CHAPTER 18

Acoustics of Buildings

18.1 Introduction

No enclosed space is suitable for an intended activity whether speech, music, cinema or opera.
Every space has to be treated accordingly. Here comes in architectural acoustics, which deals
with designing of a hall to ensure the most favourable flow of appropriately diffused sound
towards the audience maintaining speech intelligibility or tonal quality of music.
With the advancement of technology and knowledge of acoustics, architects, materials
scientists and physicists keep making constant efforts to modify design of such halls to achieve
the optimum acoustic experience for today' s audience.
Greeks and Romans were the first to bring such structures. They built, respectively, Greek
theatre in Greece and Roman theatre in Turkey in around 350 BC, still known as acoustical
marvels.
The basic factors to understand design of such structures are as follows:
1. Flow of sound from source to receiver.
2. Reverberation: Persistence of audible sound intensity after the original source of sound
is switched off.
These factors necessitate
1. Appropriate planning of a given hall: Shape and size of a hall.
2. Placement of appropriate absorptive materials within the hall: Every object including
audience affect absorption and thus control reverberation time.
To understand how exactly to design a hall, we would first like to study how the sound intensity
grows and decays in a hall.

18.2 Variation of Syllable Intensity: Theoretical Approach

Figure 18.1 shows how in a hall, intensity of a spoken syllable grows and decays with time.
Position O represents the time and intensity of a syllable when it just reaches a listener's ear
526
 Acoustics of Buildings 527
I

Figure 18.1 Growth and decay of 'syllable intensity' in a hall.

directly, and continues sounding. During this time, the same syllable sound incident at different
parts of the hall such as ceiling, walls, floor and other articles gets partly reflected back (after
some part of the incident energy being absorbed), and falls at the ear to reinforce the directly
received sound. The sound syllable undergoes multiple reflections and repeatedly falls at the
ear, but every time with less reinforcements and more losses. Thus the intensity of the syllable
reaching the ear is reinforced by these reflections (position 1). As the time progresses, the
losses increase (with reinforcement is still more than the loss); this results in making slower
the growth of intensity (position 2). When the losses become equal to the reinforcement, a
steady state is reached (position 3). If the source is switched off, direct sound to ears will
be cut off making losses surpass reinforcements resulting in decay of the sound intensity
(position 4). As the losses continue increasing, over reflections, with time, the decay of sound
intensity gets slower (position 5).
If overall losses in a hall are more, the decay curve will be steeper (curve II), and less
will be the time taken for the sound to become inaudible.
Position 0: Direct sound just reaching an ear without any reinforcement
Position 1: Direct sound + Reinforcements >> Losses (faster growth)
Position 2: Direct sound + Reinforcements > Losses (slower growth)
Position 3: Direct sound + Reinforcements = Losses (steady state)
Position 4: No direct sound and losses > Reinforcements (slower decay)
Position 5: No direct sound and losses >> Reinforcements (faster decay)
Curve I : Less steep curve ~ Less losses ~ Slower fall of intensity ~ More reverberation
time
Curve II : More steep curve ~ More losses ~ Faster fall of intensity ~ Less reverberation
time

18.3 Reverberation

It is persistence of audible sound intensity in a hall after the original source is switched off.
Certain optimum reverberation is always needed to achieve acoustical qualities of a given
hall. Reverberation effects add depth to sound. Of course, exact amount of reverberation required
for a hall depends on the activity the hall is to put to. For instance, a conference or a lecture
hall needs a shorter reverberation time than a music or an opera hall. In fact, achieving right
amount of reverberation for a given hall is the purpose of 'acoustics of buildings'.
528 Physics for Engineers
I

18.4 Reverberation Time

The reverberation time is the time during which the intensity of sound falls to one-millionth
of its maximum intensity after the source of sound is switched off or removed.
or
The reverberation time is the time during which the intensity of sound falls by 60 dB after the
source of sound is switched off or removed (Refer Appendix D).
Opera house deals with both speech and music and, therefore, has reverberation time ( 1.5 s
to 1.7 s) somewhere between 1 and 2 seconds- the reverberation times, respectively, for speech
and music/orchestra.

18.5 Sabine's Formula

Wallace Sabine, the Harvard acoustician who designed Boston symphony hall, was the first
to study reverberation around the turn of the last century. He experimentally established that
the reverberation time ( r) is directly proportional to volume V, and inversely proportional to
average absorption coefficient a of the hall as well as to its total surface area S. That is,
kV
'l'= - (18.1)
aS
where k is a proportionality constant, whose value depends upon the units in which the length
is measured. If it is measured in ft, k = 0.05 and if in m, k = 0.162, provided the velocity of
sound is respectively considered to be 1120 ft s- 1 or 340 m s- 1•

