General Physics 1| Module 2 1

Saint Columban College

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
7016 Pagadian City

S T U D E N T ’ S L E A R N I N G M O D U L E

Student’s Name: ___________________________ Date: ____________________

Grade & Section:______________ Subject: _________________

Content Standard:
The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
✓ Position, time, distance, displacement, speed, average velocity, instantaneous velocity
✓ Average acceleration, and instantaneous acceleration
✓ Uniformly accelerated linear motion
✓ Free-fall motion
✓ 1D Uniform Acceleration Problems
✓ Position, distance, displacement, speed, average velocity, instantaneous velocity, and
instantaneous acceleration in 2 – and 3 – dimensions
✓ Projectile motion
✓ Circular motion
✓ Relative motion

Learning Competencies:
✓ Describe motion using the concept of relative velocities in 1D and 2D;
✓ Deduce the consequences of the independence of vertical and horizontal components of
projectile motion;
✓ Calculate the range, time of flight, and maximum heights of projectiles;
✓ Infer qualities associated with circular motion such as tangential velocity, centripetal
acceleration, tangential acceleration, and radius of curvature;
✓ Solve problems involving two-dimensional motion in context such as, but not limited to,
ledge jumping, movie stunts, basketball, safe locations during fireworks displays, and
Ferris wheels;
✓ Define inertial reference frames;
✓ Identify action-reaction pairs;
✓ Draw free-body diagrams;
✓ Apply Newton’s first law of motion to obtain quantitative and qualitative conclusions about
contact and non-contact forces acting on a body in equilibrium;
✓ Differentiate the properties of static friction and kinetic friction;
✓ Apply Newton’s second law of motion in kinematics to obtain quantitative conclusions
about velocity and acceleration of one or more bodies, and the contact and non-contact
forces acting on one or more bodies; and
✓ Solve problems using Newton’s laws of motion on contexts such as, but not limited to,
ropes, and pulleys, design of mobile structures, transport of loads on conveyor belts, force
needed to move stalled vehicles, and determination of safe driving speeds on banked
curved roads.

Learning Contents:
IV. Kinematics: Motion in Two Dimensions
Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration for Motions in Two Dimensions and Three
Dimensions
Projectile Motion, Circular Motion, and Relative Motion
V. Newton’s Laws of Motion and their Applications
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
 General Physics 1| Module 2 2

Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion

Applications of Newton’s Laws to Single-body and Multibody Dynamics

Learning Resources:
1. Caintic, H. (2017). General Physics I for Senior High School. Quezon City, Philippines:
C&E Publishing Inc.
2. David, O. (2020). General Physics 1 (Second ed.). Makati City, Philippines: DIWA
LEARNING SYSTEMS INC
3. Young, H.D., Freedman, R.A., & Ford, A.L. (2011). University Physics (13th ed.). San
Francisco California: Pearson Education Inc.

Core Values:
➢ Determination ➢ Patience
➢ Open-mindedness ➢ Scientific Intuition
➢ Objectivity

Module No. 2.1 Kinematics: Motion in 2D and 3D Time Frame: 2 weeks

Learning Targets: At the end of the lesson, I can:
✓ Describe motion using the concept of relative velocities in 1D and 2D;
✓ Deduce the consequences of the independence of vertical and horizontal
components of projectile motion;
✓ Calculate the range, time of flight, and maximum heights of projectiles;
✓ Infer qualities associated with circular motion such as tangential velocity,
centripetal acceleration, tangential acceleration, and radius of curvature; and
✓ Solve problems involving two-dimensional motion in context such as, but not
limited to, ledge jumping, movie stunts, basketball, safe locations during
fireworks displays, and Ferris wheels.

Panagdait sa Diyos ug sa Tanang

Kabuhatan! Welcome to the second
module of General Physics 1. In module
2.1, we will describe motions with two
components of position, velocity, and
acceleration. If you have any inquiries,
please refer from the contact information
provided on page 3.
 General Physics 1| Module 2 3

THE SCIENCE TEACHERS

Ms. Cherry A. Potestas, LPT, M.A.
Biological Science
Science Laboratory Coordinator

FB Profile Link:
https://www.facebook.com/cherry.potestas

Email: potestascherry25@sccpag.edu.ph

Contact #: 09661526252

Ms. Quennie S. Broca

General Physics/Physical Science
STEM 11 Coordinator

FB Profile Link:
https://www.facebook.com/quennie.broca.5/

Email: quenieebroca@sccpag.edu.ph

Contact #: 09563304989

Ms. Ivy Banquiao

General Chemistry

FB Profile Link:
https://www.facebook.com/ivy.banquiao

Email: ivyestanerobanquiao@gmail.com

Contact #: 09639777019
 General Physics 1| Module 2 4

This Chapter merges the vector mathematics of Chapter 2

in module 1 with the kinematic language of Chapter 3. As
before, we are concerned with describing motion, not with
analyzing its causes. But the language you will learn here
will be an essential tool in later chapters when we study the
relationship between force and motion. Let us have a short
review activity before we will start with our first lesson in
Chapter 4.

Student’s Name: ______________________________ Date: __________________

Grade & Section: ______________________________ Subject: General Physics 1

Activity 1

Interpret the following velocity versus time graphs. NO ANSWERS IN THIS

ACTIVITY SHALL BE ENCODED. YOU MAY PRINT THE ACTIVITY SHEET, BUT
ALL ANSWERS MUST BE HANDWRITTEN. YOU MAY ALSO WRITE YOUR
ANSWERS ON A SEPARATE SHEET OF PAPER. DO NOT SUBMIT THE ENTIRE
MODULE!

