not significantly increase flood damage to property upstream of the
crossing;
• Velocities through the structure(s) will not either damage the highway facility or
increase damages to adjacent property;
• Maintain the existing flow distribution to the extent practicable;
• Pier spacing, orientation, and abutment are to be designed to minimize flow
disruption and potential scour;
• spill-through type abutments using side slopes are preferred over deep abutments to
minimize scour and backwater;
• Select foundation design and/or scour countermeasures to avoid failure by scour;
• Freeboard at structure(s) designed to pass anticipated debris;
• Acceptable risks of damage or viable measures to counter the unpredictability of
alluvial streams;
• Minimal disruption of ecosystems and values unique to the flood plain and stream;
• Provide a level of traffic service compatible with that commonly expected for the
class of highway and compatible with projected traffic volumes; and,
• Design choices should support costs for construction, maintenance, and operation,
including probable repair and reconstruction and potential liability.
10.2.2 SPECIFIC CRITERIA

These criteria augment the general criteria. They provide specific, quantifiable values that
relate to local site conditions. Evaluation of various alternatives according to these criteria
can be accomplished by using the water surface profile computation. a) Location of a
Stream Crossing Although many factors, including non-technical ones, are used to
determine the final location of a stream-crossing system, the hydraulics of the proposed
location must have a high priority.
Hydraulic considerations in selecting the location include flood plain width and roughness,
flow distribution and direction, stream type (braided, straight, or meandering), stream
regime (aggrading, degrading, or equilibrium), and stream controls. The hydraulics of a

proposed location also affects environmental considerations such as aquatic life, wetlands,
sedimentation, and stream stability. Finally, the hydraulics of a particular site determines
whether or not certain national objectives such as wise use of flood plains, reduction of
flooding losses, and preservative of wetlands can be met.
Inundation
Inundation of the carriageway dictates the level of traffic services provided by the facility.
The carriageway overtopping flood level identifies the limit of serviceability.
Risk Evaluation
The selection of hydraulic design criteria for determining the waterway opening, road grade,
scour potential, riprap, and other features should consider the potential impacts to
interruptions to traffic, adjacent property, the environment, and the infrastructure of the
highway. The evaluation of the consequence of risk associated with the probability of
flooding attributed to a stream-crossing system is a tool by which site specific design
criteria can be developed. This evaluation considers capital cost, traffic service,
environmental and property impacts, and hazards to human life. The evaluation of risk is a
two-stage process. The initial step, identified as risk assessment, is more qualitative than a
risk analysis and serves to identify threshold values that must be met by the hydraulic
design. In many cases where the risks are low and/or threshold design values can be met, it
is unnecessary to pursue a detailed economic analysis. In those cases where the risks are
high and/or threshold values cannot be met, a Least Total Expected Cost (LTEC) analysis
shall be considered.
The results of a least-cost analysis can be presented in a graph of total cost as a function of
the overtopping discharge. The total cost consists of a combination of capital costs and
flood damages (or risk costs). Risk costs decrease with increases in the overtopping
discharge while capital costs simultaneously increase. The overtopping discharge for each
alternative is determined from a hydraulic analysis of a specific combination of
embankment height and bridge-opening length. The resulting least-cost alternative provides
a tradeoff comparison.
The alternatives considered in the least-cost analysis do not require the specification of a
particular design flood. This information is part of the output of the least-cost analysis. In
other words, the least-cost alternative has a specific risk of overtopping that is unknown
before the least-cost alternative has been determined. Therefore, design flood frequencies
are used only to establish the initial alternative.
Thereafter, specific flood-frequency criteria shall be considered only as constraints on the
final design selection. Deviation from the least-cost alternative may be necessary to satisfy
these constraints and the trade-off cost for doing so can be obtained from the least-cost
analysis. Risk based analysis does not recognize some of the intangible factors that
influence a design. The minimum design that results from this type of analysis may be too
low to satisfy the site condition.
Design Floods
Design floods for such purposes as the evaluation of backwater, clearance, and overtopping
shall be established predicated on risk based assessment of local site conditions. They
should reflect consideration of traffic service, environmental impact, property damage,
hazard to human life, and flood plain management criteria.

Backwater
Backwater and/or increases over existing condition up to 0.5 m during the passage of the
100- year flood, if practicable. The expression for backwater is formulated by applying the
principle of conservation of energy between the point of maximum backwater upstream
from the bridge, and a point downstream from the bridge at which normal stage has been
reestablished. The expression is reasonably valid if the channel in the vicinity of the bridge
is essentially straight, the cross sectional area of the stream is fairly uniform, the gradient of
the bottom is approximately constant between the upstream and downstream section, the
flow is free to contract and expand, there is no appreciable scour of the bed in the
constriction and the flow is in the subcritical range.
Clearance
A minimum clearance conforming to the requirements of the Bridge Design manual
(usually 1.5 meters) shall be provided between the design approach water surface elevation
and the low chord of the bridge for the final design alternative to allow for passage of
debris.
Scour
Design for bridge foundation scour should be made considering the magnitude of flood,
through the 1% event (100 years return period), which generates the maximum scour depth.
The designer should use a safety factor of three. The resulting design should then be
checked using a superflood that is 1.7 times the magnitude of the 1% event. The extreme
hazard posed by bridges subject to bridge scour failures dictates a different philosophy in
selecting suitable flood magnitudes to use in the scour analysis. With bridge flood hazards
other than scour, such as those caused by roadway overtopping or property damage from
inundation, a prudent and reasonable practice is to select first a design flood to determine a
trial bridge opening geometry. This geometry is selected either subjectively or objectively
based on the initial cost of the bridge along with the potential future costs for flood hazards.
Following the selection of this trial bridge geometry, the base flood (100 years return
period) is used to evaluate the selected opening. This two step evaluation process is used to
ensure the selected bridge opening based on the design flood implies no unexpected
increase in any existing flood hazards other than those from scour or aggradation. Not only
is it necessary to consider bridge scour or aggradation from the base flood, but also from an
even larger flood termed herein as the “superflood”.
Scour prediction technology is steadily developing, but lacks at this time, the reliability
associated with other facets of hydraulic engineering. Several formulae for predicting scour
depths are currently available and others will certainly be developed in the future. The
designer should strive to be acquainted with the “state of practice’ at the time of a given
analysis and is encouraged to be conservative in the resulting scour predictions.
With potential bridge scour hazards, a different flood selection and analysis philosophy is
considered reasonable and prudent. The foregoing trial bridge opening which was selected
by considering initial costs and future flood hazard costs shall be evaluated for two possible
scour conditions with the worse case dictating the foundation design and possibly a change
in the selected trial bridge opening.
First, evaluate the proposed bridge and road geometry for scour using the base flood,
incipient overtopping flood, overtopping flood corresponding to the base flood, or the relief
opening flood whichever provides the greatest flood discharge through the bridge opening.

Once the expected scour geometry has been assessed, the geotechnical engineer would
design the foundation.
The foundation design would use the conventional foundation safety factors and eliminate
consideration of any stream bed and bank material displaced by scour for foundation
support.
Second, impose a “superflood” on the proposed bridge and road geometry. This event must
be greater than the base flood and shall be used to evaluate the proposed bridge opening to
ensure that the resulting potential scour will produce no unexpected scour hazards. The
“superflood” is defined as the 500-year flood or a designated ratio (e.g. 1.7) times the 100-
year flood. Similar to the base flood to evaluate the selected bridge opening, use either the
“superflood’, or the relief opening flood, whichever imposes the greatest flood discharge on
the selected bridge opening. The foundation design based on the base flood would then be
reviewed by the geotechnical engineer using an appropriate safety factor and again, taking
into account any stream bed and bank material displaced by scour from the “superflood”.
10.2.3 DESIGN FREQUENCIES AND FREEBOARDS

Operational Frequency
Infringement of storm water into the desired freeboard of the roadway determines the
operational level of traffic service provided by the facility. Desired minimum levels of
operational frequency for travelway inundation of specific roadways are presented in
Chapter 600 of The Highway Design Manual.
Bridge Freeboard Clearance
A minimum clearance of 3 ft for Level 1 bridges or 1 foot for Level 2,3 or 4 bridges shall be
provided between the design approach water surface elevation and the low chord of the
bridge for the selected design alternative.
Note: Unless otherwise specified, freeboard refers to the vertical clearance between the
bottom of bridge superstructure and flood stage elevation. Freeboard requirements
do not apply to "bridge" culverts.
Riverine Bridge Replacements/New Locations
All bridges will be sized to convey the design flood and base flood without causing
significant damage to the highway, the stream or other property. The design flood will be
conveyed only through the bridge opening, while the base (100-year) flood and any floods
greater than the design flood may be conveyed over the roadway and through the bridge
opening.
• Roads Designated As National Routes
− The design flood shall be the 50-year frequency storm.
− A minimum of 2 feet of freeboard above the design flood stage is required.
− A minimum of 1 foot of freeboard above the 100-year flood stage is
required.