18.6 Average Total Absorption or Total Absorbing Power

Absorption of sound in a hall is essentially the dissipation of sound energy into heat as
it propagates through interstices of porous materials and setting small material fibres into
vibrations. On the other hand, if sound strikes a flexible material, not rigidly mounted, the latter
gets set into vibrations converting the incident sound energy into heat. The porous materials
such as carpets, felt, rugs, unpainted bricks offer higher absorption. Absorption also increases
to certain limiting value with thickness of a given absorbing material. Absorption also varies
with frequency of the sound produced in a hall. At a given frequency, absorption depends on
the angle of incidence of the incident sound and, therefore, average absorption coefficient is
always found for a given hall for better acoustical designing. An average absorption coefficient
of a hall would be a function of only of its physical characteristics such as thickness and the
method of its mounting and, not on the acoustic field such as the distribution of sound energy
in the hall. This is why, an average absorption coefficient for a given hall is preferred.
Further, let S 1, Sz, S3, ... be areas of different surfaces and absorbing materials in a given
hall with absorption coefficients, respectively, a 1, a 2, a3 , ... , then
Total absorbing power = a 1S1 + a 2S2 + a3S3 + ... = uzS (18.2)
If a is the average absorption coefficient, then
Average total absorption= a(S 1 + S2 + S3 + .. ,) = aS (18.3)
 Acoustics of Buildings 529
From equations (18.2) and (18.3), we have
r.czs = as (18.4)
An open window is said to have 100 per cent absorption as it passes through itself the entire
sound energy incident on it. Sound energy absorbed by 1 square ft of open window is called
1 sabin and is also written as 1 ft 2 open window unit (OWU). Sabine chose this unit as the
standard unit of absorption in terms of which the energy absorbed by absorbing materials is
measured.

18. 7 Absorption Coefficient

Absorption coefficient can be defined as follows:

1. Fraction of the incident sound energy absorbed by a surface, provided the remaining
is reflected back.
or
2. An open window area (S' ) to the area of a given material (S), both absorbing same
amount of sound energy, i.e., a = S'IS.
or
3. Amount of sound energy absorbed by a given surface (of an absorbing material) to the
amount of sound energy absorbed by same area of an open window.
For example, if a surface absorbs one-tenth of the incident sound energy and reflects back
the remaining, then the absorption coefficient will be 0.1. And an open window, which passes
through it, the entire sound incident on it, without reflecting back any, would have absorption
coefficient of 1, whereas a thick smooth painted concrete wall would have absorption coefficient
almost zero as it reflects back almost the entire incident sound energy.
An adult has been found to absorb sound energy equivalent to the sound energy absorbed by
4.7 ft 2 or 0.44 m 2 of an open window, and is usually written as 4.7 ft 2 OWU or 0.44 m2 OWU.
A room having 100% absorption, i.e., completely free from any reverberation, is called a
dead or anechoic room, Broadcasting Studio is an example of such a room.

18.8 Physical Significance and Units of aS

As we know, aS = S'
That is, given area S absorbs the same amount of sound energy as does an area S' of an
open window.
Units of aS is ft2 of OWU (or sabin) or m2 of OWU.

18.9 Growth and Decay of Syllable Intensity: Mathematical Approach

Assumptions: In a hall under consideration, there be
1. Source of sound of constant rate of emission of energy
2. Equal and uniform transmission of energy distribution
530 Physics for Engineers

3. Negligible absorption of energy by air

4. Negligible superposition effects
5. Absorption coefficient independent of sound intensity
Now, the rate of growth of intensity, dl/dt in a hall is equal to the rate of emission of sound
intensity by the source PE minus the rate of absorption of sound intensity A. That is,

dl =P -A (18.5)
dt E

where
A = Average absorption coefficient x Number of reflections per second x Intensity at time t
A= anl
Now, according to Jaeger, the average distance travelled between two successive reflections
in a hall of volume V and surface area S is equal to 4 VIS. Then the time taken between two
consecutive reflections = 4V/Sv, where vis velocity of sound. Thus,
Sv
Average number of reflections per second = 4
V =n (18.6)
So the Eq. (18.5) becomes

(18.7)

aSv
Substituting - = C, a constant, we have (18.8)
4V
(18.9)

18.9.1 Growth of Intensity

At the steady state, I = [ 111 , the maximum intensity.

Thus dl = dllll =0
dt dt
Thus Eq. (18.9) gives

0 = PE - Cllll
or PE= C/111 , hence Eq. (18.9) becomes
dl
-=C/111 -Cl=C(l111 - I) (i)
dt
Rearranging and integrating Eq. (i), we obtain
I t

f __!!!__ = Cf dt , because at t = 0, I = 0 and at t = t, I = I

Im -I
0 0
 Acoustics of Buildings 531
or -[ln(/m - I) - ln /,.,] = Ct

or
( Im-/)
/ -
ln _n_l = - Ct

I
or 1-- = e-Ct
Im
or I= IIll (1 - e-cr) (18.10)
When t = 0, I = 0 and t = 00 , I = /111
Hence a plot between I Vs t will be as shown in Figure 18.2(a). The plot shows how
intensity of syllable builds up in the hall.
I I

I"' ---------------- ~ ---------------

Decay

0 (a) 0 (b) ;

Figure 18.2 (a) Growth of sound intensity and (b) Decay of sound intensity.