1. 𝑣 __________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________

2. 𝑣
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________

𝑡
3. 𝑣
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________

𝑡
4. 𝑣 __________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________

𝑡
 General Physics 1| Module 2 5

Lesson 2.1.1: Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration for Motions

in Two Dimensions and Three Dimensions

Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration in Two Dimensions and Three Dimensions

The concepts that you learned about one-dimensional motions can also be used to describe
same concepts in two dimensional and three-dimensional motions.

∆𝑟

𝑟𝑜
x

Figure 1 A sports car in two different positions on road

Let us say that a sports car, as shown in Figure 1, is in two different positions on the road.
We can identify these positions by the vectors 𝑟𝑜 and 𝑟 drawn from an arbitrary origin in a
coordinate system. The 𝑦 displacement vector ∆𝑟 is drawn from the initial position vector 𝑟0 to the
final position 𝑟 at time 𝑡. You can see that ∆𝑟 is the shortest distance between 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟0 . The
diagram shows that 𝑟 is the vector sum of 𝑟0 and ∆𝑟, so 𝑟 = 𝑟0 + ∆𝑟 or

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ∆𝑟 = 𝑟 − 𝑟0

It can be seen from the figure that the displacement can be anywhere in a plane and not just
𝑟−𝑟
in a straight line. The average velocity in this case is 𝑣̅ = 𝑡−𝑡 0 = ∆𝑣.
0

Since both sides of the equation must agree in direction, the average velocity is in the same
direction as the displacement. We define the velocity of an object in an instant of time as its
instantaneous velocity 𝑣. The average velocity, when we calculate it until ∆𝑡 becomes
∆𝑟
infinitesimally small, thus becoming the instantaneous velocity or 𝑣 = lim .
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

How to find the instantaneous velocity of a car is illustrated in the graph below. The
diagram shows the vector components of the velocity 𝑣. They are vector components 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦 of
the velocity.
 General Physics 1| Module 2 6

𝑣𝑦

𝜃
𝑣𝑥

The average acceleration, 𝑎̅, is defined in the same manner as that of one-dimensional
motion, as the change in velocity ∆𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑣0 divided by the elapsed time, or

𝑣 − 𝑣0 ∆𝑣
𝑎̅ = =
𝑡 − 𝑡0 ∆𝑡

When the elapsed time becomes infinitesimally small, the average acceleration becomes
the instantaneous acceleration, 𝑎, that is

∆𝑣
𝑎 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The vector components of the acceleration are 𝑎𝑥 along the x-axis and 𝑎𝑦 along the y-axis.

We can summarize the equations of kinematics for constant acceleration in two

dimensions. Refer to Table 1 below.
Table 1 Equations of Kinematics for Constant Acceleration in Two-dimensional Motion

Variable x-component y-component

Displacement 𝑥 𝑦
Final velocity 𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦
Initial velocity 𝑣0𝑥 𝑣0𝑦
Acceleration 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦
Elapsed time 𝑡 𝑡
Set of equations 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
1 1
𝑥 = (𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 )𝑡 𝑦 = (𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑣𝑦 )𝑡
2 2
1 1
𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2 2
𝑣𝑥 2 = 𝑣0𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 𝑥 𝑣𝑦 2 = 𝑣0𝑦 2 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝑥

Motions in Three Dimensions with Constant Acceleration

We will now consider the possibility of a motion in three dimensions of an object, say a particle
with a constant acceleration. The particle, as it moves, does not vary in either magnitude or
direction of its acceleration. The acceleration can be represented as a vector with three components
(𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 , 𝑎𝑧 ), each of which is constant. In general, the particle moves in a curved path. Like in the
case of one-dimensional motion, we want to know the particle’s velocity (which is a vector with
 General Physics 1| Module 2 7

three components 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , and 𝑣𝑧 ) and a position vector 𝑟 (a vector with components 𝑟𝑥 , 𝑟𝑦 , and 𝑟𝑧 )
at all times.

The general equations for the motion with constant 𝑎 can be done by setting all its
components constant, that is,

𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑎𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑎𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

The particles start at 𝑡 = 0 with initial position 𝑟0 = 𝑥0 𝑖 + 𝑦0 𝑗 + 𝑧0 𝑘 and initial velocity

𝑣0 = 𝑣0 𝑖 + 𝑣0 𝑗 + 𝑣0 𝑘.

Three equations along the three dimensions are derived as how we do in one-dimensional
motion.

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡

𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡

𝑣𝑧 = 𝑣0𝑧 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑡

We can write this as a single three-dimensional vector equation

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 which represents the three independent one-dimensional equations. When we

say that the three component equations are independent, what we mean is that
the velocity components are independent of one another.

Student’s Name: ______________________________ Date: __________________

Grade & Section: ______________________________ Subject: General Physics 1

Activity 2

Give examples of motions in two dimensions and three dimensions. NO ANSWERS

IN THIS ACTIVITY SHALL BE ENCODED. YOU MAY PRINT THE ACTIVITY SHEET,
BUT ALL ANSWERS MUST BE HANDWRITTEN. DO NOT SUBMIT THE ENTIRE
MODULE!
 General Physics 1| Module 2 8

Lesson 2.1.2: Projectile Motion, Circular Motion, and Relative

Motion

We have discussed one-dimensional motion or motion along a straight line. Now, we

will be discussing and solving problems involving two dimensional motions particularly projectile
motion, circular motion, and relative motion.

