Semantic roles of Adverbial Clauses 

all disjuncts always have commas. 

1. TIME Position: I/E F: Sentence Adjunct 
They relate the time of the situation in the subordinate clause to the time of the situation in the matrix clause. 
If it is TIME you can always use FOR to check. 
FINITE​:  
- TIME AFTER (the time in the matrix clause is subsequent to that of the adverbial clause) 
After: “I went to the cinema after we’d lunch” ; “After they saw the movie, they went back home”. 
Once: “Once you learn it, it becomes easier”. 
Since: “I study English since I was a child”. 
When (time + concession): “When the door was closed on her, she said ‘let me in!’” ; “They were gossiping 
when they should have been working”. 
Whenever: “Drop by whenever you get the chance”. 
Now (that) (time + reason): “we can meet now that I am free”. 
As soon as: “Call me as soon as you arrive”. 
Immediately (that) (means “as soon as”): “Immediately that you finish the project, you can start with the next 
one”. (with “that” is more formal, British) 
Directly (that) (means “as soon as”): “I came directly I heard the news” ; “Directly that I have money, I’ll go to 
buy a book”. 
The moment/minute (that) (means “as soon as”) - The action seems to be closer in time: “The moment that I 
have money, I’ll go to buy a book”. 
 
- SAME TIME (the time in the matrix clause is simultaneous with that of the adverbial clause) 
As (= the moment that): “as he came in, everybody came silent”. 
When. 
Whenever: “whenever I drop in on her, she’s reading” 
While (=whilst): “She was lying down while I was doing my homework” 
Whilst (more formal) - eg: for a journalist. 
Now (that) (time + reason). 
As long as: “I will continue playing as long as I live” (​for​ as long as I live) ; “you can stay as long as you want” ; 
“She has been on a diet as long as I know her” (for as long as…) = So long as: both clauses as long as and so 
long as must be durative, ie, the situations begin and end at the same time. ​F: Pred. A. 
 
- TIME BEFORE (the time in the matrix clause is previous to that of the adverbial clause) 
Before. 
By the time that. 
Till/Until = the situation in the matrix clause must be durative. It marks the time up to which the situation in the 
matrix clause applies. It could be a ​terminal point​ (with positive predications in the matrix clause) or 
commencement point​ (with negative predications in the matrix clause) ​F: Pred. A. 
 
No sooner (sub clause) … than (matrix clause) 
 
NON-FINITE​: 
- ING:  
after - before - once - till - until - when - whenever - while - whilst 
“While waiting for you, I saw a cat run over by a car” 
“When having a child you should be aware of vaccination” 
 
- ED: 
as soon as - once - till - until - when(ever) - whilst 
“As soon as he answered, he grabbed a pencil and notepad” 
 
- TO - INF: 
outcome​ of the situation (time + result) ​P: End 
“She grew to be absolutely proud of herself” 
“She left never to return” 
“I rushed to the door only to discover it was locked” 
These can be paraphrased by revising the relationship of subordination and using a when- or after- clause. (?) 
 
VERBLESS​: 
as soon as (available/ feasible/ necessary/ possible and other adjectives used predicatively that convey the 
modal meaning of possibility or necessity) 
once - till - until (acceptable in instructional language) 
when(ever) - while - whilst 
“When old, you’ve to be careful not to fall down” 
“The fruit will be left on the tree as long as possible” (as long as it is possible) 
“Hand in your work once finished” 
“When scared, do call me” 
 
 
2. PLACE P: Initial (F: sentence A) or End (F: Pred A) 
Where (specific) - Wherever (non-specific) 
The clause may indicate position or direction. 
Finite, non-finite -ed particle or verbless. 
“The dog follows him wherever he goes” 
 
Place + contrast: ​P: Initial 
“Where we saw only wilderness they saw abundant signs of life”. 
 
 
3. DIRECT CONDITION P: mainly Initial F: Sentence Adjunct 
FINITE​: 
The situation in the matrix clause is directly contingent on the situation in the subordinate clause. 
Assuming that (emphasises that sth may not be true): “assuming that you do well in the exam I’ll buy you a 
chocolate” ; “assuming that you have a place in university, how are you going to finance?”. 
Given that (sth that is certain to happen): “given that you have no money, I’ll buy you the phone” ; “given that 
you’re going out tonight, you’ll have to wash the dishes”. 
If (condition). 
In the event that: “In the event that the president dies in office, the vice president will replace him”. 
On (the) condition (that): “they spoke on condition that their names won’t be used in the article”. 
Supposing that (think that sth is true but there’s lack of proof or certain knowledge) “supposing that you won 
the lottery, what would you do with the money?”. 
 
# as long as ; provided that ; providing that ; so long as: “he is welcomed to come in provided that he behaves 
properly”. 
# : they mean IF and ONLY IF (one situation is necessary condition for another as an exception). They 
introduce a ​positive condition​ together with the idea of ​exception​. ​F: Content Disjunct 
They emphasise the importance of the condition being fulfilled used often when negotiating or making a deal. 
 