18.9.2 Decay of Intensity (Sabine's Formula)

The sound intensity in a hall will undergo decay, the moment the source of sound is switched
off, i.e., when PE = 0. Thus Eq. (18.9) yields

di = - CI
dt
di
or -=- Cdt
I
Here, at t = 0, I= Im and at t = t, I= I. So integrating accordingly, we get
I t

f ~ =-cf dt
1., 0

or In / - ln / 111 = - Ct
I
or ln-=-Ct
Im
or I= IIll e-Cr (18.11)
when t = 0, I = / 111 and at t = oo, I = 0
532 Physics for Engineers

Thus the sound intensity I decays with time t [Figure 18.2(b)] as source of sound is
switched off.
From the definition of reverberation,
when t = -r then ([/!111 ) = 10- 6, and, therefore, Eq. (18.11 ) becomes

(18.12)
As from Eq. (18.8), we have
aSv
C= -
4V

-6lnl0=- - -r
aSv
Taking log
4V
6 X 2.3026 X 4V
or 'r= - - -- - -
aSv
when v 0.05-
= 1120 ft s- I , -r =- V s ft-1, 1.e.,
.
when 1ength ts
. . ft
m (18.13)
aS
0.162 V
when v = 340 m s- 1, -r = - - - s m- 1, i.e., when length is in m (18.14)
aS
18.10 Eyring's Formula

Under the same assumptions, as has been considered earlier, at each reflection.
Fraction of energy absorbed = average absorption coefficient = a
and Fraction of energy reflected = average reflection coefficient = 1 - a (18.15)
If the number of reflections per second = n, then the total number of reflections in time
t = nt = N, say.
Equation (18.15) gives the fraction of energy reflected after first reflection. Therefore, the
fraction of energy reflected in N reflections (Refer Appendix E)
= (1 - a) (1 - a)(l - a) ... N terms = (1 - al= (1 - at 1
(18.16)

Also fraction of energy reflected in time t or in N reflections = _!_ (18.17)

Im
From Eqs. (18.16) and (18.17), we get

(18.18)

When t = -r, then by definition,

 Acoustics of Buildings 533
Hence Eq. (18.18) becomes
Svr
10-6 = (I- a)4V
Taking log and simplifying for -r, we have

- 6 ln 10 = Sv-r ln(l - a)
4V
-6 X 2.3026 X 4V
or -r=------ (18.19)
Svln(l- a)
Equation (18.20) is called Eyring's formula
For v = 1120 ft s- 1
0.05V (18.20)
'Z'=-- - -
-Sln(l- a)
0.05V
(i)

<= -s(-a-•; -~ 3
-···)

As for small values of a, higher power terms of a can be neglected, the Eq. (i) reduces to

0.05V 0.05V
'Z'=-- = - - (18.21)
aS La1S1
Equation (18.21) is Sabine's formula also called Franklin's formula.
-I h 0.162V 0.162V
an d, when v = 340 m s , t en -r =- - - =- - - (18.22)
aS 1:a1S1

18.11 Limitation of Sabine's Formula

l. It is good for only small values of absorption coefficient a (< 0.2).
2. It is not valid for higher values of a.
This is so because for a= I, -r should be zero, whereas Sabine's formula gives -r = kVIS,
i.e., a non-zero value.
3. For higher values of absorption coefficient, the Sabine's formula gives higher value of
reverberation time than its actual value.
4. Eyring's formula gives actual value of reverberation time and is valid for all values of
absorption coefficient:
kV kV
-r=--- - = - - - - -
-S ln(l - a) -S loge (1 - a)
For a = I, the Eyring's formula gives -r = 0, shown as:
00
loge(l - a) = log/0) = logee- = -oologee = -oo
534 Physics for Engineers

kV l
Hence -r=---=-=0
-S(-oo) oo

18. 12 Measurement of Absorption Coefficient

The following methods are most appropriate for the measurement of absorption coefficient
in halls (such as lecture, music, opera halls) involving sound incident at all possible angles:

(A) Reverberation Chamber Methods

Method 1-Using Concept of Open Window. In a hall under study, a low frequency noise
is produced and reverberation time measured for given absorbing materials. Then all the
absorbing materials are removed, and reverberation time is again measured with open windows
and adjusting the open-window area so as to obtain the same reverberation time as in the first
case. Now ratio is taken of the area of open windows and those of absorbing materials. This
is equal to the absorption coefficient of the hall with the absorbing materials.
Method 2-Using Concept of Change of Absorption. Reverberation time, in a given hall,
is measured without absorbing material and then with absorbing material. Let the reverberation
times are respectively -r1 and 'fi· Then

kV
-rt (without absorbing materials) = aS

kV
-r2 (with absorbing materials)= - - --
aS + aSa
where a is the absorption coefficient of the hall with absorbing materials of area, Sa.
whence
1 1 aSa
---= --
'r2 'rt kV
Hence
(18.23)

Thus knowing -r1, -r2, V, and Sa, the absorption coefficient a can be measured.
Method 3-Using Concept of Decay of Intensity. The absorption coefficient of a hall can
also be determined using the decay equation (Eq. 18.11) according to which after the source
of sound is switched off, the intensity /, at time t, is given by
I = I me-Ct'

where, C = aSv and / 111 is the maximum intensity of the sound syllable.
4V
Let two different sources of sound are played one by one in the hall. Let maximum
intensities of their syllables be, respectively, / 111 and 1:,,.
 Acoustics of Buildings 535
Now, if T 1 and T2 be, respectively, the times for these intensities to fall to ITl,- the threshold
intensity of sound. Then
I Th= I me- CT1 and / Tl, -- /',,,e- CT,,-
whence

or

Taking log, we get

_ 4V x 2.3026 (In / - In (,r)

or a = - - - - - - -111- - -- (18.24)
Sv(]i -T2 )
Now, if v = 1120 ft/s, then Eq. (18.24) becomes