Projectile Motion

Point P Point O

Figure 2 A bullet from point P and an object from point O released at the same time reached the ground also at the same time.
Source:
https://d1yqpar94jqbqm.cloudfront.net/styles/media_full/s3/images/598c9cdae7991341071f858a98f8ed29b02a04fd.jpg?itok=
aKgosno9 (Accessed July 8, 2021)

Figure 2 shows a trajectory of a bullet fired horizontally from a tower. At the same time,
an object is dropped from the same height. Both strikes the ground at the same instant. If there is
no other force, except for the projection mechanism acting on the bullet, it will follow a straight-
line motion at a uniform speed. Since the force of gravity is acting on the bullet at the moment it
leaves the projecting mechanism, the bullet begins to fall. The distance covered by the projectile
consists of a horizontal distance due to its initial velocity and its vertical distance due to the pull
of gravity. The vertical motion is independent of the horizontal motion. The vertical distance
1
covered by the projectile is given by the formula 𝑑 = 𝑔𝑡 2 .
2

The horizontal distance covered by the projectile from the roof of the tower where it is
fired to the point where it touches the ground is called range. If the initial velocity is 𝑣𝑖 , then the
range, R, is 𝑅 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡.

If a projectile is fired horizontally near a given target, and the target falls at the same time
that the projectile is fired, the projectile will hit the target at some point below the original position
of the target. This is illustrated in Figure 3 below.
 General Physics 1| Module 2 9

Figure 3 If the projectile is fired at the same level and at the same instant as the target falls, both will travel a vertical distance
given by 𝑑 = 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2

Let us now consider a common projectile which is projected with an initial velocity of 𝑣𝑖
making an angle 𝜃𝑖 with the horizontal. Let us study the independent motions of the body along
the horizontal and along the vertical. Denote the initial velocity along the horizontal by 𝑣𝑖𝑥 which
is given by

𝑣𝑥𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖

Then, the initial vertical velocity 𝑣𝑦𝑖 is given by

𝑣𝑦𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖

𝒀𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒗𝒊

𝜽𝒊
O B
Figure 4 Path of a projectile at an angle 𝜃𝑖 with the horizontal with a velocity 𝑣𝑖 Source: https://concept-stories.s3.ap-south-
1.amazonaws.com/test/Stories%20-%20Images_story_46219/image_2019-05-28%2013%3A43%3A29.230635%2B00%3A00
(Accessed July 08, 2021)

If we neglect air resistance, the velocity along the x-axis remains the same throughout the
flight of the projectile. The motion along the y-axis, however, is accelerated since the force of
gravity is exerted on it. Figure 4 shows that the projectile is to move upward from point O to a
 General Physics 1| Module 2 10

maximum vertical height. The body is decelerated since the initial velocity is upward, while
acceleration g is directed downward.

Choosing the coordinate axes shown in the diagram, we get 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡. Since 𝑣𝑦𝑖 =
𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 , we get 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡.

The maximum height is attained when the vertical component of the velocity is
instantaneously zero. So, if we substitute zero for 𝑣𝑦 , we get the time 𝑡 for the projectile to reach
its maximum height. Let us denote time to reach maximum height as 𝑡′.

0 = 𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡′
𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑡′ = 𝑔

We can calculate the maximum height with 𝑦𝑖 = 0, so we get

𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦𝑖 𝑡 ′ − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡′2

𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 )𝑡 ′ − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡′2

If we substitute the value of 𝑡′, we get

(𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 ) 1 (𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 )2
𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 − 2𝑔
𝑔 𝑔2

(𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 )2
𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑔

Therefore, the time it takes to reach point B is twice the time it takes to reach the maximum
height. So, the total time of flight is 𝑇 = 2𝑡′ or
(𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 )
𝑇=2 𝑔

Since we now know the total time of flight, and we know the horizontal velocity 𝑣𝑥 remains
constant at 𝑣𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 , we get

𝑅 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑇

𝑅 = (𝑣𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 )𝑇

Substituting T to the equation gives us

2𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖
𝑅 = 𝑣𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝑔

2 sin 𝜃𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝑅 = 𝑣𝑖 2 𝑔

From one of the trigonometric identities, 2 sin 𝜃𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 = sin 2𝜃𝑖 ,

𝑣𝑖 2 sin 2𝜃𝑖
𝑅= 𝑔

When sin 2𝜃𝑖 = 1, we get 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑣𝑖 2
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔
 General Physics 1| Module 2 11

This happens when sin 2𝜃𝑖 = 1 𝑜𝑟 2𝜃 = 90° 𝑜𝑟 𝜃𝑖 = 45°. This means that the maximum
range is achieved when the angle 𝜃𝑖 = 45°.

Figure 5 shows that projection angles that give the same range are complimentary. The
vertical height and the horizontal range of the projectile fired to give a complete trajectory depend
on both the initial velocity and the angle of projection as shown in the figure. In these cases, the
effect of air resistance is neglected, so the paths are all parabolas. The graph shows that the
maximum horizontal distance is obtained when the angle of projection is 45°. Please note that for
the same initial projection speed, the same range can be obtained from two different projection
angles. The steeper the angle, the longer the projectile remains in the air.

Figure 5 The projection angles that give the same range are complimentary.