• Roads Not Designated As National Routes

− The design flood will be based on traffic counts as follows:
Design Traffic (ADT) Frequency Minimum Design Storm

0 – 100 5-Year
100 – 399 10-Year
400 – 1500 25-Year
Over 1500 50-Year
− A minimum of 2 feet of freeboard above the design flood stage is required.

− 0.5 feet of freeboard above the 100-year (base) flood is desirable.
− A minimum of 1 foot of freeboard above the roadway overtopping flood.
Freeboard For Road Subgrades

To protect the pavement, road subgrades should be 1 foot above the design year high water
level. For low volume roads not designated as State Routes, the proposed roadway profile
can be set so that the design year highwater is a minimum of 0.5 ft below the shoulder point
of the roadway if the conditions in item (1) and either (2) or (3) exist:
1. Design Year Traffic (ADT) is less than 400 VPD
2. Houses and/or buildings are located in the upstream floodplain with a high
risk of being flooded by the 100-year storm, and the raising of the profile
grade of the roadway would have an adverse effect on the potential flooding
of these structures.
3. Raising the profile grade elevation of the roadway above this point would
increase the 100-year flood backwater above 1.0 ft.

Additional Design Frequency and Freeboard Considerations

a) The storms mentioned above are minimum design storms. The actual design storm
can have a greater frequency with the concurrence of the RTDA bridge hydraulics
engineer.
b) If the bridge site is affected by abnormal flood stages, the bridge will provide
freeboard above the abnormal flood stage and be designed for the velocity that
occurs without the effects of the abnormal flood stage.
c) If the bridge is over one of the major lakes or reservoirs where there is boat traffic,
the desirable grade should be set so that there is at least 8 feet of freeboard above the
maximum operating pool. The minimum grade should not reduce the freeboard
from the existing conditions and can be used if this freeboard meets the above-
required
d) If debris is a problem at the site, the above-required minimum clearances may be
increased with the concurrence of bridge hydraulics engineer.
10.2.4 BACKWATER
Backwater should not significantly increase flood impact to property.
The interest of other property owners must be considered in the design of a proposed
stream-crossing system. Not all stream crossing systems can be designed to economically
pass all possible flows without backwater effects, therefore the effects of flows greater than
the roadway operational flow should be evaluated. Overtopping of the roadway may be
used to control backwater levels for flows greater than the operational flow. Embankment
overtopping incorporated into the design should be located well away from the bridge
abutments and superstructure.
In delineated floodplains, whenever practicable, the stream-crossing system shall avoid
encroachment on the floodway within a flood plain. When this is not feasible, modification
of the floodway itself shall be considered. If neither of these alternatives is feasible, the
regulations for "floodway encroachment where demonstrably appropriate" shall be met.
Backwater/Increases Over Existing Conditions
The effects of the bridge backwater changes in water surface profiles shall be evaluated at
the right-of-way line and shall:
• Consider the impact on adjacent properties during the passage of the 1% exceedance
probability flood.
• Backwater is measured relative to the natural water surface elevation without the
effect of the bridge at the approach cross section.
Note: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Center has
conducted research concerning the location of the approach and exit sections in the
hydraulic computer model. The conclusions and recommendations from this study are
contained in the HEC-RAS Hydraulic Reference Manual,(3) Appendix B, "Flow
Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis," and should be used in determining the
locations of the approach and exit sections in the HEC-RAS and WSPRO computer
models.

• The 100-year backwater shall be limited to 1 foot above the unrestricted or

natural 100- year water surface profile. (10.2.4.1) Note: This backwater value
shall include effects from the proposed roadway in the case of a longitudinal
encroachment on the floodplain.
• If, in the engineer's judgment, the above limitation in (10.2.4.1) is not practical
for bridge replacement projects, the 100-year backwater may exceed 1.0 foot
above the unrestricted or natural 100-year water surface profile, but may not be
higher than the existing condition backwater value. Note: This limitation will
only be accepted for new drainage structures in rare instances where it can
clearly be shown that it is impractical to size the drainage structure for the
above limitation in (10.2.4.1). The waiver of the above limitation in (10.2.4.1)
requires the approval of the Department's hydraulic engineer.
Note: Examples of reasons for the limitation in 10.2.4.1 being waived are: Due to
shallow flow in the overbank area, additional span lengths and/or overflow structures
do not significantly reduce the velocity and backwater values; and
The condition where the existing structure creates a significant amount of backwater and
storage upstream of the roadway and sizing the proposed structure to meet 10.2.4.1 would
adversely affect downstream development.
Justification for the waiving of 10.2.4.1must be clearly shown in the Hydraulic and
Hydrological Study. In all cases, the drainage structure must be sized so that the drainage
structure and roadway are protected against failure during major flood events.
10.2.5 FLOW VELOCITIES

Increased velocities should not damage either the structure or significantly increase
impact to adjacent property.
Velocity
The velocity changes should be minimal. Velocities that result in predicted bed or bank
erosion shall be addressed. Erosion protection in the form of bed or bank protection shall
be included in the stream crossing system. Whenever possible, clearing of vegetation
upstream and downstream of the toe of the embankment slope should be avoided. For the
operational flow, wire-tied riprap, railbank, or soil cement bank protection is used to protect
the roadway embankment or abutment fill slopes. Spur dikes should be used, as necessary,
to align flows, protect roadway embankments, and mitigate the effects of changes in the
stream hydraulic behavior. Spur dikes are recommended to align the approach flow with
the bridge opening and to mitigate scour for the operational flow at the abutments. They are
usually elliptical shaped with a major to minor axis ratio of 2.5 to 1. Their length can be
determined according to HDS-1 (2) or by 7 times the depth of abutment scour to be
mitigated. Spur dikes and embankments shall be protected by bank protection for flows up
to the operational flow.
Flow velocities within the bridge opening shall be limited to minimize scour in the
overbank portion of the opening. Acceptable stream channel and overbank velocities shall
be determined by comparison with the natural velocities and existing bridge velocities,
along with any scour problems, or lack thereof, at the existing structure. The type of soil at

the site (highly erodible or not) shall be considered. Box culverts shall be sized with
acceptable flow velocities to minimize potential scour.
Note: As a general rule, to minimize scour, the maximum desirable stream channel
velocity values for new bridges should be in the range of 1.5 to 1.75 times the
natural/unrestricted channel velocity for the design year and 100-year storms.
10.2.6 BRIDGE SCOUR
A scour analysis will be performed for all bridges, using the methods in the latest version of
the FHWA HEC-18, (4) "Evaluating Scour at Bridges." General contraction and local (pier)
scour calculations shall be performed. The design flood for scour shall be the 100-year
flood or the overtopping flood if it is less than or equal to the 100-year flood. Scour should
also be computed for the 500-year flood or the overtopping flood if it is greater than the
100-year flood and less than the 500-year flood.
Note: The theoretical scour depths for the proposed bridge(s) are normally performed
without the benefit of a bridge foundation investigation for the proposed structure.
The median grain diameters (D50) of sand that are normally used by the Department in
the FHWA scour equations to estimate the theoretical scour depths are as follows:
• Very Coarse Sand: D50 = 0.00492 ft
• Coarse Sand: D50 = 0.00246 ft
• Medium Sand: D50 = 0.00123 ft
• Fine Sand: D50 = 0.00062 ft
• Very Fine Sand: D50 = 0.00031 ft
The hydraulic engineer should search the existing bridge files for old bridge foundation
investigations or other information that would assist in deciding which D50 would be
appropriate for the site. Soil information at nearby crossings along the same stream can also
be helpful in this regard.
The predicted scour depths at each intermediate bent of the proposed bridge shall be
provided to the Office of Materials and Research Soils Lab. The soils engineer will adjust,
if necessary, the predicted scour depths depending on the soil conditions at the site. The
soils engineer will then provide, as part of the bridge foundation investigation, the final
predicted scour depths to the bridge structural engineer for inclusion in the analysis and
design of the bridge foundations.
10.2.7 BRIDGE ABUTMENT PROTECTION

Spill-through type abutment end rolls with a 2:1 slope normal to the end bent are normally
used for new bridges. Riprap protection for these endrolls shall be sized using the method
shown in the latest version of the FHWA HEC-23 (5), "Bridge Scour and Stream Instability
Countermeasures." The 100-year flood should be used for this design. This riprap
protection shall be entrenched 2 feet below the ground line and extend 2 feet above the 100-
year flood stage elevation. The riprap protection shall be extended a minimum distance of
20 feet beyond the end of the wingwalls. A riprap apron, with a width equal to twice the
100-year storm flow depth in the overbank area, from a minimum width of 8 feet to a
maximum of 25 feet, shall be used to protect the endroll toes. The riprap apron should not
extend beyond the top of the stream channel bank. The depth of riprap at the endrolls is
normally 2 feet. The Department of Transportation uses two sizes of riprap: Type 1 riprap

has a D50 of 1.14 feet and Type 3 riprap has a D50 of 0.64 feet. Suitable geotextile is placed
under the riprap.
Note: Type 1 riprap should be used at all locations. Type 3 riprap may be substituted
where placement problems prevent the practical use of Type 1 riprap AND it is shown
that Type 3 riprap is sufficient protection against scour damage during the 100-year
flood.
10.2.8 GUIDE BANKS (SPUR DIKES)