_ 0.05 V(ln / 111 - In 1;,,) ft-I

a = - - - - ~-~~ s (18.25)
S(Ji -T2 )
and, if v = 340 mis, then
_ 0.162V(ln/111 -ln/~) -1
a= - - - - ~ -- ~ s m (18.26)
S(71-T2 )
Thus, absorption coefficient can be determined as the right hand side data is known.
Now, if powers of the sources of sound are given, and, they are, respectively, P 111 and P',11 ,
1111
then = P, and, therefore, we can also write the absorption coefficient expressions as:
11
,
1;,, P,;,
_ 0.05 V(lnP, lnP:,) ft _1
-
a = ---~~
11
- ~- s (18.27)
S(]i-T2 )

_ 0.162V(lnP - lnP,;,) -1
and a = - -- --=---=--
111
sm (18.28)
S(Ji -T2 )

(B) Stationary Wave Method

A long cylindrical chamber of about 30 cm in diameter made of low absorbing power material is
taken (Figure 18.3). One end of the chamber is closed by a material whose absorption coefficient
is to be determined and, through the other end, the sound waves are let in being produced by
a source of sound. These waves are reflected back by the closed end of the cylinder and form
stationary waves on combining with the incident waves.
Displacements at the nodes and antinodes are measured by a hot-wire microphone attached
to a movable thin rod, which is operated from outside the chamber. Entire apparatus alongwith
the chamber and source of sound is enclosed in a sound-insulating material as well as put on
a vibration-free table to prevent the extraneous sounds to enter the chamber and interfere with
the results.
536 Physics for Engineers

Sound box

Long cylindrical
chamber Speaker

Microphone

Material
sample \
Sliding
wire

Supports

Figure 18.3 Stationary wave apparatus.

In addition, two assumptions are made: First, there is no reaction on the source of sound,
i.e., its output is independent of its own position and the absorption in the chamber; second,
absorption is surface and not volume effect.
Let the displacement of the incident and the reflected sound waves at a distance x from the
open end of the chamber (where the source of sound is located) and time, t be, respectively,
y 1 and y 2 . Then
y 1 = a sin(wt + kx) (18.29)
Y2 = ma sin(wt - kx) (18.30)
where m is reflection coefficient, a is amplitude of the incident wave and co is frequency of
the wave.
Hence resultant displacement,
Y = y 1 + Y2 = a sin(wt + kx) + ma sin(wt - kx)
y = a (1 + m) sin wt cos kx + a(l - m) cos wt sin kx (18.31)

a(I + m)
a(I - m)
-t-o t
X

Antinode Node

Figure 18.4 Stationary waves.

 Acoustics of Buildings 537
Equation (18 .31) is made up of two stationary waves of same time period and having
phase difference of re and their amplitudes are varying from point to point from a(l - m)
cos kx to a(l - m) sin kx (Figure 18.4). Further, Eq. (18.31) shows that the amplitude of the
first stationary wave is maximum, a(l + m), at points given by

(18.32)

and the amplitude is minimum, a(l - m) at

A 3A SA 7A
(18.33)
x=4'4'4'4····
and for the second stationary wave, the amplitude is maximum, a(l + m) at
A 3A SA 7 A
x= - - - - (18.34)
4' 4' 4' 4 ' ...
and minimum, a(l - m), at
A 3A
X = 0, 2' A, 2' 2A, (18.3S)

From Eqs. (18.32) to (18.3S), it is clear that the positions of maximum displacement for one
stationary wave are the positions for minimum displacement for the other stationary wave, and
the maximum amplitude and minimum amplitude points are separated by equal distances. The
maximum amplitude and the minimum amplitude points are, respectively, called antinodes and
nodes (Figure 18.4). Now, if a(l + m) = a 1 and a(l - m) = a 2, then
~ = a(l + m) = 1 + m
(18.36)
a2 a(l - m) 1- m
or
al - a2
m=-- - (18.37)
a1 + a2
Hence reflection coefficient for intensity R(say) is given by

(18.38)

and, therefore, the absorption coefficient for intensity, a (say), is given by

(18.39)

Thus, the absorption coefficient,

a= 4a1a2
(a1 +a2)2
Now, as a 1 and a 2 are known, the absorption coefficient of the given material can be
determined.
538 Physics for Engineers

18.13 Absorption Coefficient Values at Normal Speech Frequencies

The absorption coefficient of different materials vary significantly with frequency. In general,
the absorption coefficient of all the materials increases at low frequencies when the frequency is
increased up to about 0.5 kHz and, thereafter, it registers decrease. Some materials have small
absorption coefficient at low frequencies, and others large. For example. following (Table 18.1)
are absorption coefficients of some of the building and finishing materials at normal speech
frequencies:

Table 18.1 Materials and their absorption coefficients

Material Absorption Material Absorption

coefficient coefficient
Brick (unpainted) 0.05 Doors (wooden panels) 0.04
Brick (painted) 0.02 Wood flooring 0.06
Concrete (unpainted) 0.40 Fibre glass 0.99
Concrete (painted) 0.10 Benches or theater seats
Plaster 0.04 (wooden) empty 0.08
Glass panes 0.02 Theatre seats 0.08
Plywood 0.08 Celotex 0.40
Marble or glazed tiles 0.02 Curtain 0.20
Carpet 0.30

18. 14 Design of a Hall

Following issues are worth consideration:

1. Shape of a hall (floor plan)

Undesirable focusing of sound in a hall leads to very high concentrations at some locations
and exceptionally low levels at others, thereby creating silence zones or regions of poor
audibility. To avoid this, the floor plan should have walls not circular or elliptical because of
their focusing properties.
(a) Presence of echoes in a hall makes understanding of dialogues extremely confusing and
annoying. This is prevented by ensuring size of the hall such that the time difference
between the direct and the reflected sound is less than one-tenth of a second.
(b) The internal shape of a hall also plays a key role. A shoe-box type hall with a rectangular
floor plan is a better option. However, parallel and smooth opposite walls and ceiling
parallel to the floor cause serious low-frequency resonances and flutter echo. High
frequency waves being directional, the hall length to width ratio from 2: 1 to 1.2: 1 has
been found to be satisfactory. In such a hall, the sound diffuses quickly throughout the
hall by multiple reflections from the walls. Ceilings with splays will assist to direct
sound to those parts of the hall, which have lower intensity levels, especially the rear
seats. Similar splays provided in walls break parallelism of walls and consequently help
check flutter of echoes.
 Acoustics of Bui ldings 539
2. Control of reverberation time
The hall should be treated with absorbing materials at strategic points to have optimum
reverberation. The ideal reverberation time depends upon the type of activity a hall is used for.
For liturgical music involving either an organ or a chorus sound is best with a reverberation
time of 3 to 4 s. A romantic music, Beethoven or Brahms, would sound best with reverberation
time of 2 s. A theater/opera, where spoken words demand the highest clarity, should have
reverberation time of 1 second or less. Whereas, opera, being part speech and part music,
demands a reverberation time 1.5 to 1. 7 s, somewhere between that of orchestra 2 s and speech
1 s. Auditoria, in general, are multi-purpose halls for functions such as drama, music, concert,
opera, even speech. It can be a little too reverberant for speech and not reverberant enough
for music. (A rough estimate of reverberation time can be had from the empirical formula:
T = 0.75 + pV113 where p = 0.017 when Vis in ft 3 and p = 0.025 when Vis in m 3 (V = volume
of hall for full audience)).
As such, an auditorium cannot serve any function particularly well, as it demands variable
acoustics. While there are numerous ways to vary the acoustics, one of the primary tricks is to
move very large quantities of draperies in and out of the auditorium. Draperies, being sound
absorbing, cut down on reverberation time and allow greater clarity for theater and lectures.
For speaking events, a large quantity of black curtains may be pulled out into the space. For
musical events, the curtains are drawn back into large storage pockets to open up a big, hard,
reverberant space for music.
A broadcasting room should practically have no reverberation, i.e., it entirely be covered with
porous material such as fibre glass to have almost 100 per cent absorption or noise level O dB.

3. Sound insulation
Sound insulation means check on unwanted sound from adjacent rooms or outside from entering
the hall. These sounds can be air-borne or impact-borne (or structure-borne).
Air-borne sounds either enter through doors, windows, etc. or are actually produced in
the hall by walking, machinery, etc. Carpets can check sound of foot-steps, banging of doors,
by rubber paddings or a pneumatic devices. Sound due to some machines can be reduced by
hanging heavy curtains around it.
Structure-borne sounds are those which enter the hall through walls, floors, girders, pipes,
etc. Such sounds can be reduced by not directly fixing the machinery to the floor instead
mounting on an absorbent material; making outer walls of the room massive and rigid, in
general not preferred being quite expensive. Rather, continuity can be broken by using double
wall of brick wall stuffed with foam, padding, corrugated cardboard and air spaces.

I Solved Problems I
PROBLEM 18.1 Find reverberation time for a hall of dimensions 40' x 30' x 20' having
average absorption coefficient of 0.15.

Solution r = o.o 5v s n-1

aS
Volume of the hall, V = 40' x 30' x 20' = 24000 ft 3
540 Physics for Engineers

Surface area of hall, S = 2[(40 x 30) + (30 x 20) + (20 x 40)]

= 2(1200 + 600 + 800) = 5200 ft2
Thus total average absorption, aS = 0.15 x 5200 ft 2 = 780 ft 2 OWU or sabin
3
0.05 X 24000 ft f -I _ l
Hence 't'= S t - .54 S
780 ft 2
PROBLEM 18.2 In Problem 18.1, how much area we should treat with an absorbing material
of absorption coefficient, 0.20, to reduce its reverberation time to 1.2 s?
Solution Let area A is to be treated, then
Total average absorption= 0.15 (5200 - A) + 0.20A = 780 + 0.05A
'r =
0.05 X 24000 = l .2
Hence
(780 + 0.05A)
12
or 0.05A = 00 - 780 = 1000 - 780 = 220
1.2
220
or A= = 4400 ft 2
0.05
PROBLEM 18.3 A University lecture hall (15 m x 8 m x 3 m) is heavily damped with
absorption coefficient 0.3. Calculate its reverberation time if approximation is (a) applied and
(b) not applied.
Solution
3
(a) r= 0.162V sm- I = 0.162x360m sm_1 = 58.32 =0. 51 s
aS 0.3 X 2[(15 X 8) + (8 X 3) + (3 X 15)] m 2 0.3 X 378