Example

1. A ball is thrown horizontally at 20 m/s. It is thrown from the top of a tower 50 m high. (a)
How long does it take the ball to reach at the bottom of the tower? (b) How far from the
base of the tower does the ball strike the ground?
Given:

𝑣ℎ = 20 𝑚/𝑠

𝑑 = 50 𝑚 (ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

Required to find:

(a) Time it takes the ball to reach the bottom of the tower
(b) Range or horizontal distance from the base of the tower
Solution:

(a) Time, t
1
𝑑𝑦 = 2 (𝑔𝑡 2 )

2𝑑𝑦 2(50 𝑚)
𝑡2 = 𝑔
= 9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠2 = 10.20𝑠 2

𝑡 = √10.20 𝑠 2

𝑡 = 3.19 𝑠

(b) 𝑑𝐻 = 𝑣𝐻 𝑡 = (20 𝑚/𝑠)(3.19 𝑠) = 63.67 𝑚

 General Physics 1| Module 2 12

2. A trench mortar fires a shell at an angle of 30° with the horizontal and with a speed of
400𝑚/𝑠. Find its range and the maximum height it attains.
Given:

𝜃𝑖 = 30°

𝑣𝑖 = 400 𝑚/𝑠

Required to find: range and the maximum vertical height

𝑣𝑖 2 sin 2𝜃𝑖 (400 𝑚/𝑠)2 sin 2(30)

Solution: 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = = = 14,139 𝑚
𝑔 9.8 𝑚/𝑠2

𝑚 2
(𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑖 )2 [400 (sin 30°)]
𝑠
Maximum height, 𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑔
= 2(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2)
= 2,041 𝑚

Student’s Name: ______________________________ Date: __________________

Grade & Section: ______________________________ Subject: General Physics 1

Activity 3

Problem Solving. NO ANSWERS IN THIS ACTIVITY SHALL BE ENCODED.

YOU MAY PRINT THE ACTIVITY SHEET, BUT ALL ANSWERS MUST BE
HANDWRITTEN. DO NOT SUBMIT THE ENTIRE MODULE!

1. A projectile is fired at an angle of 20° with the horizontal with a speed of 100 𝑚⁄𝑠. Find
the vertical and horizontal components of its velocity.
 General Physics 1| Module 2 13

2. A boy throws a ball horizontally from the top of a building. The initial speed of the ball is
15 𝑚⁄𝑠. Find the horizontal and vertical velocity of the ball after 8 𝑠.

Uniform Circular Motion

A uniform circular motion is motion in two dimensions. A moving object left to itself will
travel in a straight line. When the force is applied, the object will change its direction as well as its
position. See Figure 6 below.

Figure 6 Bodies moving in uniform circular motion [Source: https://encrypted-

tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcQRLeXd52ktVy8ZxtkUTrwqrpMl6I10MA5b4g&usqp=CAU (Accessed 10 October
2020)

We are aware that the direction of a planet in orbit around the Sun changes all the time.
This is an evidence that a net force is always acting on it. If we tie a ball at the end of a string and
whirl it around in a horizontal circle, the hand must pull the string to keep the ball moving in a
circle. If we let go of the string, the inward force on the ball is removed, and it flies tangent to its
circular path. The force that has to be applied to make something move in a circular path is called
 General Physics 1| Module 2 14

a centripetal or center-seeking force which is always perpendicular to the direction of the velocity
v, which is constantly changing in direction although its magnitude remains the same. This velocity
can be expressed as

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑣=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑

To make one complete trip around a circular path, the distance traveled must be equal to
the circumference of the circle, 2𝜋𝑅, and the time elapsed must be equal to the period, T. of the
uniform circular motion. Hence,

2𝜋𝑅
𝑣=
𝑇
Example

Find the period of the minute hand of a clock. If the minute hand is 6 cm long, what is the
speed of its tip in mm/s?

Given:

𝑅 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 6 𝑐𝑚

Required to find:

(a) T
(b) v of the tip of the minute hand
Solution:

(a) T = 60 min or 3600 s

2𝜋𝑅 2(3.1416)(6 𝑐𝑚) 10 𝑚𝑚
(b) 𝑣 = = = 0.0105 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠 × = 0.105 𝑚𝑚/𝑠
𝑇 3,600 𝑠 𝑐𝑛

An object undergoing uniform circular motion is accelerating towards its center of rotation.
See illustration in Figure 7 below.

Figure 7 The distance h to keep an object in uniform circular motion

The illustration in Figure 7 helps us analyze a method for determining the magnitude of
the central acceleration 𝑎𝑐 . The triangle AOB is a right triangle, so using the Pythagorean theorem,
we get
 General Physics 1| Module 2 15

𝑅 2 + 𝑑 2 = (𝑅 + ℎ )2

If we expand the right side of the equation, we get

𝑅2 + 𝑑 2 = 𝑅2 + 2𝑅ℎ + ℎ2

We can subtract 𝑅2 from both sides of the equation, so we get

𝑑 2 = 2𝑅ℎ + ℎ2

For a very short time interval, the value of ℎ2 is very small compared to 2𝑅ℎ. So we can
neglect ℎ2 in the right side of the equation giving

𝑑 2 = 2𝑅ℎ

If you will recall, the speed in uniform circular motion is constant, so d = vt. The object
falls a distance h to keep moving in orbit, that is, ℎ = 1⁄2 (𝑎𝑐 𝑡 2 ). We can now substitute d and h
in the above equation.