Guide bank calculations shall be performed as shown in the latest version of the FHWA
HEC-23, (5) "Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures," and shall be based on
the 100-year flood. Guide banks are not required to be built where the calculated length is
less than 150 feet. Based on US FHWA practice, the RTDA recommends a maximum
length guide bank of 150 feet be built where the calculated length is 150 feet or more. The
engineer, with the concurrence of RTDA bridge hydraulics engineer, may specify a longer
or shorter guide bank be built, or that no guide bank be built. The reasons supporting these
options shall be included in the hydraulic and hydrological report.
Note: As a general rule, it is desirable to size new bridges so that guide banks will not
be required. This can be accomplished by extending the new bridge to the wide side of
the floodplain and/or the addition of overflow structures.
10.2.9 LONGITUDINAL ROADWAY ENCROACHMENTS

Since longitudinal encroachments into the base floodplain (100-year floodplain) and
floodway by new and widened roadways generally have a major effect on the flood
elevations of the affected stream, these encroachments shall be avoided if at all possible.
The project manager and location engineer shall follow the following basic rules for
roadway widenings, parallelings and new locations:
1. For roadway widening projects, the typical section shall be set to avoid or
minimize the placing of additional roadway fill within the adjacent base
floodplain.
2. For roadway paralleling projects, the new parallel roadway shall be placed to
avoid or minimize longitudinal encroachments on the base floodplains.
3. New location roadway projects shall be aligned to avoid or minimize
longitudinal encroachments on base floodplains.
4. For all cases, longitudinal encroachment on a delineated regulatory
floodway shall be avoided if at all possible.
The computer model shall show the effects of any longitudinal encroachment of the
proposed project on the base floodplain.
10.2.10 MODELING FLOODPLAIN CONSTRICTIONS/OBSTRUCTIONS AND ABNORMAL
FLOOD STAGE CONDITIONS
Effects from natural or man-made conditions may affect the flood stages at the crossing site.
These effects must be taken into account when modeling and analyzing the hydraulic
conditions at the project site. The hydraulic engineer must identify and include any of these
conditions that will affect the project site in the hydraulic model. Some examples are:
1. Roadway and railroad crossings of the stream
2. Longitudinal roadway encroachments

3. Natural narrowing of the floodplain

4. Fill that has been placed within the floodplain
5. Reservoirs and dams
6. Confluence with another stream (Items 1 through 5 must also be taken into
account
7. when modeling this stream)
8. Normal Water Surface Profile Run. This computer run includes any
floodplain constriction or obstruction that controls or affects the flood stages
at the project site with the normal storm flows along the stream reach. This
computer run is the basic run in all hydraulic studies.
Abnormal Flood Stage Run. This computer run includes any backwater effects from a
natural or man-made condition that causes flood stages at the project crossing that are not
due only to the normal storm flows along the stream reach. An example of an abnormal
flood stage is when the studied stream is a tributary to another river or stream and the flood
flows along this river or stream cause flood stage elevations to rise at the project site.
A reservoir that affects the flood stages at the project site can be considered a normal or
abnormal flood stage condition depending on the situation. If the flood stages at the project
site are controlled at all times by the reservoir, this is considered a normal flood condition.
If the flood stages at the project site are only controlled a portion of the time by the
reservoir, then this would be considered an abnormal flood stage condition.
If the proposed bridge site is affected by abnormal flood stages, the bridge shall be designed
to provide the required freeboard above the abnormal flood stage elevations and also be
designed for the storm flow velocities that occur without the effects of the abnormal flood
stages.
10.3 DESIGN DATA REQUIRED
10.3.1 REQUIRED DATA FROM PROJECT MANAGER
1. Three sets of preliminary proposed roadway plans. These plans shall
include, but not be limited to, the following information:
a. Cover sheet with Project number, PI number, Route number, traffic
data and location map.
b. Typical section at bridge and roadway.
c. Plan and Profile sheets extending the full length of the floodplain.
Information to be shown on the Plan and Profile sheets include the
following:
• Proposed profile grade data with vertical curve data complete
with PVI stations, elevations, grades and vertical curve lengths
• Bearing along tangent section of the construction centerline
• Horizontal curve data complete with PI station and maximum
superelevation rate
• Transition stations from normal crown section to full
superelevation section shall be shown • Location of existing
bridge(s) and roadway; begin and end bridge stations shall be
shown

• Bench mark information; location of benchmarks in stations and

offsets; physical description of benchmarks; bench mark
elevation; benchmark datum. The benchmark datum should be
in the project datum. (see Road Geometric Design Manual,
Chapter 14 Survey requirements) Three benchmarks are
required. One at the beginning of the survey, one at the bridge
or stream site, and one at the end of the survey. For bridges that
exceed 400 feet in length, a benchmark near both ends of the
structure should be provided. The benchmarks near the bridge
should be located within 300 feet of the bridge ends.
• Plot of stream traverse on plan sheet
2. The survey file shall include all data that is specified on the Hydraulic
Engineering Field Report. The field report contains a detailed listing of the
minimum survey data that is required. See Appendix A in this chapter. In
addition, the proposed construction centerline information shall be entered
into the project file by the project manager.
3. Copy of the Hydraulic Engineering Field Report.
4. For new location projects, a copy of maps from the Rwanda Natural
Resources Authority (RNRA) with the project alignment accurately located.
10.3.2 OTHER PLANS, REPORTS AND MISCELLANEOUS DATA
1. The existing bridge and roadway plans
1. The project concept report
2. The bridge maintenance file for the existing structure
3. Previous Hydraulic Studies done by the Department, Aerial Photos
4. For bridge widenings and parallelings only:
a. Bridge Deck Condition Survey from the Materials and
Research Office
b. Bridge Condition Survey from the Maintenance Office
10.3.3 COMPUTER MODELS
1. "HEC-RAS" (COE)
2. "WSPRO" (FHWA)
3. "UNET" (COE)
4. "FESWMS" (FHWA)
5. "RMA-2V" (COE)
6. "HY-8"(FHWA)

10.3.4 THE INTERNET

Note: The Internet is an important tool that should be used for gathering information
that previously was available only through publications or various agencies. The
USGS, FEMA, the CORPS of Engineers, NOAA, TVA and the FHWA are among the
agencies that have Internet web sites. Internet sites, in many cases, will have updated
information that can be used in the performance of hydraulic and hydrological
studies. Other projects previously designed in the area may also have information as
well as public sites such as Google®, or Bing®.
10.4 DESIGN METHODS/PROCEDURES – HYDRAULIC AND HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES
10.4.1 METHODS/PROCEDURES – ALL RIVERINE BRIDGE PROJECTS
1. Investigate the flood history of the stream. Sources for this information
include, but are not limited to:
a. USGS gage records
b. Existing bridge and maintenance files
c. Previous studies
d. Information from local residents
e. Information from the local government
f. Information from local Department personnel
g. Hydraulic Engineering Field Report
2. Investigate the bridge site scour history. Some sources of information are:
a. Bridge inspection and maintenance files
b. Comparison of the original bridge plan and profile with the
currently surveyed profile
c. Aerial photographs taken over as long a time span as
available. Based on this information, an indication of the
long-term channel stability and aggradation or degradation
can be estimated. An evaluation of the performance of the
existing bridges can also be made.
3. Hydrology
a. Using topographic maps, determine the boundaries of the
drainage basin and measure the area. Determine the land
usage from aerial photography, topographic maps, and a site
visit.
b. For sites affected by regulation from dams, or containing
significant storage volume upstream of the project site, the
runoff must be determined by developing unit hydrographs
and routing the various floods through the basin taking into
account the storage. For large dams, the peak discharges
may be obtained from the operators;
c. The hydraulic slope at the site is normally determined by
use of the topographical sheets and/or the surveyed water
surface elevations taken 500 feet upstream and downstream
and at the centerline of the crossing.