(b) r = 0.162V = 0.162 X 360 = 58.32 = 0.43 s

-Sln(l - a) -378ln(l - 0.3) 378 x 0.357

Comment: The Sabine's formula gives higher value of the reverberation time than its actual
va1ue "1or h"1gher ab sorpt10n.
. It 1s 3
. h.1gher by an amount= -o. 5-l - -0.4-=0.19, · 19n1
1.e. w.
0.43
PROBLEM 18.4 If a Concert hall of size 70' x 40' x 15' has plastered surface of absorption
coefficient 0.1, and a capacity of an audience of 100 adults (each having an absorption of
4.7 ft2 OWU), find reverberation time of the hall.
Solution Tu1S1 = 0.1 x 2[(70 x 40) + (40 x 15) + (15 x 70)] + 4.7 x 100
= 0.1 X 8900 + 4.7 X 100 = 890 + 470 = 1360 ft 2 OWU
't' = 0.05V = 0.05 X 42000 = 1_54 s
Hence
uz1S1 1360
PROBLEM 18.5 A Concert hall (50' x 25' x 12') has total area plastered with absorption
coefficient, 0.1. First its reverberation time is measured as such and then adding certain
absorbing material of area 150 ft2, the reverberation time reduces to 1.45 s. Calculate: (a) First
reverberation time (b) Absorption coefficient of the material.
 Acoustics of Build ings 541

Solution
3
(a) r = 0.05V s fC 1 = 0.05 x 15000 ft s ft-I= 1. 74 s
a:s 0.1 x 4300 ft 2
kV ( 1 1 ) 0.05 x 15000 ( 1 1 )
(b) a=s; ~-~ = 150 1.45 - 1.74
a = 5(0.69 - 0.57) = 0.6

PROBLEM 18.6 A 10 m2 of a curtain cloth (absorption coefficient = 0.36) absorbs certain

sound energy. What area of an open window will absorb same amount of energy?
Solution Open window area = Curtain cloth area x Its absorption coefficient
= 10 m2 x 0.36 = 3.6 m2

PROBLEM 18.7 Find reverberation time of a hall (80' x 40' x 15') having average absorption
coefficient of 0.1. To make it fit as a lecture hall (reverberation time = 1 s), (a) how much
additional area of an absorbing material of absorption coefficient OA should be added? (b) how
much hall area be covered with an absorbing material of absorption coefficient OA? (c) In (b ),
what percentage of the hall area has not been covered?
Solution w 1S 1 = 0.1 x 2[(80 x 40) + (40 x 15) + (15 x 80)]ft2
= 0.1 x 10,000 ft2 = 1000 ft 2 (OWU)
3
't" = 0.05V = 0.05 X 480~0 ft s ft- I = 2 A s
Tu1S1 1000ft
(a) Let area S be added, thus
3 3
l S = 0.05 X 48000 ft S ft-I = 0.05 X ~8000 ft S ft - I
uz1S1 + OAS 1000 ft + OAS
or 1000 ft 2 + OAS = 0.05 x 48000 ft 2 = 2400 ft2
s = 3500 ft2
(b) Let hall area S be treated with absorption coefficient OA.
New absorption for hall of area S = aS = OAS
Old absorption for hall of area S = aS = O.lS
Additional absorption for hall area S = OAS - O. lS = 0.3S
Thus total average absorption for the hall = 1000 + 0.3S
3 3
l S = 0.05 X 48000 ft S ft-I= 0.05 X 48000 ft S ft - I
uz1S1 + 0.3S 1000 ft 2 + 0.3S
or 1000 ft 2 + 0.3S = 0.05 x 48000 ft 2 = 2400 ft2
S = 4667 ft 2
(c) Hall area = 10,000 ft2
Hall area covered with absorption coefficient OA 4667 ft 2 =
542 Physics for Engineers

2 2
Thus % area not covered = 1OOOO ft - 4667 ft x 100
10000 ft 3
= 0.53 X 100 = 53
PROBLEM 18.8 A hall (80' x 40' x 20') has reverberation time of 1.5 second. If the hall is
partitioned into two halves by hanging a curtain (absorption coefficient= 0.4), and consequently,
the reverberation time reduces by 0.25 s, find the curtain length if the breadth is 10'.
Solution Without curtain
3
'l' = 0.05V s ft - I = 0.05 X 64000 ft s ft - I = 1. 5 s
aS ~aS
32
or uS = 00 ft 2 = 2133 ft 2 (OWU)
1.5
With curtain of effective area A:
3
l. 25 S = 0.05 X 64000 ft S ft- I
uS+0.4A
3200 ft 2
or 25
1. = 2133 ft 2 + 0.4A
or 1.25 X 2133 ft 2 + 1.25 X 0.4A = 3200 ft 2
or 2666 ft 2 + 0.5A = 3200 ft 2
534
Hence A= =1068 ft 2
0.5
Now, as this area includes both sides of the curtain, thus actual curtain area will be half of this
area, i.e., 534 ft2
Now Curtain area= Length x Breadth
534 ft 2 = Length x 10 ft
Hence Curtain length= 53.4 ft

PROBLEM 18.9 If a cubical hall of dimension a and average absorption coefficient a has
reverberation time 2 s, what will be the reverberation time if its (a) Dimension is doubled and
(b) Volume is doubled?
Solution
(a) When dimension is doubled
3
'l' = 0.05V = 0.05a = 2 s (Given)
aS a(6a 2 )
Now, Dimension = 2a
Hence, V = (2a) 3 = 8a3 and S = 6(2a)2 = 4 x 6a2
 Acoustics of Buildings 543
3
0.05(8a ) . . . d bl d
So, 'l' = 0.05V
a_S = 2 = X S = S,
2 2 4 I.e., It 1S OU e
a(4 X 6a )
(b) Volume is doubled
3
-r = 0.05V = 0.05a = 2 s (Given)
aS a(6a 2 )