“Unless” (a menos que) introduces a ​negative condition​; it introduces the only circumstance in which an event 
you are mentioning will not take place or in which a statement you are mentioning is not true. There’s greater 
focus on the condition as an ​exception​, the clause is a content disjunct. 
There are contexts in which the unless-clause ​cannot occur​ because it is not used for imaginary events. It can 
only be used instead of ​“if...not”​ when there is an idea of ending and intention or situation that already exists. 
Wrong: “I’ll feel much happier unless he comes with us” ; “unless you had studied hard, you’d have failed the 
exam”. Right: “I’ll feel much happier if he doesn’t come with us” ; “If you hadn’t studied hard, you’d have failed 
the exam”. 
Sometimes we use ​unless = except if​ (a situation that seems unlikely): “Mother will have our telegram now 
unless she isn’t at home today” = it seems unlikely that she isn’t at home today because she is almost certainly 
there. 
Examples with unless: “I’ll not go to the cinema with you unless you promise to stay quite” ; “you’ll not pass the 
exam unless you study”. 
 
“only if” is used to say that one thing will not happen unless another thing happens. “I will come only if nothing 
is said to the press”. 
 
“In case”: the meaning is different according to Br E or Am E. 
Br E: it means “if it should happen that” - implies future reference. “I’ll let you know in case they come here”. 
Am E: it means “on condition that”. “The verb is plural in case the subject is plural”. 
 
Clauses of condition and exception (as long as, so long as, provided, providing or unless) are stance 
adverbials that comment on the ​content​ of the message. 
 
NON-FINITE​: 
If - unless: “if known, such facts have been reported”. 
 
to-inf clauses introduce clauses that combine condition and purpose/reason: “You must be strong to lift that 
weight” ; “you’d be a fool not to accept the scholarship” ; “without you to supplement my income I wouldn’t be 
able to manage”. 
 
VERBLESS: 
if - unless - with - without 
“With them on our side we are secure”. 
 
 
4. INDIRECT CONDITION P: I/E F: Stance Adverbials that comment on the style of the message 
The condition is not related to the situation in the matrix clause. 
They tend to admit non-assertive items. 
They may have S-op inversion without a subordinator if the operator is WERE/SHOULD/HAD. 
“His style is florid, if that’s the right word” ; “if you’re going my way, I need a lift”. 
In case (si acaso) : “In case you didn’t hear the news, there’s a bus strike”. 
 
 
5. CONCESSION P: Initial 
They indicate that the situation in the matrix clause is contrary to what one might expect in view of the 
situation in the subordinate clause. The matrix clause is surprising in the light of what is said in the subordinate 
clause. 
 
FINITE: 
Although (more formal) - though (more informal): “though I failed, I wouldn’t abandon my goal” = here ​fronting 
of “though”​ is ​optional​. You can use the Operator and say “Fail though I ​did​, ...” ; “Strange though it may 
seem, i like household”: “Though it seems strange” ; “I would like to go out although it is raining”. 
 
If the subordinator is AS the ​predication ​must​ be fronted: “naked as I was, I braved the storm” ; “writing 
hurriedly as she was, she made few spelling mistakes” (although she was writing hurriedly...). 
 
If the subordinator is THAT the ​Cs​ (noun or adjective) ​must​ be fronted: “Poor that they were, they gave money 
to charity”. 
 
When talking about a strong feeling or desire, you can use MUCH AS in front position: “Much as I like Venice, I 
couldn’t live there” (although I admire Venice vey much, I couldn’t live there). 
 
When: “How can you say that you don’t like sth when you’ve never even tried it” ; “they were talking when 
they should have been working”. 
 
While and Whereas = can be replaced by Although - “Whereas (although) John had more enemies than 
friends, his brother was extremely popular” ; “whereas there are many good reasons to switch to plan B, we 
must stick to plan A as long as it is possible”. 
 
NON-FINITE:  
Although - though - while - whilst 
“Although well protected, the president was murdered” ; “Although raining, she was outside”. 
 
VERBLESS: 
“Although in poor health, she continued to carry out her duties” ; “Although very busy, she answered the 
phone”. 
 
 
6. CONDITION AND CONCESSION P: I/E F: Sentence Adjunct 
They imply that one situation would not affect another. 
FINITE:  
Even if (leaves open the proposition in the sub clause ; it suggests that a condition may have an unlikely result) 
“I’ll go even if you forbid me to” ; “even if she survives, she’ll never fully recover” ; “even if you take a taxi, 
you’ll miss your train”. 
Even though (accepts the proposition in the sub clause as true ; it assumes that the following statement is 
known to be true) “Even though you dislike ancient monuments this castle is worth to visit” ; “even though he 
left school at 16, he managed to be Prime Minister”. 
If (when it means even if or even though) “I’ll do it if it kills me” (even if/even though it kills me). 
 
6.1. ALTERNATIVE CONDITIONAL CONCESSIVE CLAUSES P: I/E F: Sentence Adjunct 
They indicate a choice between two (or more) conditions in sharp opposition. 
FINITE: 
Whether… or (whether) / whether or not: “Whether you like it or not, you’re still going to your grandma’s”. 
BE CAREFUL: “I don’t know <whether you like it or not> = NOMINAL CLAUSE. 
It doesn’t matter whether… P: Initial 
No matter whether… P: E/I 
 
NON-FINITE: 
“Whether working or playing, she’s always competitive” ; “whether to criticize it or praise it, the film is worth to 
see”. 
 