d. The Manning's n values for the stream channel and

floodplain areas are determined from the results of the site
inspection and taken from a table such as that shown in the
FHWA publication, "Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways,
March 1978,", or by comparing site conditions with
photographs included in USGS Water Supply Papers 1849,
"Roughness Characteristics of Natural Channels," and 2339,
"Guide for Selecting Manning’s Roughness Coefficients for
Natural Channels and Flood Plains." Site Inspection
4. Site Inspection
a. The hydraulic engineer who is performing the study and
computer modeling shall visit the bridge site(s) and perform
a site inspection;
b. Evaluate the stream characteristics and hydraulic properties,
evaluate the performance of the existing bridge (if
applicable), evaluate the channel and floodplain geometrics,
and evaluate the adequacy and accuracy of the survey data;
c. Possible flooding problems of buildings and other structures
in the floodplain should be identified;
d. Any existing scour problems should be noted;
e. Any past or possible channel migration should be noted;
f. Bridge sites immediately upstream and downstream of the
project site along the same stream should be visited and the
performance of the structures evaluated.
5. Survey Data
The hydraulic engineer shall determine the extent of survey data required to accurately
model the project site. This survey data shall include, but not be limited to:
• Upstream and downstream floodplain sections extended across the entire
width of the floodplain;
• Existing roadway profile;
• Bridge deck shots and bridge opening profile;
• A stream traverse extending 500 feet upstream and downstream of the bridge
site with streambed, edge of water and top of bank shots;
• Profiles of all roads and other features located within the floodplain;
• all drainage structure information within the floodplain;
• Flood of record elevation information;
• Benchmark data and datum information;
• Floor elevations of houses and other buildings that may be flooded;
• Floodplain sections at any natural or manmade constrictions along the stream
reach which would affect the flood flow at the project site. These
constrictions include narrow sections of the floodplain, dams, and other
drainage structures along the same stream; and

• Floodplain cross sections at adjoining streams that cause abnormal flood

stages at the project site.
6. Hydraulic Analysis
a. The hydraulic computer model shall be used to determine
the natural, existing and proposed conditions at the site.
The 2-year, 10-year, design year, 100- and 500- year or
overtopping storm shall be modeled for the project site. The
design flood shall be conveyed through the bridge opening,
while floods greater than the design flood may be conveyed
over the roadway and through the bridge opening. The 10-
year storm is used to size the detour structure. Note: The 2-
year storm is used to size the detour structure on local roads
not designated as National Routes that have a design year
ADT less than 400 VPD.
b. When a flow gage is located at or near the bridge site, flood
stages to calibrate the computer model shall be obtained, if
available. In addition, if in the engineer's judgment, reliable
highwater information at or near the site is available, and
the flood frequency of the applicable storm can be
determined, the computer model shall be calibrated using
this information.
c. If the drainage area is less than 20 mi2, a box culvert
alternate shall be analyzed. The natural or unrestricted
highwater profiles should be developed using WSPRO or
HEC-RAS. Two culvert computer models are accepted;
(1)The FHWA HY-8 computer model; and (2) The culvert
routine within the HEC-RAS computer model.
d. For projects with existing and/or proposed multiple
bridges/culverts within the same floodplain, the WSPRO or
HEC-RAS computer models shall be used to size and
analyze these drainage structures at crossings where two-
dimensional computer models are considered unnecessary
by the hydraulic engineer. The culvert analysis provided by
WSPRO and HEC-RAS for these multiple drainage
structure conditions are acceptable without running the HY-
8 computer model.
e.
7. Hydraulic Design of Bridge
a. Bridge Replacements/New Locations
• Establish the orientation of the bridge substructure by
determining the flood flow angle. This should be
based on topographic maps, aerial photographs and the
site inspection. If FESWMS is used, it will compute
the velocity vectors, which will show the flood flow
angle directly.

• Spill-through abutment type endrolls with a 2:1 slope

normal to the end bent are normally used for new
bridges. The toe of the bridge endrolls shall be placed
a minimum of 10 feet back from the creek bank or at a
point 10 feet back from where a 2:1 slope from the
bottom of the creek bank intersects the groundline in
the overbank, whichever is greater.
• In cases where the approaching channel bends before
crossing under the bridge, the toes of the bridge
endrolls shall be placed to avoid direct overbank flow
from the channel, if practical.
• If the bridge is located in or near a channel bend, the
possibility of stream channel migration is increased.
The toes of the bridge endrolls should be placed far
enough back so that any channel migration would not
reach them during the lifetime of the bridge, 75 years
at a minimum. The rate and direction of channel
migration can be predicted by comparing historic and
recent aerial photography (Lagasse et al. 2004).
• The proposed bridge length shall be set as the
minimum length structure which has acceptable
backwater and flow velocities as per the guidelines in
this section.
• The profile grade elevation of the bridge shall be set
so that the proposed bridge superstructure will meet
the clearance requirements specified herein. The
profile grade along the centerline of the proposed
bridge should be set so that the bridge will drain
surface flow. Avoid flat grades and the placement of
the low point of a vertical curve on a bridge.
• Set the span lengths for the bridge. The span over the
channel should be set first. If practical, the channel
should be completely spanned. The substructure
should be set far enough back of the channel banks so
that the banks will not be broken down during
construction.
• At sites where the bridge bent heights are acceptable
and subsurface conditions are suitable, pile bents are
normally used. Reinforced concrete deck girder
superstructure, with spans from 26 feet to 40 feet, at 2
foot intervals, is used with this substructure.
• At sites where the bridge bents are too high for pile
substructure, or the subsurface conditions warrant, or
there is a debris problem, or a long span is required,
concrete intermediate bents with footings are typically

used. Spans longer than 40 feet normally use cast-in-

place concrete bents. If PSC (prestressed concrete)
pile bents are anticipated, pile bents can be used for
spans up to 60 feet in length.
10.4.2 BRIDGE HYDRAULIC DESIGN CRITERIA
At sites where intermediate bents have to be located within the stream channel, the bents
should align with the stream channel flow. If pile bents are located within the stream
channel or at the channel banks, they should not be tower bents.
For ease of structural design and repetition in fabrication, the use of equal span lengths is
recommended while following sound hydraulic design practice.
Approximate span lengths for prestressed beams are as follows:
• Type I Mod: up to 45 ft
• Type II: 40 to 64 ft
• Type III: 54 to 86 ft
The above maximum lengths are for 28 day concrete strengths of 6000 psi.
• 54 in Bulb Tee 78 to 112 ft
The above maximum lengths are for 28 day concrete strengths of 7,000 psi.
Note: The above span lengths are approximate and may be increased moderately by
increasing concrete strength.
• For bridge replacement projects, the existing bridge is removed. The
existing bridge substructure is removed as per the specifications. Any
existing roadway fill within the proposed bridge opening is removed down to
the original/natural groundline. If the new roadway and bridge is along a
shifted or new alignment, the existing bridge and roadway fill is removed.
Note: Exceptions to the above existing bridge and roadway removal are if the
proposed bridge is along a new or shifted alignment and the existing bridge is declared
historical; or the county wants to maintain the existing bridge and assume all liability
for the structure. Even in these cases, the existing roadway fill may have to be totally
or partially removed for hydraulic purposes.
• For new dual or twin bridges, it is desirable to align the proposed endrolls
and intermediate bents. If conditions warrant, the span arrangement for each
bridge can be varied to adhere to the recommendations listed in this section.
10.4.3 BRIDGE WIDENINGS AND PARALLELINGS
• In general, the above recommendations for bridge replacements apply where
applicable.
• The first choice for the widening and/or paralleling of an existing bridge is to
approximate the existing bottom of beam elevation, span lengths and bent
skew. In addition, it is desirable when paralleling an existing bridge to

match the existing endrolls and to align the proposed bents with the existing
bents.
10.4.4 BOX CULVERTS
In general, box culverts are placed at sites which have favorable floodplain conditions,
which include a well-defined creek channel and a site that is not likely to accumulate silt or
debris in the culvert barrels. For this reason, culverts are not normally placed in swampy
areas, sites that are frequently affected by abnormal stage conditions, or sites that have
beaver dams or historically have a large amount of debris in the stream channel. The
culvert width is normally set by matching the width of the stream channel and is designed
with the inlet inundated for the design year and 100-year storms. The culvert shall be sized
to provide acceptable flow velocities and backwater values. A RTDA standard size and
skew box culvert shall be used. These culvert sizes range from a single barrel 4 ft wide by 4
ft high box to a five barrel 10 ft wide by 12 ft high box. Standard skews are 45, 60, 75 and
90 degrees.
Acceptable outlet velocities shall be determined by comparison with the natural velocities
and existing drainage structure velocities, along with consideration of any scour problems,
or lack thereof, at the existing structure. The type of soil at the site (highly erodible or not)
shall be considered. If it is determined that a box culvert will be hydraulically satisfactory at
the project site, the final decision of using a bridge vs. a box culvert should be based on a
cost comparison. Environmental considerations may preclude construction of a box culvert.
10.4.5 SCOUR ANALYSIS
A scour analysis will be performed for all bridges, using the methods shown in the latest
version of the FHWA HEC-18, "Evaluating Scour at Bridges." The latest version of FHWA
HEC-20,"Stream Stability at Highway Structures" should also be consulted regarding
aggradation, degradation and channel lateral migration considerations. General contraction
and local (pier) scour calculations shall be performed. The design flood for scour shall be
the 100-year flood, or overtopping flood if it is less than or equal to the 100-year flood.
Scour should also be computed for the 500-year flood, or the overtopping flood if it is
greater than the 100-year flood and less than the 500-year flood.
One of the primary scour areas is abutment scour. This is due to insufficient bridge opening
or a large discharge in the overbank area. Guide banks (spur dikes) should be considered
for protection against this type of scour. All bridge abutments shall be protected from scour
by riprap. The proposed bridge opening(s) should be sized to minimize the possibility of
abutment and overbank scour. Due to the over prediction of the present abutment scour
equations, and with the approval of the FHWA, the RTDA designs and protects the bridge
endrolls with riprap and riprap aprons as specified, in lieu of using the results from the
abutment scour calculations.
If the bridge is located in or near a channel bend, the possibility of channel migration is
increased. Placing the bridge foundations deep enough to withstand possible migration and
channel scour is recommended. The bridge abutments should be placed far enough back so
that any channel migration would not reach them during the lifetime of the bridge, 75 years
at a minimum. Channel stabilization should be considered using the methods in HEC-23.
10.4.6 RELIEF/OVERFLOW STRUCTURES
The need for relief or overflow openings arises on streams with wide floodplains. The
purpose of additional openings on the floodplain is to pass a portion of the flood flow when

