31

FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

In its most general expression, the FACTS concept is based on

the substantial incorporation of power electronic devices and methods

into the high-voltage side of the network, to make it electronically

controllable (IEEE/CIGRE, 1995).

Many of the ideas upon which the foundation of FACTS rests

evolved over a period of many decades. Nevertheless, FACTS, an

integrated philosophy, is a novel concept that was brought to fruition

during the 1980‘s at the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), the

utility arm of North American utilities [39]. FACTS looks at the ways of

capitalizing on many breakthroughs taking place in the area of high-

voltage and high current power electronics, aiming at increasing the

control of power flows in the high voltage side of the network during

both steady-state and transient conditions.

Power electronic devices have had a revolutionary impact on the

electric power systems around the world. The availability and

application of thyristors has resulted in a new breed of thyristor-based

fast operating devices devised for control and switching operations.

This chapter deals with basic operating principles of FACTS devices

and provides detailed discussions about the structure, operation, and

modeling of the SVC, TCSC, STATCOM and the UPFC.

 32

3.2 TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS:

FACTS controllers can be broadly divided into four categories,

which include series controllers, shunt controllers, combined series-

series controllers, and combined series-shunt controllers. Their

operation and usage are discussed below.

3.2.1 PRINCIPLE OF THE SERIES CONTROLLERS:

A series controller may be regarded as variable reactive or

capacitive impedance whose value is adjusted to damp various

oscillations that can take place in the system. This is achieved by

injecting an appropriate voltage phasor in series with the line and this

voltage phasor can be viewed as the voltage across an impedance in

series with the line. If the line voltage is in phase quadrature with the

line current, the series controller absorbs or produces reactive power,

while if it is not, the controllers absorb or generate real and reactive

power. Examples of such controllers are Static Synchronous Series

Compensator (SSSC), Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC),

Thyristor-Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR), to cite a few. They can be

effectively used to control current and power flow in the system and to

damp oscillations of the system.

3.2.2 PRINCIPLE OF THE SHUNT CONTROLLERS:

Shunt controllers are similar to the series controllers the

difference being that they inject current into the system at the point

where they are connected. A variable shunt impedance connected to a

line causes a variable current flow by injecting a current into the

system. If the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line

 33

voltage, the controller adjusts reactive power while if the current is not

in phase quadrature, the controller adjusts real power. Examples of

such systems are Static Synchronous Generator (SSG), Static Var

Compensator (SVC). They can be used as a good way to control the

voltage in and around the point of connection by injecting active or

reactive current into the system.

3.2.3 PRINCIPLE OF THE COMBINED SERIES – SERIES

CONTROLLERS:

A combined series-series controller may have two

configurations. One configuration consists of series controllers

operating in a coordinated manner in a multi line transmission

system. The other configuration provides independent reactive power

control for each line of a multi line transmission system and, at the

same time, facilitates real power transfer through the power link. An

example of this type of controller is the Interline Power Flow Controller

(IPFC), which helps in balancing both the real and reactive power

flows on the lines.

3.2.4 PRINCIPLE OF THE COMBINED SERIES – SHUNT

CONTROLLERS:

A combined series-shunt controller may have two

configurations, one being two separate series and shunt controllers

that operate in a coordinated manner and the other one being an

interconnected series and shunt component. In each configuration,

the shunt component injects a current into the system while the

series component injects a series voltage. When these two elements

 34

are unified, a real power can be exchanged between them via the

power link. Examples of such controllers are UPFC and Thyristor-

Controlled Phase-Shifting Transformer (TCPST). These make use of

the advantages of both series and shunt controllers and, hence,

facilitate effective and independent power/current flow and line

voltage control.

3.3 STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR (SVC):

The IEEE definition of the SVC [40] is as follows: ―A shunt

connected static var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to

exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control

specific parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus

voltage).”

In other words, an SVC is a static var generator whose output is

varied in order to maintain or control the specific parameters of an

electric power system. Svcs are primarily used in power systems for

voltage control or for improving system stability.

Static var compensators (svcs) are used primarily in power

systems for voltage control as either an end in itself or a means of

achieving other objectives, such as system stabilization [39-42].

3.3.1 V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SVC:

As shown in Fig 3.1., the dynamic characteristics of an SVC are

the plots of bus voltages versus current or reactive power. In Fig 3.1.,

the voltage Vref is the voltage at the terminals of the SVC when it is

neither absorbing nor generating any reactive power. The reference

voltage value can be varied between the maximum and minimum

 35

limits, Vref max and Vref min, using the SVC control system. The

linear range of the SVC control passing through Vref is the control

range over which the voltage varies linearly with the current or

reactive power. In this range, the power is varied from capacitive to

inductive.
VSVC

Over load
Range

Vref

Linear Range of Control

Bmax

ISVC
ILr Inductive Capacitive ICr

Fig 3.1 Voltage – Current characteristics of SVC

The slope or droop of the V-I characteristic is the ratio of change in

voltage magnitude to the change in current magnitude over the linear

control range. This slope is given by

V
K sl   (3.1)
I

Where ΔV denotes the change in voltage magnitude (V) and ΔI denotes

the change in current magnitude (I).