VERBLESS: 
with… or without… / NO or (no) NP 
“With or without your help, I will do it” ; “We will buy the house, bungalow or no bungalow” ; “rain or shine…” ; 
“wind or rain...” ; “we are going to the park wind or rain” (no matter whether it winds or rains) ; “friend or foe…”. 
 
6.2. UNIVERSAL CONDITIONAL-CONCESSIVE CLAUSES P: I/E F: Sentence Adjunct 
They indicate a free choice from any number of conditions. 
-wh words that combine with -ever (must have initial position) // NOT WHEREVER (IT IS ADV OF PLACE) 
“Whatever your opinion is, I’ll go” ; “Whatever you do, she will fail”. 
Verbless: “However great the pitfalls, we must do our best to succeed” = subordinate verbless adverbial 
universal conditional-concessive clause. 
No matter + wh element. 
 
 
7. CONTRAST P: Initial (tendency) / E F: Content Disjunct 
They convey a contrast between two situations and involve the comparison of objects or situations that are 
dissimilar (show difference). 
whereas - while - whilst (the subordinators don’t have a function on their own) 
“I like travelling my plane, whereas my husband doesn’t” ; “I like watching TV while you like reading” ; “I ate a 
large plate of food whereas you ate a sandwich” ; “It is easy for an expert whilst it is dangerous for a worker” 
(sub finite adv contrast clause). 
 
 
8. CONTINGENCY P: Initial F: Sentence Adjunct 
Sp: SIEMPRE QUE 
They denote recurrent or habitual contingency expressed in clauses of: 
1. time ( = in circumstances when) “Whenever there’s smoke, there’s a fire” ; “once you have made a 
promise, you must keep it” ; “whenever there’s music, people will often dance”. 
 2. place ( = in circumstances where) “Wherever children are involved, divorces are particularly 
unpleasant” ; “if you know where they live, you can drop in for a visit” ; “he drove the car wherever he 
wanted to”. BE CAREFUL NOT TO CONFUSE ADV OF PLACE. 
3. condition: “If known, such facts have been reported” (non finite) ; “if you know the truth, you should 
make it known”. 
 
NON-FINITE: 
ing: “Driving at high speed, one may well miss direction signals” (if you drive / when you drive). 
ed: “Taken out of context, a sentence can be ambiguous” (if/when it is taken out…). 
 
VERBLESS: 
“Once ready, put it in the oven” ; “Fresh from the oven, rolls are delicious”. 
 
 
9. EXCEPTION P: End F: Content Disjunct 
FINITE: 
It is used to give the reason why sth was not done or did not happened. 
except that - excepting that - except (informal) : SÓLO QUE / SI NO FUERA PORQUE. 
They can be replaced by BUT or by longer prep phrases followed by appositive clauses “except for the fact 
that ; apart from the fact that”. 
“The exam went pretty well except that I missed the final question”. 
except for the fact that (longer prep phrases) 
apart from the fact that (longer prep phrases) 
but 
“Nothing else mattered <except that she was alive>” sub clause 
<...> except for <the fact that she was alive>” NP(det-head-Complement {sub finite that-nominal clause}) 
2 coordinated clauses 
But: “I agree with you BUT you’ve one or two details wrong” 2 coordinated clauses 
Save that : “I agree with you <save that you’ve one or two details wrong>” sub clause 
But that: “She would have screamed but that her cries would alert the guards”. 
 
With SAVE THAT and BUT THAT the matrix clause must precede and be negative, they take PUTATIVE 
SHOULD (can’t omit it) in Br E and presents subjunctive in Am E. 
“Nothing would satisfy the child but that I SHOULD place her on my lap” (precedes a negative generally) 
 
Only (informal) = the only thing is. “I would have asked you, only my mother told me not to” ; “I would offer to 
babysit only, I’m going out myself”. 
 
NON-FINITE: 
To-inf 
BUT is used to introduce the only factor that causes a particular thing not to be completely true. Sp A NO SER 
POR QUE. It normally has its own subject introduced by FOR : BUT FOR (this construction is more common 
than but that). 
“Nothing would satisfy the child but for me to place her on my lap” ; “He had no choice but for me to sign the 
divorce” ; “but for this interruption, the meeting would have finished earlier”. 
 
10. REASON 
10.1. DIRECT REASON 
The situation in the sub clause precedes in time that of the matrix clause. 
- Because / because of + NP ​P: End F: Predication Adjunct 
“The flowers are growing because I fertilised them” ; “she passed the exam because I explained the subject to 
her”. 
- Because / since ​P: Initial 
“Because the flowers were dry she watered them” ; “Since he is not interested in classical music he decided 
not to go to the concert” ; “Since I am going to the gym I expect to lose weight”. 
- For ​P: End or used sometimes in new sentences or at the beginning 
“Much has been written about psychic phenomena for they pose fascinating problems that have yet to be 
resolved” ; “she passed the exam for I explained the subject to her”. 
- As - in case - in that - since - that - while 
With AS the predication may optionally be fronted: “Writing hurriedly as she was, she made a few spelling 
mistakes” ; “as she was writing hurriedly, she made a few spelling mistakes”. 
The Cs may optionally be fronted: “tired as they were, they went to bed as soon as they came back”. 
 