there is a major flood event. Basic objectives in choosing the location of relief openings
include:
• Maintenance of flow distribution and flow patterns
• Accommodation of relatively large flow concentrations on the floodplain
• Avoidance of floodplain flow along the roadway embankment for long
distances
• Crossing of significant tributary channels
• Overflow structures should be considered for wide floodplains with a large
amount of two-dimensional flow.
10.4.7 COST ANALYSIS
Cost estimates should be performed for all proposed drainage structure alternates. The most
cost effective, hydraulically adequate alternate should be chosen.
10.4.8 RISK ASSESSMENT
When the bridge hydraulic design is selected, a risk assessment will be performed to
determine if a more economical design approach should be considered. The risk assessment
involves answering a series of questions that will determine the need for a risk analysis.
10.4.9 CHANNEL CHANGES
For both bridges and culverts it may be desirable in some instances to construct a channel
change to improve the hydraulic performance of the structure. Several considerations must
be made. Environmental resource agencies object highly to channel changes. They require
extensive mitigation for channel changes. Channel changes are to be avoided if at all
possible. In the rare instances that channel realignment is required and used, the change and
effects must be reflected in the appropriate hydraulic computer model.
10.4.10WETLANDS/ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
In some cases, bridges are required to span wetland areas that are delineated by the RTDA
due to environmental concerns and extensive mitigation. If a bridge is required to be
constructed at a site due to environmental considerations, written documentation from
RTDA is required to be placed in the hydraulic study. This documentation should state the
reasons that a box culvert cannot be constructed at the project site. In addition, any
limitations placed on the location of the endrolls and/or intermediate bents for the proposed
bridge should be included in this documentation.

11 REFERENCES
AASHTO, Volume VII-Highway Drainage Guidelines, "Hydraulic Analyses for the Location
and Design of Bridges", AASHTO Task Force on Hydrology and Hydraulics, 1982.
AASHTO, Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 2, "Legal Aspects," Task Force on Hydrology
and Hydraulics., 1999.
AASHTO, Highway Drainage Guidelines, Chapter 5, 2003. "The Legal Aspects of Highway
Drainage," Task Force on Hydrology and Hydraulics.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Volume 9, Highway
Drainage Guidelines, Storm Drainage Systems. 1992.
Bodhaine, G.L. Measurement of Peak Discharge at Culverts by Indirect Methods, Techniques
of Water-Resources Investigations of the USGS, Chapter A3. 1982.
Bradley, J.N., Revised 1978, “Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways, “Hydraulic Design Series No.
1, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
FHWA-EPD86-101, NTIS PB86-181708, 2nd edition 1970, 111pp.
Brater, E.F. and King, H.W., 1976, “Handbook of Hydraulics, “McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, NY, 6th ed.
Culvert Design System. FHWA-TS-80-245, Hydraulics Section, Wyoming Highway
Department, Cheyenne, Wyoming 82001. December 1980.
Design Charts For Open Channel Flow. HDS No. 3, Hydraulics Branch, Bridge Division,
Office of Engineering, FHWA, Washington, D.C. 20590. 1973.
Ginsberg, A. HY8 — Culvert Analysis Microcomputer Program, Applications Guide, FHWA-
EPD-87-101, and software available from McTrans Center, 512 Weil Hall, University of
Florida, Gainesville, Florida
Jens, S.W. Design of Urban Highway Drainage - The State of the Art, FHWA-TS-79-225,
Hydraulics Branch, Bridge Division, Office of Engineering, FHWA, Washington, D.C. 20590.
August 1979.
King, H.W., and E.F. Brater. Handbook of Hydraulics, Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
1976.
Kindsvater, C.E., "Discharge Characteristics of Embankment-Shaped Weirs, "U.S. Geological
Survey, WSP 1607-A, 1964.
Laursen, E.M., “Predicting Scour at Bridge Piers and Abutments”, University of Arizona,
February 1980.
Matthai, H.F., "Measurement of Peak Discharge at Width Contractions by Indirect Methods,
"U.S. Geological Survey, Techniques of Water Resources Investigations, Book 3, Ch. A4,
1967.
Molinas, Albert and Baosheng, Wu, 2000. User’s Primer for BRI-STARS (BRIdge Stream
Tube model for Alluvial River Simulation), FHWA-RD-99-191, Federal Highway
Administration, McLean, VA.
Molinas, Albert, 2000. Users Manual for BRI-STARS (BRIdge Stream Tube model for
Alluvial River Simulation), FHWA-RD-99-190, Federal Highway Administration, McLean,
VA.
Reihsen, G., and L.J. Harrison. Debris Control Structures, HEC No. 9, Hydraulics Branch,
Bridge Division, Office of Engineering, FHWA, Washington, D.C. 20590. August 1971.
Chapter 11 - References 11-1

Schneider, V.R., Board, J.W., Colson, B.E., Lee, F.N., and Druffel, L., "Computation of
Backwater and Discharge at Width Constriction of Heavily Vegetated Flood Plains, "U.S.
Geological Survey, WRI 76-129, 1977.
Shearman, J.O., "WSPRO User's Instructions", Draft Copy, U.S. Geological Survey, July
1987.
Shearman, J.O., W.H. Kirby, V.R. Schneider, and H.N. Flippo. Bridge Waterways Analysis
Model, FHWARD- 86-108, FHWA, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrologic Engineering Methods for Water Resources
Development – Volume 6 "Water Surface Profiles," HEC-IHD-0600, The Hydrologic
Engineering Center, Davis, CA., 1975.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, UNET, One-Dimensional Unsteady Flow Through a Full
Network of Open Channels, User’s Manual, The Hydrologic Engineering Center, Davis, CA,
Version 3.1, 1996.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "HEC-2 Water Surface Profiles," User's Manual, September
1982.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Accuracy of Computed Water Surface Profiles", December
1986.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "HEC-RAS River Analysis System" User's Manual, January
2001.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Design of Small Canal Structures, Denver, Co. 1974.
U.S. FHWA , Federal Highway Administration, Hydrology, Hydraulic Design Series No. 2,
FHWA-NHI-01-019, 1996.
U.S. FHWA , Federal Highway Administration, Introduction to Highway Hydraulics,
Hydraulic Design Series No. 4, FHWA-NHI-01-019, August 2001.
U.S. FHWA , Federal Highway Administration, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts,
Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, FHWA-NHI-01-020, September 2001.
U.S. FHWA , Federal Highway Administration, River Engineering for Highway
Encroachments — Highways in the River Environment, Hydraulic Design Series No. 6,
FHWA-NHI-01-004, December 2001.
U.S. FHWA HEC-18, "Evaluating Scour at Bridges."
U.S. FHWA HEC-20,"Stream Stability at Highway Structures"
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1973, "Design of Small Dams," U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C., 816 pp.
Young, G.K., and J.S. Krolak. HYDRAIN — Integrated Drainage Design Computer System,
Volumes 1-6, FHWA-RD-88-120, FHWA. 1987.
Chapter 11 - References 11-2