Now, Volume = 2V = 2a3 = (2 113a)3

Thus, dimension (or side) = 21/3a, which gives S = 6(2 113a)2 = 2 213 (6a 2)
3
_ 0.05V _ 0.05(2a ) _ i 13 x . 1/ .
So, 'l' - _ - _ 213 - 2 s, 1.e., 2 3 times.
a8 a2 (6a 2 )

j Short Questions (with Answers)

1. What is architectural acoustics?

Architectural acoustics deals with designing of a hall to ensure the most favourable flow
of appropriately diffused sound towards the audience maintaining speech intelligibility
or tonal quality of music.
2. What factors need be addressed for designing of a hall?
The following factors need be addressed:
1. Appropriate planning of a given hall: Shape and size as well as the material used
in construction
2. Placement of absorptive materials within the hall: Every object including audience
iiffPrt :ih,mrptinn :incl th111; rnntrnl rPvPrhPrntinn timP
3. Sound insulation to prevent unwanted external sounds from entering the hall
3. What is reverberation?
Reverberation is the persistence of audible sound in a hall after the original source is
switched off.
4. What is reverberation time?
Reverberation time is the time during which the intensity of sound falls to one-millionth
of its maximum intensity after the source of sound is switched off or removed.
or
Reverberation time is the time during which the intensity of sound falls by 60 dB after
the source of sound is switched off or removed.
5. What is 'sabin'? Define it.
'Sabin' is the standard unit of 'average total absorption' (provided the hall related
measurements are in ft). Sound energy absorbed by 1 ft 2 of open window is called
1 sabin and is also written as 1 ft 2 open window unit (OWU).
6. What is intensity level?
Intensity level is the loudness above the threshold of audibility.
544 Physics for Engineers

7. What is the threshold of audibility?

Threshold intensity is the minimum audible intensity, which is 10- 12 W m-2• It corresponds
to zero intensity level.
8. What is dB? What information does it convey?
It is the unit of intensity level. It tells how intense a sound is as compared to the threshold
of intensity. For example, a sound of intensity level 20 dB is 100 times more intense
than the threshold of audibility. And, likewise, the one with 30 dB is 1000 times more
intense than the threshold of audibility.
9. What are 'intensity of sound' and 'loudness'?
Intensity of sound is a definite physical quantity, which is independent on the ear, and
can be measured. Whereas the loudness is the degree of sensation, which depends on
the intensity of sound and the sensitivity of the ear.
10. What is absorption coefficient? Explain.
Fraction of sound energy absorbed by a surface (provided remaining is reflected back)
is called absorption coefficient.
For example, if a surface absorbs one-tenth of the incident sound energy and reflects
back the remaining, then the absorption coefficient will be 0.1. And an open window,
which passes through it the entire sound incident on it without reflecting back any,
would have absorption coefficient of 1, whereas a thick smooth painted concrete wall
would have absorption coefficient almost zero as it reflects back almost the entire incident
sound energy.
11. How absorption coefficient be defined in terms of area of open window?
Absorption coefficient can also be defined as a ratio of open window area to the area
of a given material both absorbing the same amount of sound energy.
A material having absorption coefficient of 0.1 means it absorbs as much sound energy
as does one-tenth area of the open window.
12. Is absorption coefficient a constant quantity?
No. It varies with frequency of the source of sound. In general, it increases with frequency.
13. What are the absorption coefficients for 'full absorption' and 'full reflections' in
a hall?
For 'full absorption', absorption coefficient is 1, and for 'full reflections', it is zero.
14. What is a 'dead hall'?
A hall having 100 per cent absorption is called a dead hall. Such a hall is completely
free from reverberation. Broadcasting studio and recording room are examples of such
halls.
15. What is the limitation of Sabine's formula?
Sabine's formula is an approximate formula. It gives values of reverberation time higher
than the actual values. It is, in general, valid for low absorption coefficients ($ 0.2).
16. What is Franklin's formula?
Eyring's formula at low absorption coefficient values is called Franklin's formula, which
actually is identical to Sabine's formula.
 Acoustics of Buildings 545
17. Is Eyring's formula valid for higher values of absorption coefficients?
Yes. In fact, it is valid for all values of absorption coefficients.
18. What is the recommended reverberation time for an opera house?
Opera houses are for dramatic work, which includes both dialogues and music. Thus
its reverberation time must lie in between the reverberation times for a 'lecture hall'
(reverberation time = 1 s) and a 'concert hall' (reverberation time = 2 s). Thus the
reverberation time for an opera house is 1.5 s to 1. 7 s.
19. Why are the absorption coefficients of cushions or porous materials large?
Absorption of sound in a hall is essentially the dissipation of sound energy into heat
as it propagates through the interstices of porous materials and setting small material
fibers into vibrations. On the other hand, if sound strikes a flexible material, not
rigidly mounted, the latter gets set into vibrations converting the incident sound energy
into heat. This is why the porous and flexible materials have higher absorption
coefficients.
20. Why average absorption coefficient of a hall is preferred?
Absorption varies with frequency of the sound produced in a hall. At a given frequency,
absorption depends on angle of incidence of the incident sound and, therefore, average
absorption coefficient is always found for a given hall for better acoustical designing.
An average absorption coefficient of a hall would be a function of only of its physical
characteristics, thickness and the method of its mounting and, not on the acoustic field,
the distribution of sound energy in the hall. This is why an average absorption coefficient
for a given hall is preferred.