IN CASE ​P: End F: Predication Adjunct 
reason + precaution : POR SI / CASO QUE 
“You should ensure your house in case it is a fire” ; “take your umbrella in case it rains” ; “take John’s address 
with you in case you have time to visit him while you are in London” ; “better chain up the dog in case it bites”. 
 
IN CASE ​≠ IF: we use in case to talk about precautions, things we do in advance, in order to be safe or ready if 
there is a problem later. The order of events is not the same with in case and if: “You should insure your house 
in case there is a fire” PRECAUTION different from “you should call 911 if there is a fire” CONSEQUENCE. You 
ensure your house before the fire, but you call 911 after the fire has broken out.  
In sentences about the ​past​, IN CASE is often followed by SHOULD: “I took a couple of notebooks in case I 
should have time to read them”. 
Compare if and in case in Br English: 
“I’ll draw some money out of the bank if I need it” - at the time when I need it. 
“I’ll draw some money out of the bank in case I need it” - I draw it bc I might need it later. 
 
IN THAT ​F: Predication Adjunct 
It combines reason and point of view (= en tanto). 
“Let’s not make a sequel of this film in that the first one was not widely accepted”. 
“The new system is better in that it provides faster access to the Internet”. 
 
THAT   
The matrix clause is normally a negative exclamation or a rhetorical question. 
“Am I a cow that you should expect me to eat grass?” (rhetorical question). 
“I’m not a cow that you should expect me to eat grass” (negative exclamation). 
“I put my foot into it. Fool that I am”. 
 
NOW THAT 
“My elder son and I are getting along better now that he’s getting ready to go to college”. 
“Now that she could drive, she felt independent”. ​F: when it is initial in Reason, the F is Content Disjunct 
SEEING THAT ​F: Content Disjunct 
“Seeing that it’s only three, we should be able to finish this before we leave today”. 
“Seeing that we’ve already miss the bus, I called my dad to take us there”. 
It is the same as SEEING AS: “Seeing as we’re running late, we’ve to take a taxi”. 
 
INASMUCH AS: “In view of the fact that orders shall be  
 
LEST ​F: Pred Adjunct 
(= in case) 
“They evacuated the area lest war should break down”. 
 
WHILE ​F: Content Disjunct 
It combines time with reason. 
“While you’re in the kitchen, bring me another drink”. 
 
NON-FINITE: 
-ing participle: “Knowing their tastes, she was able to bring a gift that they would like” (since she knew their…). 
“Seeing an accident ahead, I stopped my car” (seeing that there was an accident ahead…). 
-to-infinitive: “He wept to see that sight” (because she wanted to see... ?) 
 
IF ONLY: “aunque más no sea para” 
Is used to introduce what you think is a fairly good reason for doing sth, although you realise it may not be a 
very good one. It means “EVEN IF THE ONLY REASON IS”. 
“I’ll have a glass myself, if only to stop you from drinking it all”. 
 
VERBLESS: 
Subject introduced by WITH: to mention only one circumstance. 
S introduced by WHAT WITH: to mention one or more circumstances of an unspecified set. 
“What with overwork and (with) undernourishment, he fell ill”. 
“The police are having a different time, what with all the drugs and violence on our street”. 
 
 
10.2. INDIRECT REASON F: Content Disjunct 
The reason is not related to the situation in the matrix clause but is a motivation for the implicit speech act of 
utterance. It represents the speaker’s motivation for assertion (to explain how it is that you come to know sth). 
 
AS 
“As you are in charge, where are the files on the new project?”. 
 
AS LONG AS 
“As long as you are here, we might as well talk about your last game”. 
 
BECAUSE 
“I have nothing in my bank account, because I checked this morning”. 
 
 
FOR 
“Percy is in Washington, for he phoned me from there”. 
 
SINCE 
“What does this word mean, since you are so clever?”. 
 
NOW THAT 
Combines reason with temporal meaning, in present or past time. It may be used to indicate simultaneity. It is 
used when something is the case because of a new situation. 
“We are happy now that everybody is present”. 
“Now that she could drive she felt independent”. 
 
 
12. PURPOSE P: Initial/End F: Initial: Sentence Adj / End: Predication Adj 
These clauses are ​putative​, ie, the result is yet to be achieved. It is a desire or aimed at result. Therefore, they 
generally take a ​modal​. 
 
FINITE: 
IF + BE (GOING) TO 
“If I am to be there on time, I’d better leave at once”. 
“If I am to travel, I’d better save money”. 
 
IN ORDER THAT 
“Schools were closed early in order that students reach home before the storm”. 
 
SO (THAT) 
“I’ll go by car so that I can take more luggage”. 
 