Appendix A
Frequency Factors (K) for the Log Pearson Type III
Distribution
Appendix A A-1
Table A1: Frequency Factors (K) for the Log-Pearson Type III Distribution
Skew
Prob.
-2 -1.9 -1.8 -1.7 -1.6 -1.5 -1.4
0.9999 -8.21034 -7.98888 -7.76632 -7.54272 -7.31818 -7.09277 -6.86661
0.9995 -6.60090 -6.44251 -6.28285 -6.12196 -5.95990 -5.79673 -5.63252
0.9990 -5.90776 -5.77549 -5.64190 -5.50701 -5.37087 -5.23353 -5.09505
0.9980 -5.21461 -5.10768 -4.99937 -4.88971 -4.77875 -4.66651 -4.55304
0.9950 -4.29832 -4.22336 -4.14700 -4.06926 -3.99016 -3.90973 -3.82798
0.9900 -3.60517 -3.55295 -3.49935 -3.44438 -3.38804 -3.33035 -3.27134
0.9800 -2.91202 -2.88091 -2.84848 -2.81472 -2.77964 -2.74325 -2.70556
0.9750 -2.68888 -2.66413 -2.63810 -2.61076 -2.58214 -2.55222 -2.52102
0.9600 -2.21888 -2.20670 -2.19332 -2.17873 -2.16293 -2.14591 -2.12768
0.9500 -1.99573 -1.98906 -1.98124 -1.97227 -1.96213 -1.95083 -1.93836
0.9000 -1.30259 -1.31054 -1.31760 -1.32376 -1.32900 -1.33330 -1.33665
0.8000 -0.60944 -0.62662 -0.64335 -0.65959 -0.67532 -0.69050 -0.70512
0.7000 -0.20397 -0.22250 -0.24094 -0.25925 -0.27740 -0.29535 -0.31307
0.6000 0.08371 0.06718 0.05040 0.03344 0.01631 -0.00092 -0.01824
0.5704 0.15516 0.13964 0.12381 0.10769 0.09132 0.07476 0.05803
0.5000 0.30685 0.29443 0.28150 0.26808 0.25422 0.23996 0.22535
0.4296 0.43854 0.43008 0.42095 0.41116 0.40075 0.38977 0.37824
0.4000 0.48917 0.48265 0.47538 0.46739 0.45873 0.44942 0.43949
0.3000 0.64333 0.64453 0.64488 0.64436 0.64300 0.64080 0.63779
0.2000 0.77686 0.78816 0.79868 0.80837 0.81720 0.82516 0.83223
0.1000 0.89464 0.91988 0.94496 0.96977 0.99418 1.01810 1.04144
0.0500 0.94871 0.98381 1.01973 1.05631 1.09338 1.13075 1.16827
0.0400 0.95918 0.99672 1.03543 1.07513 1.11566 1.15682 1.19842
0.0250 0.97468 1.01640 1.06001 1.10537 1.15229 1.20059 1.25004
0.0200 0.97980 1.02311 1.06864 1.11628 1.16584 1.21716 1.26999
0.0100 0.98995 1.03695 1.08711 1.14042 1.19680 1.25611 1.31815
0.0050 0.99499 1.04427 1.09749 1.15477 1.21618 1.28167 1.35114
0.0020 0.99800 1.04898 1.10465 1.16534 1.23132 1.30279 1.37981
0.0010 0.99900 1.05068 1.10743 1.16974 1.23805 1.31275 1.39408
0.0005 0.99950 1.05159 1.10901 1.17240 1.24235 1.31944 1.40413
0.0001 0.99990 1.05239 1.11054 1.17520 1.24728 1.32774 1.41753
Appendix A A-2
Table A1 continued
Skew
Prob.
-1.3 -1.2 -1.1 -1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7
0.9999 -6.63980 -6.41249 -6.18480 -5.95691 -5.72899 -5.50124 -5.27389
0.9995 -5.46735 -5.30130 -5.13449 -4.96701 -4.79899 -4.63057 -4.46189
0.9990 -4.95549 -4.81492 -4.67344 -4.53112 -4.38807 -4.24439 -4.10022
0.9980 -4.43839 -4.32263 -4.20582 -4.08802 -3.96932 -3.84981 -3.72957
0.9950 -3.74497 -3.66073 -3.57530 -3.48874 -3.40109 -3.31243 -3.22281
0.9900 -3.21103 -3.14944 -3.08660 -3.02256 -2.95735 -2.89101 -2.82359
0.9800 -2.66657 -2.62631 -2.58480 -2.54206 -2.49811 -2.45298 -2.40670
0.9750 -2.48855 -2.45482 -2.41984 -2.38364 -2.34623 -2.30764 -2.26790
0.9600 -2.10823 -2.08758 -2.06573 -2.04269 -2.01848 -1.99311 -1.96660
0.9500 -1.92472 -1.90992 -1.89395 -1.87683 -1.85856 -1.83916 -1.81864
0.9000 -1.33904 -1.34047 -1.34092 -1.34039 -1.33889 -1.33640 -1.33294
0.8000 -0.71915 -0.73257 -0.74537 -0.75752 -0.76902 -0.77986 -0.79002
0.7000 -0.33054 -0.34772 -0.36458 -0.38111 -0.39729 -0.41309 -0.42851
0.6000 -0.03560 -0.05297 -0.07032 -0.08763 -0.10486 -0.12199 -0.13901
0.5704 0.04116 0.02421 0.00719 -0.00987 -0.02693 -0.04397 -0.06097
0.5000 0.21040 0.19517 0.17968 0.16397 0.14807 0.13199 0.11578
0.4296 0.36620 0.35370 0.34075 0.32740 0.31368 0.29961 0.28516
0.4000 0.42899 0.41794 0.40638 0.39434 0.38186 0.36889 0.35565
0.3000 0.63400 0.62944 0.62415 0.61815 0.61146 0.60412 0.59615
0.2000 0.83841 0.84369 0.84809 0.85161 0.85426 0.85607 0.85703
0.1000 1.06413 1.08608 1.10726 1.12762 1.14712 1.16574 1.18347
0.0500 1.20578 1.24313 1.28019 1.31684 1.35299 1.38855 1.42345
0.0400 1.24028 1.28225 1.32414 1.36584 1.40720 1.44813 1.48852
0.0250 1.30042 1.35153 1.40314 1.45507 1.50712 1.55914 1.61099
0.0200 1.32412 1.37929 1.43529 1.49188 1.54886 1.60604 1.66325
0.0100 1.38267 1.44942 1.51808 1.58838 1.66001 1.73271 1.80621
0.0050 1.42439 1.50114 1.58110 1.66390 1.74919 1.83660 1.92580
0.0020 1.46232 1.55016 1.64305 1.74062 1.84244 1.94806 2.05701
0.0010 1.48216 1.57695 1.67825 1.78572 1.89894 2.01739 2.14053
0.0005 1.49673 1.59738 1.70603 1.82241 1.94611 2.07661 2.21328
0.0001 1.51752 1.62838 1.75053 1.88410 2.02891 2.18448 2.35015
Appendix A A-3
Table A1 continued
Skew
Prob.
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
0.9999 -5.04718 -4.82141 -4.59687 -4.37394 -4.15301 -3.93453 -3.71902
0.9995 -4.29311 -4.12443 -3.95605 -3.78820 -3.62113 -3.45513 -3.29053
0.9990 -3.95567 -3.81090 -3.66608 -3.52139 -3.37703 -3.23322 -3.09023
0.9980 -3.60872 -3.48737 -3.36566 -3.24371 -3.12169 -2.99978 -2.87816
0.9950 -3.13232 -3.04102 -2.94900 -2.85636 -2.76321 -2.66965 -2.57583
0.9900 -2.75514 -2.68572 -2.61539 -2.54421 -2.47226 -2.39961 -2.32635
0.9800 -2.35931 -2.31084 -2.26133 -2.21081 -2.15935 -2.10697 -2.05375
0.9750 -2.22702 -2.18505 -2.14202 -2.09795 -2.05290 -2.00688 -1.95996
0.9600 -1.93896 -1.91022 -1.88039 -1.84949 -1.81756 -1.78462 -1.75069
0.9500 -1.79701 -1.77428 -1.75048 -1.72562 -1.69971 -1.67279 -1.64485
0.9000 -1.32850 -1.32309 -1.31671 -1.30936 -1.30105 -1.29178 -1.28155
0.8000 -0.79950 -0.80829 -0.81638 -0.82377 -0.83044 -0.83639 -0.84162
0.7000 -0.44352 -0.45812 -0.47228 -0.48600 -0.49927 -0.51207 -0.52440
0.6000 -0.15589 -0.17261 -0.18916 -0.20552 -0.22168 -0.23763 -0.25335
0.5704 -0.07791 -0.09178 -0.11154 -0.12820 -0.14472 -0.16111 -0.17733
0.5000 0.09945 0.08302 0.06651 0.04993 0.03325 0.01662 0.00000
0.4296 0.27047 0.25558 0.24037 0.22492 0.20925 0.19339 0.17733
0.4000 0.34198 0.32796 0.31362 0.29897 0.28403 0.26882 0.25335
0.3000 0.58757 0.57840 0.56867 0.55839 0.54757 0.53624 0.52440
0.2000 0.85718 0.85653 0.85508 0.85285 0.84986 0.84611 0.84162
0.1000 1.20028 1.21618 1.23114 1.24516 1.25824 1.27037 1.28155
0.0500 1.45762 1.49101 1.52357 1.55527 1.58607 1.61594 1.64485
0.0400 1.52830 1.56740 1.60574 1.64329 1.67999 1.71580 1.75069
0.0250 1.66253 1.71366 1.76427 1.81427 1.86360 1.91219 1.95996
0.0200 1.72033 1.77716 1.83361 1.88959 1.94499 1.99973 2.05375
0.0100 1.88029 1.95472 2.02933 2.10394 2.17840 2.25258 2.32635
0.0050 2.01644 2.10825 2.20092 2.29423 2.38795 2.48187 2.57583
0.0020 2.16884 2.28311 2.39942 2.51741 2.63672 2.75706 2.87816
0.0010 2.26780 2.39867 2.53261 2.66915 2.80786 2.94834 3.09023
0.0005 2.35549 2.50257 2.65390 2.80889 2.96698 3.12767 3.29053
0.0001 2.52507 2.70836 2.89907 3.09631 3.29921 3.50703 3.71902
Appendix A A-4
Table A1 continued
Skew
Prob.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.9999 -3.50703 -3.29921 -3.09631 -2.89907 -2.70836 -2.52507 -2.35015
0.9995 -3.12767 -2.96698 -2.80889 -2.65390 -2.50257 -2.35549 -2.21328
0.9990 -2.94834 -2.80786 -2.66915 -2.53261 -2.39867 -2.26780 -2.14053
0.9980 -2.75706 -2.63672 -2.51741 -2.39942 -2.28311 -2.16884 -2.05701
0.9950 -2.48187 -2.38795 -2.29423 -2.20092 -2.10825 -2.01644 -1.92580
0.9900 -2.25258 -2.17840 -2.10394 -2.02933 -1.95472 -1.88029 -1.80621
0.9800 -1.99973 -1.94499 -1.88959 -1.83361 -1.77716 -1.72037 -1.66325
0.9750 -1.91219 -1.86360 -1.81427 -1.76427 -1.71366 -1.66253 -1.61099
0.9600 -1.71580 -1.67999 -1.64329 -1.60574 -1.56740 -1.52830 -1.48852
0.9500 -1.61594 -1.58607 -1.55527 -1.52357 -1.49101 -1.45762 -1.42345
0.9000 -1.27037 -1.25824 -1.24516 -1.23114 -1.21618 -1.20028 -1.18347
0.8000 -0.84611 -0.84986 -0.85285 -0.85508 -0.85653 -0.85718 -0.85703
0.7000 -0.53624 -0.54757 -0.55839 -0.56867 -0.57840 -0.58757 -0.59615
0.6000 -0.26882 -0.28403 -0.29897 -0.31362 -0.32796 -0.34198 -0.35565
0.5704 -0.19339 -0.20925 -0.22492 -0.24037 -0.25558 -0.27047 -0.28516
0.5000 -0.01662 -0.03325 -0.04993 -0.06651 -0.08302 -0.09945 -0.11578
0.4296 0.16111 0.14472 0.12820 0.11154 0.09478 0.07791 0.06097
0.4000 0.23763 0.22168 0.20552 0.18916 0.17261 0.15589 0.13901
0.3000 0.51207 0.49927 0.48600 0.47228 0.45812 0.44352 0.42851
0.2000 0.83639 0.83044 0.82377 0.81638 0.80829 0.79950 0.79002
0.1000 1.29178 1.30105 1.30936 1.31671 1.32309 1.32850 1.33294
0.0500 1.67279 1.69971 1.72562 1.75048 1.77428 1.79701 1.81864
0.0400 1.78462 1.81756 1.84949 1.88039 1.91022 1.93896 1.96660
0.0250 2.00688 2.05290 2.09795 2.14202 2.18505 2.22702 2.26790
0.0200 2.10697 2.15935 2.21081 2.26133 2.31084 2.35931 2.40670
0.0100 2.39961 2.47226 2.54421 2.61539 2.68572 2.75514 2.82359
0.0050 2.66965 2.76321 2.85636 2.94900 3.04102 3.13232 3.22281
0.0020 2.99978 3.12169 3.24371 3.36566 3.48737 3.60872 3.72957
0.0010 3.23322 3.37703 3.52139 3.66608 3.81090 3.95567 4.10022
0.0005 3.45513 3.62113 3.78820 3.95605 4.12443 4.29311 4.46189
0.0001 3.93453 4.15301 4.37394 4.59687 4.82141 5.04718 5.27389
Appendix A A-5
Table A1 continued
Skew
Prob.
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
0.9999 2.18448 -2.02891 -1.88410 -1.75053 -1.62838 -1.51752 -1.41753
0.9995 -2.07661 -1.94611 -1.82241 -1.70603 -1.59738 -1.49673 -1.40413
0.9990 -2.01739 -1.89894 -1.78572 -1.67825 -1.57695 -1.48216 -1.39408
0.9980 -1.94806 -1.84244 -1.74062 -1.64305 -1.55016 -1.46232 -1.37981
0.9950 -1.83660 -1.74919 -1.66390 -1.58110 -1.50114 -1.42439 -1.35114
0.9900 -1.73271 -1.66001 -1.58838 -1.51808 -1.44942 -1.38267 -1.31815
0.9800 -1.60604 -1.54886 -1.49188 -1.43529 -1.37929 -1.32412 -1.26999
0.9750 -1.55914 -1.50712 -1.45507 -1.40314 -1.35153 -1.30042 -1.25004
0.9600 -1.44813 -1.40720 -1.36584 -1.32414 -1.28225 -1.24028 -1.19842
0.9500 -1.38855 -1.35299 -1.31684 -1.28019 -1.24313 -1.20578 -1.16827
0.9000 -1.16574 -1.14712 -1.12762 -1.10726 -1.08608 -1.06413 -1.04144
0.8000 -0.85607 -0.85426 -0.85161 -0.84809 -0.84369 -0.83841 -0.83223
0.7000 -0.60412 -0.61146 -0.61815 -0.62415 -0.62944 -0.63400 -0.63779
0.6000 -0.36889 -0.38186 -0.39434 -0.40638 -0.41794 -0.42899 -0.43949
0.5704 -0.29961 -0.31368 -0.32740 -0.34075 -0.35370 -0.36620 -0.37824
0.5000 -0.13199 -0.14807 -0.16397 -0.17968 -0.19517 -0.21040 -0.22535
0.4296 0.04397 0.02693 0.00987 -0.00719 -0.02421 -0.04116 -0.05803
0.4000 0.12199 0.10486 0.08763 0.07032 0.05297 0.03560 0.01824
0.3000 0.41309 0.39729 0.38111 0.36458 0.34772 0.33054 0.31307
0.2000 0.77986 0.76902 0.75752 0.74537 0.73257 0.71915 0.70512
0.1000 1.33640 1.33889 1.34039 1.34092 1.34047 1.33904 1.33665
0.0500 1.83916 1.85856 1.87683 1.89395 1.90992 1.92472 1.93836
0.0400 1.99311 2.01848 2.04269 2.06573 2.08758 2.10823 2.12768
0.0250 2.30764 2.34623 2.38364 2.41984 2.45482 2.48855 2.52102
0.0200 2.45298 2.49811 2.54206 2.58480 2.62631 2.66657 2.70556
0.0100 2.89101 2.95735 3.02256 3.08660 3.14944 3.21103 3.27134
0.0050 3.31243 3.40109 3.48874 3.57530 3.66073 3.74497 3.82798
0.0020 3.84981 3.96932 4.08802 4.20582 4.32263 4.43839 4.55304
0.0010 4.24439 4.38807 4.53112 4.67344 4.81492 4.95549 5.09505
0.0005 4.63057 4.79899 4.96701 5.13449 5.30130 5.46735 5.63252
0.0001 5.50124 5.72899 5.95691 6.18480 6.41249 6.63980 6.86661
Appendix A A-6
Table A1 continued
Skew
Prob.
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
0.9999 -1.32774 -1.24728 -1.17520 -1.11054 -1.05239 -0.99990
0.9995 -1.31944 -1.24235 -1.17240 -1.10901 -1.05159 -0.99950
0.9990 -1.31275 -1.23805 -1.16974 -1.10743 -1.50568 -0.99900
0.9980 -1.30279 -1.23132 -1.16534 -1.10465 -1.04898 -0.99800
0.9950 -1.28167 -1.21618 -1.15477 -1.09749 -1.04427 -0.99499
0.9900 -1.25611 -1.19680 -1.14042 -1.08711 -1.03695 -0.98995
0.9800 -1.21716 -1.16584 -1.11628 -1.06864 -1.02311 -0.97980
0.9750 -1.20059 -1.15229 -1.10537 -1.06001 -1.01640 -0.97468
0.9600 -1.15682 -1.11566 -1.07513 -1.03543 -0.99672 -0.95918
0.9500 -1.13075 -1.09338 -1.05631 -1.01973 -0.98381 -0.94871
0.9000 -1.01810 -0.99418 -0.96977 -0.94496 -0.91988 -0.89464
0.8000 -0.82516 -0.81720 -0.80837 -0.79868 -0.78816 -0.77686
0.7000 -0.64080 -0.64300 -0.64436 -0.64488 -0.64453 -0.64333
0.6000 -0.44942 -0.45873 -0.46739 -0.47538 -0.48265 -0.48917
0.5704 -0.38977 -0.40075 -0.41116 -0.42095 -0.43008 -0.43854
0.5000 -0.23996 -0.25422 -0.26808 -0.28150 -0.29443 -0.30685
0.4296 -0.07476 -0.09132 -0.10769 -0.12381 -0.13964 -0.15516
0.4000 0.00092 -0.01631 -0.03344 -0.05040 -0.06718 -0.08371
0.3000 0.29535 0.27740 0.25925 0.24094 0.22250 0.20397
0.2000 0.69050 0.67532 0.65959 0.64335 0.62662 0.60944
0.1000 1.33330 1.32900 1.32376 1.31760 1.31054 1.30259
0.0500 1.95083 1.96213 1.97227 1.98124 1.98906 1.99573
0.0400 2.14591 2.16293 2.17873 2.19332 2.20670 2.21888
0.0250 2.55222 2.58214 2.61076 2.63810 2.66413 2.68888
0.0200 2.74325 2.77964 2.81472 2.84848 2.88091 2.91202
0.0100 3.33035 3.38804 3.44438 3.49935 3.55295 3.60517
0.0050 3.90973 3.99016 4.06926 4.14700 4.22336 4.29832
0.0020 4.66651 4.77875 4.88971 4.99937 5.10768 5.21461
0.0010 5.23353 5.37087 5.50701 5.64190 5.77549 5.90776
0.0005 5.79673 5.95990 6.12196 6.28285 6.44251 6.60090
0.0001 7.09277 7.31818 7.54272 7.76632 7.98888 8.21034
Appendix A A-7
Table A2 Test Deviates (KN) at 10 Percent Significance Level
Sample KN Sample KN Sample KN Sample KN