(𝑣𝑡)2 = 2𝑅(1⁄2 𝑎𝑐 𝑡 2 )

𝑣 2 = 𝑅𝑎𝑐
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑅

Example

In the previous sample problem about the minute hand of the clock, find the central
acceleration of the minute of the hand of the clock in cm/s2.

Given:

𝑣 = 0.105 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠 𝑜𝑟 0.0105 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠

𝑅 = 6 𝑐𝑚

Required to find: 𝑎𝑐
𝑣2 (0.0105 𝑐𝑚/𝑠)2
Solution: 𝑎𝑐 = = = 1.84 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠 2
𝑅 6 𝑐𝑚

Student’s Name: ______________________________ Date: __________________

Grade & Section: ______________________________ Subject: General Physics 1

Activity 4

Problem Solving. NO ANSWERS IN THIS ACTIVITY SHALL BE ENCODED. YOU MAY

PRINT THE ACTIVITY SHEET, BUT ALL ANSWERS MUST BE HANDWRITTEN. DO
NOT SUBMIT THE ENTIRE MODULE!
 General Physics 1| Module 2 16

1. An object is whirled at the end of a string in a horizontal circle. If the period of one
revolution is 1.5 𝑠, and the length of the string is 1.2 𝑚, find the centripetal acceleration of
the object.

2. In the previous problem, find the velocity of the object at the end of this string.

Module No. 2.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion Time Frame: 2 weeks

Learning Targets: At the end of the lesson, I can:
✓ Define inertial reference frames;
✓ Identify action-reaction pairs;
✓ Draw free-body diagrams;
 General Physics 1| Module 2 17

✓ Apply Newton’s first law of motion to obtain quantitative and qualitative

conclusions about contact and non-contact forces acting on a body in
equilibrium;
✓ Differentiate the properties of static friction and kinetic friction;
✓ Apply Newton’s second law of motion in kinematics to obtain quantitative
conclusions about velocity and acceleration of one or more bodies, and the
contact and non-contact forces acting on one or more bodies; and
✓ Solve problems using Newton’s laws of motion on contexts such as, but not
limited to, ropes, and pulleys, design of mobile structures, transport of loads
on conveyor belts, force needed to move stalled vehicles, and determination of
safe driving speeds on banked curved roads.

We’ve seen in the last two chapters how to use the

language and mathematics of kinematics to describe
motion in one, two, or three dimensions. But what causes
bodies to move the way they do? The answer to this takes
us into the subject of dynamics, the relationship of motion
to the forces that cause it. In this Chapter, we will use two
new concepts, force and mass, to analyze the principles of
dynamics. These principles were clearly stated for the first
time by Isaac Newton (1642-1727); today we call them
Newton’s laws of motion.

Lesson 2.2.1: Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

Inertial Reference Frames

To understand motion, we have to know that an object in motion changes position in

relation to some fixed object during a given time. For example, a car is observed to have moved
when it changes position in relation to a fixed object such as a kilometer post or a tree on the road.
Any fixed object can be used to determine motion. We call these fixed objects reference points.

Motion depends on a frame of reference. A frame of reference is the viewpoint of the

observer of motion. It is a system of specifying precisely the location of objects. In the study of
mechanics, it is assumed that acceleration is measured in a frame of reference which is at rest with
respect to the Earth. There are equations in mechanics which are true in a so-called inertial frame
of reference. How do we define inertial frame of reference? This so-called inertial frame of
reference is one that is at rest or is moving with a constant velocity in relation to the fixed stars.
The Earth can be considered as an inertial frame of reference although it is rotating in relation to
the fixed stars. However, the effect of rotation of the Earth, in most cases, is negligible, so it can
be regarded as an inertial frame of reference for such cases.

Philosophers and scientist view that a frame of reference moving at a constant velocity in
relation to the fixed stars is not enough to define motion, for we know that fixed stars are not really
fixed and are in motion. So, it is important to find a frame of reference by which Newton’s laws
of motion are precisely valid.
 General Physics 1| Module 2 18

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Newton’s first law of motion is stated as follows:

A body at rest continues to remain at rest and a body with constant velocity continues to
be in constant uniform motion, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
This is similar to Galileo’s idea of inertia except that Newton gives meaning to the idea of
force.

Force is something which changes the state of rest or uniform motion of an object.

Figure 8 Seat belts and headrests installed in a car. Source: https://australiandad.com.au/wp-

content/uploads/2020/04/xCarSeat4.jpg.pagespeed.ic.6dowZRXUKQ.jpg (Accessed 07 November 2020)

The law of inertia, as Newton’s first law is often called, explains the principle behind the
use of seat belts and headrests in cars. This is a safety measure installed in cars so that passengers
will be safe when the driver suddenly started moving or stepped on the brakers to stop. If the car
suddenly stops, the driver and the passenger inside the car are thrown forward. This is because of
the inertia that keeps them moving forward. If the car starts from rest, they tend to move backward
because they have the tendency to remain at rest. Seat belts and headrests are used to protect the
driver and the passenger from injuries. By law, the driver and the passenger at the front seat must
wear seat belts.

When a vehicle is bumped into at the back by another vehicle, the passenger is pushed
forward by the seat, but his or her head tends to remain at rest. This situation may lead to serious
head injuries which is why cars are all equipped with headrests.