Exercises

1. What is meant by 'architectural acoustics'?

2. What is reverberation and what is its importance in 'acoustics of buildings'?
3. What is reverberation time? Discuss Sabine's empirical formula for reverberation
time.
4. What is scientist Jaeger's contribution to acoustics of buildings?
5. Discuss how sound of a syllable grows and decays in a hall.
6. Define absorption coefficient. Discuss its meaning in terms of open window.
7. How absorption coefficient is measured? Explain.
8. Develop Sabine's formula.
9. What is the problem with Sabine's formula? Who corrected it and how?
10. Derive Eyring's formula.
11. How a hall is designed for a given activity?
12. How an auditorium can be used for speech, music and opera?
546 Physics for Engineers

Unsolved Problems
1. Find reverberation time for a hall of dimensions 50' x 25' x 15' having average absorption
coefficient of 0.10. [Ans. 1.97 s]
2. For a hall (60' x 30' x 15'), find reverberation time if its absorption coefficient is 0.12.
Also find the area to be treated with a material of absorption coefficient 0.25 to reduce
its reverberation time to 1.2 s. [Ans. 1.78 s; 2838 ft 2]
3. A lecture hall (25 m x 10 m x 5 m) is heavily damped with absorption coefficient 0.32.
Calculate its reverberation time if approximation is (a) applied and (b) not applied. Also
comment on the result. [Ans. 0.74 s; 0.62 s]
4. If a Concert hall of size, 80' x 40' x 20', has plastered surface of absorption coefficient
0.15 and a capacity of an audience of 150 adults (each having an absorption of
4.7 ft 2 OWU), find reverberation time of the hall. [Ans. 1.34 s]
5. A Concert hall (10 m x 5 m x 4 m) has total area plastered with absorption coefficient
0.08. First its reverberation time is measured as such and then adding certain absorbing
material of area 60 m2, the reverberation time reduces to 1.45 s. Calculate (a) first
reverberation time (b) absorption coefficient of the material.
[Ans. (a) 1.84 s, (b) 0.08]
6. A Concert hall for music of dimensions, 40 m x 25 m x 8 m, has reverberation time of
2 second. Determine the total average absorption of all the surfaces.
[Ans. 648 m2 OWU]
7. A lecture room, with all the doors and windows closed and reverberation time 1.6 s,
has length, breadth, and height respectively 40', 25' and 15'. Twenty five per cent of
the room area has doors and windows of wood. If the absorption coefficient of wood
is 0.3, find that of the plastered surface. [Ans. 0.06]
8. A music hall of capacity 450 people measures 30 m x 15 m x 10 m and is made of
450 m2 plaster, 300 m2 of wood, 150 m2 of glass. Find its reverberation time. Given:
the absorption coefficient of (a) plaster = 0.06, (b) wood = 0.3, (c) glass = 0.025. And
each adult has absorption of 0.5 m2 OWU. [Ans. 2.11 s]

I Multiple Choice Questions

1. The basic factors to understand design of architectural structures are
(a) Flow of sound from source to receiver
(b) Reverberation
(c) Both of these
(d) None of these
2. In a lecture hall
(a) Reverberation is not desirable
(b) More the reverberation better it is
(c) Less the reverberation better it is
(d) Certain optimum reverberation is always needed
 Acoustics of Buildings 547
3. Reverberation time is time during which the intensity of sound falls
(a) To one-millionth of its maximum intensity
(b) By one-millionth of its maximum intensity
(c) To 60 dB
(d) None of these
4. Reverberation time (in second) of a broadcasting room should be
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) oo (d) None of these
5. Reverberation time (in second) of a concert hall should be
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 1.5 (d) 2
6. Reverberation time (in second) of an opera house should be
(a) 0 (b) 1.0
(c) 1.5 (d) 2.0
7. Reverberation time (in second) of a lecture room should be
(a) 0 (b) 1.0
(c) 1.5 (d) 2.0
8. Reverberation time (in second) of a dead room is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) oo
9. Reverberation time (in second) of open air space is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) oo
10. Absorption coefficient of open air space is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) oo (d) None of these
11. Absorption coefficient of air is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) oo (d) None of these
12. Absorption coefficient of a painted wall, as compared to a cemented wall, is
(a) Small (b) Large
(c) oo (d) None of these
13. Average total absorption of 1 sabin means that of
(a) 1 ft2 of open window (b) 1 m2 of open window
(c) 1 ft of open window (d) 1 m of open window
14. Doubling the volume of a hall would make its reverberation time
(a) More than double (b) Double
(c) Less than double (d) Unaltered
15. Sabine's reverberation formula is valid for absorption coefficient below
(a) 0.2
(b) 0.5
(c) 1
(d) More information is required to answer the question
548 Physics for Engineers

16. Eyring's reverberation formula is valid for absorption coefficient

(a) > 0.2 (b) > 0.5
(c) =1 (d) All values
17. The shape of an acoustical hall can be of the following type of a box:
(a) Spherical (b) Elliptical
(c) Rectangular (d) Triangular
18. With increase in the frequency of sound, the absorption coefficient of a material may
in general
(a) Increase (b) Decrease
(c) Remain unaltered (d) Increase as well as decrease
19. Making all dimensions of a hall double, would make its reverberation time
(a) double (b) > double
(c) < double (d) Remain unaltered
20. Zero of the dB scale corresponds to
(a) 10-12 W mm-2 (b) 10- 16 W cm-2
2
(c) 0 W mm- (d) 0 dB

Answers

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c)

7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (a)
13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (d)
19. (a) 20. (b)