Size value Size value Size value Size value
10 2.036 45 2.727 80 2.940 115 3.064
11 2.088 46 2.736 81 2.945 116 3.067
12 2.134 47 2.744 82 2.949 117 3.070
13 2.165 48 2.753 83 2.953 118 3.073
14 2.213 49 2.760 84 2.957 119 3.075
15 2.247 50 2.768 85 2.961 120 3.078
16 2.279 51 2.775 86 2.966 121 3.081
17 2.309 52 2.783 87 2.970 122 3.083
18 2.335 53 2.790 88 2.973 123 3.086
19 2.361 54 2.798 89 2.977 124 3.089
20 2.385 55 2.804 90 2.989 125 3.092
21 2.408 56 2.811 91 2.984 126 3.095
22 2.429 57 2.818 92 2.889 127 3.097
23 2.448 58 2.824 93 2.993 128 3.100
24 2.467 59 2.831 94 2.996 129 3.102
25 2.487 60 2.837 95 3.000 130 3.104
26 2.502 61 2.842 96 3.003 131 3.107
27 2.510 62 2.849 97 3.006 132 3.109
28 2.534 63 2.854 98 3.011 133 3.112
29 2.549 64 2.860 99 3.014 134 3.114
30 2.563 65 2.866 100 3.017 135 3.116
31 2.577 66 2.871 101 3.021 136 3.119
32 2.591 67 2.877 102 3.024 137 3.122
33 2.604 68 2.883 103 3.027 138 3.124
34 2.616 69 2.888 104 3.030 139 3.126
35 2.628 70 2.893 105 3.033 140 3.129
36 2.639 71 2.897 106 3.037 141 3.131
37 2.650 72 2.903 107 3.040 142 3.133
38 2.661 73 2.908 108 3.043 143 3.135
39 2.671 74 2.912 109 3.046 144 3.138
40 2.682 75 2.917 110 3.049 145 3.140
41 2.692 76 2.922 111 3.052 146 3.142
42 2.700 77 2.927 112 3.055 147 3.144
43 2.710 78 2.931 113 3.058 148 3.146
44 2.720 79 2.935 114 3.061 149 3.148
Appendix A A-8
Appendix B
Pipe Design Charts
Appendix B B-1
Figure B.4 Concrete Pipe -- Inlet Control
Appendix B B-2
Figure B.5 C. M. Pipe -- Inlet Control
Appendix B B-3
Figure B.6 Circular Culvert -- Inlet Control
Appendix B B-4
Figure B.7 Circular Pipe -- Critical Depth
Appendix B B-5
Figure B.8 Concrete Pipe -- Outlet Control
Appendix B B-6
Figure B.9 C.M. Pipe (n=0.024) -- Outlet Control
Appendix B B-7
Figure B.10 Structural Plate Pipe (0.0302-n-0.0328) -- Outlet Control
Appendix B B-8
Figure B.11 Box Culvert -- Inlet Control
Appendix B B-9
Figure B.12 Box Culvert w/ Top Bevel -- Inlet Control
Appendix B B-10
Figure B.13 Box Culvert w/ Top Bevel, Flare = 90 -- Inlet Control
Appendix B B-11
Figure B.14 Box Culvert w/Skewed Headwall -- Inlet Control, Single Barrel,
chamfered or beveled inlet edges
Appendix B B-12
Figure B.15 Box Culvert w/ ¾” Chamfer Entrance -- Inlet Control
Appendix B B-13
Figure B.16 Box Culvert w/ Offset Flared Wingwalls -- Inlet Control, Chamfered
Entrance
Appendix B B-14
Figure B.17 Box Culvert -- Critical Depth
Appendix B B-15
Figure B.18 Box Culvert (n=0.012) -- Outlet Control
Appendix B B-16
Figure B.19 Discharge Coefficients -- Roadway Overtopping
Appendix B B-17
Figure B.20 Various Culvert Shapes and Characteristics
Appendix B B-18
Appendix C
Manning’s n Factors, Entrance Loss Coefficients, and
Culvert Design Form
Appendix C C-1
Appendix C C-2
Appendix C C-3
Figure C.21 Culvert Design Sheet
Appendix C C-4
RTDA
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Draft, November 2014