Student’s Name: ______________________________ Date: __________________

Grade & Section: ______________________________ Subject: General Physics 1

Activity 5

Draw three situations showing Newton’s first law of motion. Justify each drawing by giving a brief
explanation. NO ANSWERS IN THIS ACTIVITY SHALL BE ENCODED. YOU MAY
PRINT THE ACTIVITY SHEET, BUT ALL ANSWERS MUST BE HANDWRITTEN. DO
NOT SUBMIT THE ENTIRE MODULE!
General Physics 1| Module 2 19
 General Physics 1| Module 2 20

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Newton’s second law of motion is called the law of mass and acceleration. Newton’s
second law of motion can be expressed as follows:

The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force exerted on the body and is
in the same direction as this force.
In symbols, this statement can be written as 𝐹 ∝ 𝑎.

In equation form, Newton’s second law of motion is 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑎 where 𝑘 is a constant of

proportionality that depends on the mass of the body being accelerated. The heavier the body, the
greater the corresponding value of 𝑘. Hence 𝑘 is a proportional to mass m. Now we can replace k
with m. Thus, this law of motion can be rewritten as 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎.

The above equation is probably the most useful fundamental equation in mechanics as it is
the governing principle in most phenomena. In the presence of many forces acting on a body, F
represents the net force or the combined effect of these forces on the body. The equation tells us
that the net force on a body is equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration of the body.

Another useful insight can be obtained by rearranging the equation.

𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚
This relation states that the acceleration produced is proportional to the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass.

The SI unit of force is newton, written as N. It is defined as the force that produces an
acceleration of 1 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 to a mass of 1 kg. Thus, if 𝑚 = 1 𝑘𝑔, and 𝑎 = 1 𝑚⁄𝑠 2, then 𝐹 = 1 𝑁.
Thus, 1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 .

Example

1. An aircraft, Lockheed Tristar, has a mass of 5.00 × 105 𝑘𝑔. The total force acting on its
engine is 2.5 × 105 𝑁. What is its acceleration?
Given: 𝑚 = 5.00 × 105 𝑘𝑔

𝐹 = 2.5 × 105 𝑁

Required to find: a
2.5×105 𝑁
Solution: 𝑎 = 𝐹⁄𝑚 = 5.00×105 𝑘𝑔 = 0.5 𝑚⁄𝑠 2

2. To avoid an accident, a motorist travelling at 90 km/hr braked his car to an emergency stop.
The braking distance, measured by the brake marks on the road, was 50 m. The mass of
the car was 1,000 kg. What is the average braking force?
Given: 𝑣𝑖 = 90 𝑘𝑚⁄ℎ𝑟 (convert to m/s)

𝑣𝑖 = 90 𝑘𝑚⁄ℎ𝑟 × 1,000 𝑚⁄𝑘𝑚 × 1 ℎ𝑟 ⁄3,600 𝑠

𝑣𝑖 = 25 𝑚⁄𝑠

𝑚 = 1,000 𝑘𝑔

𝑑 = 50 𝑚
 General Physics 1| Module 2 21

Required to find: F

Solution: We have to find first the acceleration of the car from the given initial velocity and braking
distance.
𝑣𝑓 2 −𝑣𝑖 2 0−(25 𝑚⁄𝑠)2
𝑎= = = −6.25 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
2𝑑 2(50 𝑚)

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = (1,000 𝑘𝑔)(6.25 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ) = 6,250 𝑁

Student’s Name: ______________________________ Date: __________________

Grade & Section: ______________________________ Subject: General Physics 1

Activity 6

Problem Solving. NO ANSWERS IN THIS ACTIVITY SHALL BE ENCODED. YOU MAY

PRINT THE ACTIVITY SHEET, BUT ALL ANSWERS MUST BE HANDWRITTEN. DO
NOT SUBMIT THE ENTIRE MODULE!

1. An airplane has a mass of 32,000 𝑘𝑔 and a take-off acceleration of 0.98 𝑚⁄𝑠 2. What is
the net force accelerating the plnae?

2. A Lexus accelerates from rest to 25 𝑚⁄𝑠 due north in 6 s. The mass of the car is 1,460 𝑘𝑔.
What is the magnitude and direction of the average net force that acts on the Lexus?
 General Physics 1| Module 2 22

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

We experience forces everyday. If there are no forces acting on us, we will be forever
floating in space. From experience, we know that whenever we exert a force on something, that
something exerts a force on us. A law governs this important property of forces. This is called the
law of interaction or the action-reaction law, more popularly known as Newton’s third law of
motion.

Newton’s third law of motion can be stated as follows:

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

This law shows that forces always occur in pairs. When we push against the wall, the wall
pushes against us. Likewise, when the tires of car push against the pavement, the pavement pushes
back on the tires.