THAT 
“Give us strength that we may stand against them”. 
 
+ (These clauses introduce negative purpose and therefore may take non-assertive forms). 
 
+ FOR FEAR THAT 
To avoid the danger of sth happening. 
“She ran away for fear that he would kill her”. 
 
+ IN CASE (Br) - REPLACED BY SO OR LEST in Am 
Br: “Go quietly in case anyone hears you”. (en caso de que alguien te vea) 
US: “Go quietly so no one can hear you”. (para que nadie te vea) 
US: “Go quietly lest anyone hear you”. 
“He left earlier in case he missed the last train”. 
“She turned her face lest he should see the tears”. 
 
+ IN ORDER THAT… NOT…  
“Write a will in order that you do not die without providing for your family”. 
+ LEST 
(archaic in Br E - common in Am E) examples before 
 
NON-FINITE 
to-infinitive 
They can have an introduced subject expressed by FOR 
They could have a subordinator (in order (not) or so as (not)) or not. 
“I left the door open for me to hear the baby”. 
“In order for the company to be profitable, sells should be raised by at least 60%” 
 
 
13. RESULT P: End F: Content Disjunct 
These clauses are factual, ie, the result is achieved. They take an indicative verb. 
 
FINITE: 
SO THAT 
“She had bought winter clothes, so that she wasn’t cold”. 
“The birds return every year around March, so that April is a good time to see them”. 
“I went to swim twice a week so that I swam like a professional at the end of the year”. 
“I saw falling stars, so that I make a wish”. 
 
SO (formal) 
“The exchange rate for the dollar went up, so people rushed to buy an amount”. 
 
SUCH THAT 
It combines result with manner (de modo tal que) 
“The two halves of the human brain behave independently, such that each half can be taught opposite 
solutions to simple problems”. 
 
THAT 
Used in negative (they are not destitute (indigentes) that they need your help) or interrogative (what have I 
done that you insult me?) 
 
UNTIL 
combines result and time 
“They ridiculed him until she felt obligated to come to his aid”. 
“She kept on screaming until her mum gave her a toy”. 
 
See the difference between purpose and result in the photocopy page 6. 
 
NON-FINITE 
ing participle (=and) 
“He died, living three fatherless children”. 
“The Romans arrived to Great Britain, bringing the French culture”. 
 
 
14. MANNER P: I/E F: Pred Adjunct 
When the verb is dynamic there is a blend with manner. 
(If you can add BY, then it is manner) 
 
FINITE: 
AS (in a way that is similar to the way that) 
The subordinator can be intensified by “just” or “exactly”. 
“I locked the door just as you asked me to to”. 
“He plays tennis well, as his grandfather used to when he was his age”. 
Could have S-V inversion in final position or mid-position: 
“The present owner is a keen collector, as were several of his ancestors”. 
“He believed, as did all his family, that the king was their supreme lord”. 
 
AS...SO + matrix in literary style. 
The clause expresses an analogy. 
 
HOW 
“You can live your life how you want”. 
 
LIKE (informal Am E) 
“I didn’t lie you told me”. 
“If I do like you say”. 
 
IN (THE/ANY) WAY (THAT) 
“This cake is cooked in the way I like”. 
 
NON-FINITE: 
ed part introduced by AS 
“He proceeded as instructed in the manual”. 
ing part 
“He repaired the engine, carefully connecting the served wires”. 
 
VERBLESS: 
“He sauntered down the lane, (with) his hands in his pockets”. 
“She blushed at my comment, eyes down to the floor”. 
 
 
15. COMPARISON P: End F: Pred Adjunct 
FINITE: 
AS IF and AS THOUGH with no difference in meaning 
“She buys clothes as if she is rich” - she is rich 
“She buys clothes as if she was rich” - might be 
“She buys clothes as if she were rich” - NOT rich 
“She speaks as if she were the boss”. 
“He talks to the child as though he were imbecile”. 
We use the past after as if/as though to say how sth appears now has not much with reality. 
But we use the present (including pr perfect) after as if/as though to describe how things seem or appear when 
there’s a possibility that the appearance reflects sth real. 
“She sounds as if he knows what he’s talking about”. 
“You look as though you haven’t eaten for days”. 
 
NON-FINITE: 
AS IF AS THOUGH 
“She stood up as if to indicate that the interview was over”. 
“She moved her lips as if to smile”. 
“She stares hard to the parces as though trying to imagine what is contains”. 
 