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RWANDA DEVELOPMENT TRANSPORT AGENCY

List of Tables ...................................................................................................................vi

4.3.4 Application of the Kerby-Kirpich Method.................................................... 4-5

7.2 Retention Facilities ............................................................................................... 7-2

Table of Contents iii

9.4.1 Effects on Culverts ...................................................................................... 9-6

10.4.1 Methods/Procedures – All Riverine Bridge Projects ..................................10-13

Figure 2.1 Sketch of Continuity Concept............................................................................... 2-4

Table of Contents vii

ADT : Average Daily traffic

Table of Contents viii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1-1

Chapter 1 Introduction 1-2

2 BASIC HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES, CONCEPTS, AND EQUATIONS

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-1

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-2

2.5 BASIC PRINCIPLES

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-3

Figure 2.1 Sketch of Continuity Concept

2.5.2 ENERGY EQUATION

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-4

Figure 2.2 Open-channel Flow

Figure 2.3 Closed-conduit Flow

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-5

2.5.3 MOMENTUM EQUATION

2.6 WEIRS AND ORIFICES

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-6

Figure 2.4 Weir Types

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-7

Figure 2.5 Orifice

2.7 OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-8

2.7.2 MANNING'S EQUATION

Q = (1.49/n) A R2/3 S1/2 Eq. 2-8

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-9

Table 2.1 Manning's Roughness Coefficients for Various Boundaries

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-10

Table 2.1 Manning's Roughness Coefficients for Various Boundaries (Continued)

Source: (Chow, 1959)

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-11

2.7.3 FROUDE NUMBER

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-12

Figure 2.6 Definition Sketch for Small Amplitude Waves

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-13

(specific energy diagram) or considering H constant and determining the relationship

Note that for critical flow:

Figure 2.7 Specific Energy Diagram

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-14

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-15

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-16

Chapter 2 Basic Hydraulic Principles, Concepts, and Equations 2-17

3 DESIGN FLOW CONSIDERATIONS

J = 1 - (1 –1P)N Eq. 3-1

Chapter 3 Design Flow Considerations 3-1

3.2 DESIGN FLOWS

Chapter 3 Design Flow Considerations 3-2

Chapter 3 Design Flow Considerations 3-3

3.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Chapter 3 Design Flow Considerations 3-4

• Protection of stream channel from erosion that comes as a result of

Chapter 3 Design Flow Considerations 3-5

4 ESTIMATION OF DESIGN FLOW FOR UNGAUGED CATCHMENTS

4.2 DESIGN FLOW

4.3 TIME OF CONCENTRATION