It is easy to see that the action and reaction forces are equal when the bodies are at rest.
How about for bodies in motion? Let us take the case of firing a rifle. When the rifle is fired, the
force exerted on the bullet is exactly equal to the reaction force exerted on the rifle. Hence the rifle
kicks. Since the forces are equal, one might expect the kick to be considerably more than it is. But
we must remember that the law of acceleration states that acceleration is inversely proportional to
1
mass or 𝑎 ∝ 𝑚. If we let F to represent both the action and reaction forces, m the mass of the bullet,
and M is the mass of the more massive rifle, the acceleration of the bullet and the rifle can now be
found by taking the ratio of the force to the mass. The acceleration of the bullet is given by

𝐹
= 𝑎𝐵
𝑚
On the other hand, the acceleration of the rifle is given by

𝐹
= 𝑎𝑅
𝑀
So, we can see that these two quantities are just equal. Thus,

𝑎𝐵 = 𝑎𝑅

It can be observed that the action force and reaction force are exerted on different bodies.
When an action force is exerted on a body, a reaction force is exerted by that body. These forces,
action and reaction forces never cancel. Let us take an example a book lying on a table. See the
illustration in Figure 9.
 General Physics 1| Module 2 23

Figure 9 Book lying on a table. Source:

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Faventalearning.com%2Fcontent168staging%2F2008Physics%2FSection
A%2Funit2%2Fhtml%2Fsection_4_page_7.html&psig=AOvVaw2mde_QNnRjbkjtO9V_N1vV&ust=1604995453467000&source=i
mages&c (Accessed 07 November 2020)

The book exerts an action force on the table, while the table exerts a reaction force on the
book. So, the action and reaction forces may be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, but
they will never cancel out since they are exerted on two different bodies.

Difference Between Mass and Weight

We oftentimes hear people use the terms mass and weight interchangeably. When we ask
a girl to give her weight, she normally specifies the value in kilograms which is a unit of mass. In
physics, we make a distinction between the two. A 5-kg bag of sugar (as shown in the illustration
in Figure 10 below) does not really weigh 5 kg. It has a mass of 5 kg and a weight of about 50 N
on earth.

Figure 10 A bag of 5-kg mass of sugar which really weighs about 50 N on Earth Source: https://image.shutterstock.com/image-
vector/sugar-sack-icon-outline-vector-260nw-1737567839.jpg (Accessed July 8, 2021)

Recall that Newton’s first law of motion states that inertia is the resistance of a body to
change its state of rest or uniform motion. Let us consider two identical boxes, one empty and the
other containing golf balls, resting on a smooth floor. From experience, we know that the box with
the larger mass is more difficult to move than the empty box. Here, we see that the mass of an
object is a measure of its inertia. A massive object is more difficult to move than one that is less
massive.

The weight of a body is the Earth’s (or any other planet) gravitational force (pull) on that
body. Like other forces, weight is measured in newtons. If a body falls freely, its weight gives it
an acceleration of g. Applying F=ma, the weight w of a body of mass m is w=mg. Taking g= 10
m/s2 near the surface of the Earth, the weight of a 1-kg mass is w = 1 kg (10 m/s2) = 10 N. Likewise,
a 2-kg mass has a weight 0f 20 N, a 3 kg mass, 30 N, and so forth.
 General Physics 1| Module 2 24

We know that a body of greater mass has greater resistance to acceleration. Also, a bigger
gravitational force acts on it. However, at the same place on Earth, they all fall freely with the
same acceleration. Because g=w/m, this suggest that weight is directly proportional to mass.

The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia. It does not vary with location. An object’s
mass on Earth is the same as its mass on the Moon or in space. On the other hand, the weight of a
body, w=mg, is the gravitational force acting on it, and it varies from place to place. The value of
g at the North pole or South pole is 9.83 m/s2, and 9.78 m/s2 at the equator. On the Moon, g is 1.6
m/s2.

Contact and Non-Contact Forces

Objects in our environment exert forces on systems in our surroundings. These forces can
be divided into two types: contact forces and non-contact forces.

A. Contact Forces
A contact force acts on an object only by touching it. Let us say that you are holding a
book or a book is lying on top of a table. If you are holding the book, your hand is touching it and
exerts a force on it. Likewise, if your book is lying on the table, the table is in contact with it and
exerts a force on it. Your hand exerts a force on the book only when you are touching it, the same
way that the desk exerts a force on the book when they are in contact with one another.

The following are contact forces that are experienced by some systems in our surroundings.

1. Tension
In a laboratory, force can be measured using a spring balance. When a force pulls on the
hook at the bottom end, the spring stretches until it provides an equal balancing force. The force
is read on a scale calibrated in newton.

Source: https://static.doubtnut.com/q-thumbnail/11296932.png (Accessed July 8, 2021)

The figure above shows two pairs of forces acting when a 1-kg mass is suspended with a
piece of string on a spring balance. The force in a string is called tension. The forces are
represented by arrows in the diagram indicating the direction in which these forces act. There is
an upward tension of 10 N supporting the downward weight of 10 N. There is also a downward
tension on the balance counteracting an upward force by the spring inside. Hence the tension in
the spring can either be upward or downward depending on what it acts on.
 General Physics 1| Module 2 25

By definition, we can say that tension is the pull exerted by a string, rope, or cable when
attached to a body and pulled taut. It is always directed away from the object and parallel to the
rope, string, or cable at the point of attachment.

Example

A force of 20 N pulls two carts tied together with a string (as shown in the illustration).
The carts, with masses 3 kg and 4 kg, respectively, run on a smooth level surface. Find

a. The acceleration of the 4-kg cart

b. The acceleration of the 3-kg cart
c. The tension on the string connecting the two carts.

Given: 𝑚1 = 4 𝑘𝑔

𝑚2 = 3 𝑘𝑔

𝐹 = 20 𝑁

Required to find: 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , 𝑇

Solution:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑇 𝑎

20 𝑁 = (4 𝑘𝑔 + 3𝑘𝑔)(𝑎)
20 𝑁
𝑎= = 2.86 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
7𝑘𝑔

Consider the 3-kg box:

𝐹 − 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎

20 𝑁 − 𝑇 = 3𝑘𝑔 (2.86 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ) = 8.58 𝑁

𝑇 = 20 𝑁 − 8.58 𝑁 = 11.428 𝑁

2.86 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 is also the acceleration of the 4-kg box since they are connected to one another. You
can check this using the equation 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑎.