VERBLESS: 
AS IF AS THOUGH 
“He shivered as though with cold” 
 
 
16. PROPORTION P​: Initial/end ​F​: Sentence Adjunct.  
 
These clauses involve a kind of comparison. They express a proportionality or equivalence of tendency or 
degree btw two situations.  
a)Finite:  
➔ AS….SO (in the Matrix cl, it’s formal and optional). “As he grew disheartened (so) his work deteriorated”. 
➔ THE+comparative …. THE+comparative. “The more you spend, the poorer you become”; “The more she 
thought about it, the less she liked it”. The noncorrelative THE is also used in the same sense: “She 
liked it less, the more she thought about it”. (Here the subordinate clause is the first one) 
 
 
17. EXTENT OR DEGREE P:​ Initial/end ​F​: Sentence adjunct.  
 
INASMUCH AS (formal) Sp: en tanto y en cuanto/hasta donde. “His duty is to assist the aggrieved person 
inasmuch as he is able”. “The outcome of this was important inasmuch as it showed just what human beings 
were capable of”.  
IN SO FAR AS (in the view of that... / to the extent or degree that…) “We agreed with the lecturer only insofar as 
she condemned the government’s domestic policy”. (=only to the extent that he condemned…). 
IN SO FAR THAT (formal and rare)  
 
These subordinators are used to to introduce a clause in which you mention sth that is ​relevant​ to the truth of 
the ​preceding​ or ​following ​statement, for example sth that gives its ​extent. ​(meaning: the size or scale of sth).   
 
 
18. PREFERENCE P​: Initial/end ​ F:​ Sentence adjunct. 
 
The matrix cl expresses the subject’s preference and the sub cl expresses the rejected alternative, therefore it 
takes non-assertive items.  
 a) They are usually ​non-finite bare infinitive​ with or without expressed subject. RATHER THAN /SOONER 
THAN. “Rather than ever admit that he has any pain at all, he’ll suffer for weeks”. “Rather than go there 
by air, I’d take the slowest train”. “They’ll flight to the finish sooner than surrender”.  
b) Finite (rare and formal): “Rather than she should feel lonely, her friends arranged to take her with them 
on the trip”. With ​PUTATIVE SHOULD. ​The preference construction extends the notion of priority in 
time to the notion of priority in choice. Therefore we use other temporal expressions: ​BEFORE. “​He’d 
sit alone in the dark before he’d watch television”. (he prefers to sit alone in the dark). “They would 
starve before they would surrender unconditionally”. 
 
SUPPLEMENTIVE ADV CLAUSES. 
Adv participle and verbless clauses without a subordinator are supplementive clauses; they do not signal 
specific logical relationships but such relationship are generally clear from the context.  
According to context, we may wish to imply temporal, conditional, causal, concessive, or circumstantial 
relationships. In short, the supplementive cl implies an accompanying circumstance to the situation described 
in the matrix clause.  
- Reaching the river,​ we pitched camp for the night. (when we reached the river..) 
- Julia, ​being a nun, s​ pent much of her time in prayer and meditation. (since she was a nun…) 
- Using a sharp axe, G ​ ilbert fought his way into the building. (by using a sharp axe..)  
 
COMMENT CLAUSES. P:​ Initial/ mid/ end.  
  
They are parenthetical disjuncts. They generally have a separate tone unit and are marked prosodically by 
increased speed and lowered prominence. For ex: Kingston, / as you probably know, / is the capital of 
Jamaica. 
Types:  
a) Like the matrix of a main clause. (these are the most important).​ It is a Stance adverbial that comments 
on the style of the message.​ Ex. “He never actually took the money, I believe.” They generally contain a 
transitive verb or an adj which elsewhere is followed by a nominal that-cl as complementation. Ex. “He 
should have good qualifications, that’s important”. 
b) Like an adverbial finite cl (introduced by AS).​ It is a Stance adverbial that comments on the style of the 
message.​ Ex. “I’m a pacifist, as you know”. 
c) Like a nominal relative cl (introduced by WHAT).​ It is a CONJUNCT or linking adverbial​. EX. “What’s 
more, we lost all our belongings”. “What is even more remarkable, he manages to inspire confidence in 
the most suspicious people”. 
d) Like a to-infinitive cl. ​It is a Stance adverbial that comments on the style of the message. ​EX. “I’m not 
sure what to do, to be honest” “I was lying to you, to tell you the truth”. 
e) Like an -ing participle cl. ​It is a Stance adverbial that comments on the style of the message. ​EX. 
“Putting it at its lowest term, it has little market value”.  
f) Like an -ed participle cl. ​It is a Stance adverbial that comments on the style of the message ​EX. “Stated 
bluntly, he had no chance of winning”. 
 
SENTENTIAL RELATIVE CLAUSES. 
 
They are closely related to comment cl of types b) (as you know..) and c) (what’s more surprising). The 
sentential relative cl refers back to the predicate or predication of a cl (*), or to a whole cl or sentence, or even 
to a series of sentences.  
 - “They say he plays truant, which he doesn’t”. (*) 
- “He walks for an hour each morning, which would bore me”. (*) 
 
They are separated by intonation or ​punctuation​ from their antecedent and are commonly introduced by the 
relative pronoun ​which​.  
 
COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.  
In a comparative construction, a proposition expressed in the matrix cl is compared with a proposition 
expressed in the sub cl. Words that are repeated in both clauses may be omitted in the sub cl. (​ellipsis​)
The comparison is with respect to some ​standard of comparison ​which involves a scale without commitment 
to absolute values, health in (1) “Jane is as healthy as her sister” and (2) “Jane is healthier than her sister”.  
- The clause element that specifies the standard of comparison and is the hinge btw the matrix cl and 
the comparative cl is called the ​comparative element (COMP element)​, healthy in 1 and healthier in 2. 
- The basis of comparison is expressed in the comparative cl, in the example it’s Jane’s sister.  
- The COMP element can be any of the cl elements apart from the verb (a subject, direct object, indirect 
object, subject complement, object complement, adverbial, prep complement).  
- The comparative cl functions as the ​complement of the COMP element.  
- The modifying sequence can contain a singular gradable noun as head; nouns such as an accident - a 
baby - a bore - a brute - a bully - a coward - a darling - a devil - a diplomat - an expert - a 
fool - a (good) friend - (a hell of) a fool - a liar - a miser - a nuisance - a politician - a problem - a show off 
-a scholar - a silly - a snob - a success - a threat - a worry. EX. “He’s more of a fool (the COMP element) 
than i thought he was” (the comparative cl that complements the comp element) . 
 
Sometimes we have a non-clausal comparison: ex. “He weighs more than 200 pounds”. (meaning over) or a 
quasi-coordinative type of comparison: ex. “I was more angry than frightened”. We have to say that they’re not 
comparative cl because they don’t have a verb.  
 
COMPARISON. 
1) of equivalence → as..as/not as/so.. <as 
2) of non-equivalence; to a higher degree (more/ -er (bigger) … than) and to a lower degree (less..than) 
3) of sufficiency → enough (of a N) … to “Good enough to buy as a present”. 
4) of excess → too (much of a N)... to “Too old to do any work” 
 
COMPARATIVE CLAUSES OF DEGREE (in the matrix cl) AND RESULT (in the sub cl) 
SO + ADJ, VERB, ADV + THAT 
SUCH + NOUN + THAT 
These correlatives introduce constructions that combine the notion of sufficiency or excess with that of result. 
They express a high degree in the matrix cl and the sub cl conveys a notion of result.  
- SO is an adverb premodifier of an adjective or adverb. EX. “I so enjoyed it that I’m determined to go 
again”. (I so much enjoyed it) SO + verb 
- SUCH is a predeterminer. EX. “There was such a crowd that we couldn’t see a thing”. (There was such 
a large crowd) SUCH + noun that is not premodified. 
SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN TEMPORAL CLAUSES. 
 
SINCE. 
 
A temporal since-clause generally requires the present perfect in the matrix clause when the whole 
construction refers to a STRETCH OF TIME UP TO (and potentially including) the present 
Examples: 
I have lost ten pounds since I started swimming. (informal lost) 
 
Matrix cl: ​present perfect or simple past ​Sub cl:​ simple past. 
 
EXCEPTIONS TO THE GENERAL RULE FOR MATRIX CLAUSES. 
 
THE VERB IN THE SINCE-CL. 
 
When the whole construction refers to a stretch of time up to (and potentially including) the present, the 
general rule is that the simple past is used when the clause refers to a point of time marking the beginning of 
the situation in the matrix clause and the present perfect is used when the clause refers to a period of time 
lasting to the present. 
- I’ve known him since I’ve lived in this street. ( stretch)  
- I’ve known him since we were children.(point)  
 
Point of time​ marking the beginning of the situation referred to in the matrix cl. (matrix: present perfect- sub: 
simple past) EX. She has been talking since she was one year old.​ IT + be + time expression​: It’s been a long 
time since I last saw Gerald. 
 
Period of time​ lasting to the present. (matrix: present perfect-sub: present perfect). EX. Max has been tense 
since he’s been taking drugs. ​IT + be + time expression​ (when there is no explicit indication of point of time 
such as last) It’s been a long time since I’ve seen Gerald. 
 
With an ​AFTER ​or ​BEFORE​ clause that refers to a sequence of two past events, the matrix clause is simple 
past and the subordinate clause is past perfect or simple past. 
- Simple past→ mere sequence 
EX.After he returned from work his wife cooked dinner. The bus started (just) before I reached the 
bus-stop 
- Past perfect→ completion of the action 
 
With an AFTER clause: the main verb took place against the background of a completed action 
EX.After he had returned from work his wife cooked dinner. After she had done the washing she had a cup of 
tea. 
With a BEFORE clause: the main verb took place against the background of a non-completed action. It often 
implies that that the intention was to complete it earlier, or that it was unlikely. 
EX. The bus started before I had reached the bus-stop. The post arrived before he’d got dressed. 
 
Non-assertive items in before-clauses​ relate to matters unfulfilled in respect of the matrix clause. 
EX. I spoke to them before I heard any gossip about them. Sally stopped Ted before he had a chance to reply. 
=>Ted did not have a chance to reply 
 
 
 
WHEN  
 
with durative verbs in the subordinate clause 
Sub. cl. ​simple past ​Matrix cl.​ simple past (the one event follows immediately on the 
other in sequence)  
EX. They walked out when I gave the lecture. I.E. as soon as I started giving the lecture or during the time of 
my lecture. 
 