The slope Ksl can be changed by the control system. Ideally, for voltage

regulation it is required to maintain a flat voltage profile with a slope

equal to zero. In practice, it is desirable to incorporate a finite slope of

about 3-5% for the following reasons:

 36

1. It reduces the reactive power rating of the SVC substantially for

achieving similar control objectives;

2. It prevents the SVC from reaching its reactive-power limits too

frequently;

3. It facilitates the sharing of reactive power among multiple

compensators connected or operating in parallel.

Once the SVC‘s operating point crosses the linear controllable

range, it enters the overload zone where it behaves like a fixed

inductor or capacitor.

3.3.2 MODELING OF SVC IN POWER FLOW STUDIES:

In its simplest form, the SVC consists of a TCR in parallel with a

bank of capacitors. From the operational point of view, the SVC

behaves like a shunt-connected variable reactance, which either

generates or absorbs reactive power in order to regulate the voltage

magnitude at the point of connection to the AC network. It is used

extensively to provide fast reactive power and voltage regulation

support. The firing angle control of the thyristor enables the SVC to

have almost instantaneous speed of response. Conventional and

advanced power flow models of svcs are presented in this section. The

advanced models depart from the conventional generator-type

representation of the SVC and are based instead on the variable shunt

susceptance concept..

3.3.3.SHUNT VARIABLE SUSCEPTANCE MODEL:

In practice the SVC can be seen as an adjustable reactance with

either firing-angle limits or reactance limits [32]. The equivalent circuit

 37

shown in Fig. 3.2 is used to derive the SVC nonlinear power equations

and the linearised equations required by Newton‘s method.

With reference to Figure 3.2, the current drawn by the SVC is

I SVC  jBSVCVk (3.2)

And the reactive power drawn by the SVC, which is also the reactive

power injected at bus k, is

QSVC  Qk  Vk2 BSVC (3.3)

VK
ISVC

BSVC

Fig 3.2 Variable Shunt Succeptance Model

The linearised equation is given by Equation (3.4), where the

equivalent susceptance BSVC is taken to be the state variable

 Pk  0 0    k 
i i i

Q   0 Q  B / B  (3.4)

 k  k  svc svc 

At the end of iteration (i), the variable shunt susceptance BSVC is

updated according to

i1
 Bsvc  Bsvc / Bsvc  Bsvc (3.5)
i i i
Bsvc

The changing susceptance represents the total SVC susceptance

necessary to maintain the nodal voltage magnitude at the specified

value. Once the level of compensation has been computed then the

thyristor firing angle can be calculated. However, the additional

 38

calculation requires an iterative solution because the SVC

susceptance and thyristor firing angle are nonlinearly related.

3.3.4.FIRING ANGLE MODEL:

An alternative SVC model, which circumvents the additional

iterative process, consists in handling the thyristor-controlled reactor

(TCR) firing angle α as a state variable in the power flow formulation

[43]. The variable α will be designated here as αsvc.

From Eqn No. 3.3, the positive sequence susceptance of the SVC is

given by

 Vk2 
Qk  X L 
XC
2   SVC   sin2 SVC  (3.6)
XC X L   

From Eqn No. 3.6, the linearised SVC equation is given as

i
 Pk   
0 0
  k 
i i


2
 (3.7)
Q  0
 k   X L
2Vk
cos2 SVC   1  
 svc 


At the end of iteration (i), the variable firing angle αsvc is updated

according to

 i1   SVC
SVC 1
i
  SVC
i 1
(3.8)

3.4. THYRISTOR – CONTROLLED SERIES COMPENSATOR

(TCSC):

The basic conceptual TCSC module comprises a series

capacitor, C, in parallel with a thyristor-controlled reactor, LS, as

shown in Fig. 3.3. However, a practical TCSC module also includes

protective equipment normally installed with series capacitors. A

metal-oxide varistor (MOV), essentially a nonlinear resistor, is

 39

connected across the series capacitor to prevent the occurrence of

high-capacitor over- voltages. Not only does the MOV limit the voltage

across the capacitor, but it allows the capacitor to remain in circuit

even during fault conditions and helps improve the transient stability.

C
IC +

Iline ILOOP
T1

IT
LS

T2
Fig 3.3 A TCSC Basic Module
Also installed across the capacitor is a circuit breaker, CB, for

controlling its insertion in the line. In addition, the CB bypasses the

capacitor if severe fault or equipment-malfunction events occur. A

current-limiting inductor, Ld, is incorporated in the circuit to restrict

both the magnitude and the frequency of the capacitor current during

the capacitor-bypass operation.

An actual TCSC system usually comprises a cascaded

combination of many such TCSC modules, together with a fixed-series

capacitor, CF. This fixed series capacitor is provided primarily to

minimize costs.

3.4.1 OPERATION OF THE TCSC:

A TCSC is a series-controlled capacitive reactance that can

provide continuous control of power on the ac line over a wide range.

From the system viewpoint, the principle of variable-series

 40

compensation is simply to increase the fundamental-frequency voltage

across a fixed capacitor (FC) in a series compensated line through

appropriate variation of the firing angle, α [44]. This enhanced voltage

changes the effective value of the series-capacitive reactance.