𝑎 = 𝑇⁄𝑚2 + 11.428 𝑁 ⁄4 𝑘𝑔 = 2.86 𝑚⁄𝑠 2

2. Normal Force
Normal force is a contact force exerted by a surface on an object. Its direction is
perpendicular but away from the surface. Let us say that a book is on a table. The normal force on
the book is a vector perpendicular to the table, exerted on the book.
 General Physics 1| Module 2 26

Source: https://img.brainkart.com/extra2/qfel3QZ.png (Accessed July 08, 2021)

3. Kinetic and Static Friction

Friction (𝑭𝒇), whether static or kinetic is a contact force. This contact force acts to oppose
sliding motion between surfaces. The direction of this force is parallel to the surface and opposite
the direction of sliding.

Source: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/80/49/f3/8049f3457234d0f3c9e79ae89d499d3b.gif (Accessed July 08, 2021)

4. Spring Force
Spring force is a contact force which is either a pull or a push exerted on an object by a
spring. The direction of this force is opposite the displacement of the object at the end of the spring.

Source: https://xaktly.com/Images/Physics/HookesLaw/SpringMassComparison.png (Accessed July 08, 2021)

5. Thrust
 General Physics 1| Module 2 27

This contact force is the general term for the forces that move objects such as rockets,
airplanes, cars, and people. Its direction is the same as the direction of acceleration of the object
barring any resistive forces.

Source: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQ892Ep4-
mDbEAq9Rg0cuLUsWrlJxhvHrtnEnRRFWQ_cKD8seQwfbGpjCBg0C87JLadPn4&usqp=CAU (Accessed July 08, 2021)

B. Non-contact Force
The second kind of force is the non-contact force or otherwise known as the long-range
force. A non-contact force or a long-range force is a force that is exerted from a distance without
contact or touching. Some examples of non-contact forces are gravitational force (such as weight),
magnetic force, and electric force.

1. Gravitational Force
This is the non-contact force between two bodies in the universe due to the gravitational
attraction between them. This is the gravitational force of attraction between the Earth and the
Moon, between the Earth and the Sun, or between any two objects. Gravitational force is an
attractive force.

Source: https://static.sciencelearn.org.nz/images/images/000/000/260/original/Earth-Moon-system-and-gravity20150925-
22503-1j7na2m.jpg?1522293423 (Accessed July 08, 2021)

Two bodies exert action-reaction forces which are equal in magnitude but oppositely
directed. This is a typical action-at-a-distant force. An example of this type of force is weight.
 General Physics 1| Module 2 28

2. Other non-contact forces such as magnetic force and electric force will be discussed in part
two of this book (General Physics II).
Drawing a Free-body Diagram

A free-body diagram is a physical model of an object that is affected by several forces,

both contact and non-contact forces. Since the acceleration of a body is due to the net force acting
on it, it is important that we know how to find the net force. The net force is the sum of all the
forces acting on the body. It is important that we know how to get the sum of these forces or
specifically, the resultant force. Let us have an example.

1. A cable is lifting a crate. The speed of the care is increasing. How are the forces on the
crate related to the change in speed?
a. Choose a coordinate system which defines the positive direction of the velocity.
b. Locate the point at which the system is touched by the environment.
c. Draw the direction of motion including the velocity and acceleration. In this case, the crate
is moving upward, and the speed is increasing, so the direction of the acceleration is also
upward. Indicate the direction of the forces.
d. Draw the free-body diagram replacing the crate with a dot, and draw arrows representing
the forces acting on the crate.

The forces acting on the crate are 𝐹𝑔 or its weight and 𝐹𝑇 or the tension on the cable. The
acceleration is going up.

The sum of the forces acting on the crate is 𝐹𝑇 + (−𝐹𝑔 ) = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 . The 𝐹𝑔 is negative because
it is opposite the direction of motion.
∆𝑣
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 where 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 = ∆𝑡
 General Physics 1| Module 2 29

Student’s Name: ______________________________ Date: __________________

Grade & Section: ______________________________ Subject: General Physics 1

Activity 7

Instructions: For each problem, draw a free-body diagram. NO ANSWERS IN THIS ACTIVITY
SHALL BE ENCODED. YOU MAY PRINT THE ACTIVITY SHEET, BUT ALL
ANSWERS MUST BE HANDWRITTEN. DO NOT SUBMIT THE ENTIRE MODULE!

1) A rope pulls a box at constant speed across a horizontal surface where there is friction

2) A rope pulls a bucket upward at constant speed (ignore air resistance)

3) A rocket blasts off and its velocity increases with time (ignore air resistance)

4) A skydiver jumps and falls downward through the air at constant velocity (air resistance is
important)

5) A book on a desk
 General Physics 1| Module 2 30

Hooray! We are finally done with module 2. I hope that

you had fun learning the topics. If you have any
questions, do not hesitate to contact me through my
email: quenieebroca@sccpag.edu.ph. Also, as a
reminder, submit only the answer sheets, not the
entire module. You may also write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper if you want. God bless in your
midterm exam. See you in our next journey.

Prepared by: Quennie S. Broca