Sub. cl.​ past perfect ​Matrix clause​ simple past (completion of the action) 
EX. They walked out when I had given my lecture. (after the lecture was over)  
 
Sub. cl​. past progressive ​Matrix cl. ​simple past 
EX. They walked out when I was giving my lecture. 
The sequence implies simultaneity rather than successivity of events. 
 
with punctual verbs in the subordinate clause 
The sequence implies simultaneity rather than successivity of events if the VP in the matrix clause is stative or 
progressive in aspect.. 
EX. When Paul returned home the children were asleep. 
EX. When Paul returned home the children were using his computer. 
 
The sequential meaning of WHEN, AFTER and WHENEVER, induce an implication of cause when the two 
clauses are non-durative. 
EX. She was shocked when she heard his story. (the story shocked her). 
EX. When(ever) I cry my eyes get puffy. 
EX. He felt better after he had a short nap. (his health or mood improved bc of the nap) 
 
Several temporal subordinators may have primarily a place meaning in descriptions of scenes, when scenes 
are described dynamically in terms of movement from one place to another. 
 
EX. Take the right fork when the road splits into two. 
EX. The river continues winding until it reaches a large lake. 
EX. The building becomes narrower as it rises higher. 
EX. The road stops just after it goes under a bridge. 
EX. Once the mountains rise above the snow line, vegetation is sparse. 
 
SEQUENCE OF SENTENCES IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.  
 
 
 
 
Type  Kind of Condition  Meaning/Use  Contidional  Matrix CL. 
CL 

0  -Completely open.  - To talk about a situation  -Present  -Present. 

  (true)  which exists/existed.   -Past  -Past. 
EX. If you mix oil  - An established fact/a 
and water, oil floats  general rule. 
on water.   -The relation is cause and 
If she called  effect. 
yesterday, I was  -If=whenever, in that case. 
out.   -The condition can be true at 
If that was what he  any time. 
told you, he was  -Use: 
telling lies.   ➔ Habits. 
If the wind blows  ➔ Rules. 
from the north, this  ➔ General truths 
room is very cold.   ➔ Typical patterns 
➔ Correlations 

0   -Neutral real factual        

1  -Open (the cl does  -To talk about a situation  -Present  -Present 

  not specify whether  which may exist in the future.  (simple,  modal. (will, 
EX. If you put the  the condition is  -To talk about future plans or  progressive  shall, can, 
baby down she will  fulfilled or not). (sth  contingencies.  and perfect)  may, could, 
scream.  possible) -Sth quite likely to happen in  -Subjunctive  should..). 
If he comes I’ll    the future, ie. the condition  (used instead  -Imperative.  
speak to him.     will possibly/probably be  of the normal 
If you should hear  -Predictive   fulfilled.  present tense 
news of them,  -Use:   in very formal, 
please let me know.   ➔ Future plans.  legal, or 
➔ Real possibilities.  quasi-legal 
➔ Postponing events.  contexts)  
➔ Steps in an argument. 
➔ Points in a procedure. 
➔ Predictable 
consequences. 
➔ Instructions. 

2  -Closed real  -To talk about a situation  -Hypothetical  -Past modal. 

  (specify that the  which you know does not  past. about 
  condition is not  exist.  the present  
  fulfilled).  -Predicting a likely result in 
EX. If Tom sent that  Non-factual  the future (if the condition is 
letter he would feel  (hypothetical)  fulfilled). 
much better.  Imaginative.  -To talk about unlikely, yet 
If he changed his    possible events. 
opinions, he would  a)  -Imagining the present or 
be a more likeable  -Improbable future:  future to be different.  
person.   the condition is  -Use:  
If you should  unlikely to be  ➔ Whishes. 
refuse, the manager  fulfilled. It refers to  ➔ Imaginary future 
would have to call  a future condition  situations. 
Jones.  that will not be  ➔ Alternative potential 
fulfilled.   outcomes. 
➔ Remote possibilities. 
 ➔ Willingness.  

2b  -Unreal now. It  -To talk about sth possible  -Hypothetical  -Past modal. 
  refers to a present  but unlikely, unreal, or untrue.   past. about 
EX. He would sing  condition that is not  the present  
that song if he  fulfilled. 
knew the words. 
If we had enough 
money, we could 
buy a tape 
recorded. 
The would be here 
with us if they had 
the time.  
If you were not 
making so much 
noise, I could 
concentrate. 

3  -Counterfactual.  -To talk about an unreal  -Hypothetical  -Past perfect. 

  -Rejected.  situation completely in the  past perfect.  -Modal. 
  It refers to a past  past, imagining the 
  condition which  impossible.  
  was not and will  -Past non-factual, a mere 
  never be fulfilled.  hypothesis.  
EX. Tom could have  (the condition has  -Use:  
done it if he had  not been fulfilled).  ➔ For presenting the 
tried.     negative of what had 
If you had listened  happened. 
to me you wouldn’t  ➔ alternative past 
have made so many  scenarios. 
mistakes.  ➔ excuses. 
If only somebody  ➔ regrets. 
had told us, we  ➔ blame for past events. 
could have warned 
you.  
 
MIXED CONDITIONALS. 
 
They are of type 2 and 3 generally. 
EX. If i had been more practical (type 2), I would have more money. (type 3) 
If I were rich, I wouldn’t have had to ask. 
If I hadn’t move here, I would have been living in Italy.