A simple understanding of TCSC functioning can be obtained by

analyzing the behavior of a variable inductor connected in parallel

with an FC, as shown in Fig. 3.4

C
+

L
Fig 3.4 A variable Inductor connected in shunt with an FC
The equivalent impedance, Zeq, of this LC combination is expressed as

1
Z eq   j (3.9)
1
C 
L
 1 
The impedance of the FC alone, however, is given by  j  
 C 
There are essentially three modes of TCSC operation. They are

(i) By-passed Thyristor Mode

(ii) Blocked thyristor Mode

(iii)Partially Conducting thyristor Mode

Two alternative power flow models to assess the impact of TCSC

equipment in network wide applications are presented in this section

[45]. The simpler TCSC model exploits the concept of a variable series

reactance. The series reactance is adjusted automatically, within

limits, to satisfy a specified amount of active power flows through it.

 41

The more advanced model uses directly the TCSC reactance–firing-

angle characteristic, given in the form of a nonlinear relation. The

TCSC firing angle is chosen to be the state variable in the Newton–

Raphson power flow solution.

3.4.2 VARIABLE SERIES IMPEDANCE POWER FLOW MODEL:

The TCSC Variable Impedance Power Flow model presented in

this section is based on the simple concept of a variable series

reactance, the value of which is adjusted automatically to constrain

the power flow across the branch to a specified value. The amount of

reactance is determined efficiently using Newton‘s method. The

changing reactance XTCSC, shown in Figure 3.5, represents the

equivalent reactance of all the series-connected modules making up

the TCSC, when operating in either the inductive or the capacitive

regions.

k m k m
reg reg
Pkm P km

Fig 3.5 TCSC Equivalent Circuit (a) Inductive (b) Capacitive operating

The transfer admittance Regions

matrix of the variable series

compensator shown in Figure 3.5 is given by

 I k   jBkk jBkm  Vk 

 I    jB jBmm  Vm 
(3.10)
 m   km

For inductive operation, we have

1
Bkm=Bmk=
X TCSC
 42

1
Bmm=Bkk=- (3.11)
X TCSC
And for capacitive operation the signs are reversed.

The active and reactive power equations at bus k are:

Pk  Vk Vm Bkm sin( k   m ) (3.12)

Qk  Vk2 Bkk  VkVm Bkm cos( k   m ) (3.13)

For the power equations at bus m, the subscripts k and m are

exchanged in Equations (3.12) and (3.13).

In Newton–Raphson solutions these equations are linearised

with respect to the series reactance. For the condition shown in Figure

3.5, where the series reactance regulates the amount of active power

flowing from bus k to bus m at a value Pkmreg , the set of linearised power

flow equations is:

 Pk Pk Pk Pk Pk 

  Vk Vm X TCSC 
 m Vk Vm    k 
 k
 
 Pm Pm Pm Pm
X TCSC    m 
 Pk 
i
 Pm
Vk Vm
 P    k  m Vk Vm    Vk 
 m   Q Qk Qk Qk Qk  
 Qk  
k
Vk Vm X TCSC   Vk  --
    k  m Vk Vm    Vm 
 Qm   Qm Qm Qm Qm Qm 
PkmX TCSC    Vk Vm X TCSC   Vm 
 m Vk Vm   X 
 X TCSC
k   TCSC 
 Pkm PkmX TCSC PkmX TCSC PkmX TCSC Pkm
X TCSC
X TCSC   TCSC 
X
Vk Vm
   m Vk Vm X TCSC 
 k 
(3.14)
Where

PkmXTCSC  Pkmreg  PkmTCSC,cal (3.15)

X

is the active power mismatch for the series reactance and PkmTCSC,cal is
X

the calculated power as per equation 3.12 The state variable XTCSC of
 43

the series controller is updated at the end of each iterative step

according to

i
 X TCSC  i1
X i
X
TCSC  
i 1
TCSC
 X TCSC (3.16)
 TCSC 
X
3.4.3 FIRING ANGLE POWER FLOW MODEL:

The model presented in Section 3.4.2 uses the concept of an

equivalent series reactance to represent the TCSC. Once the value of

reactance is determined using Newton‘s method then the associated

firing angle αtcsc can be calculated. Of course, this makes engineering

sense only in cases when all the modules making up the TCSC have

identical design characteristics and are made to operate at equal firing

angles. If this is the case, the computation of the firing angle is carried

out. However, such calculation involves an iterative solution since the

TCSC reactance and firing angle are nonlinearly related. One way to

avoid the additional iterative process is to use the alternative TCSC

Variable Impedance Power Flow model presented in this section.

The fundamental frequency equivalent reactance XTCSC(1) of the TCSC

module [45] shown in Figure 3.8

XC is

k m
Ik ILOOP Im

Vk Vm

XL

Fig 3.6 TCSC Firing Angle Power Flow Model

X TCSC(1)   X C  C12     sin2    C2 cos2     tan      tan    

(3.17)
 44

Where

X C X LC
C1  (3.18)

2
4 X LC
C2  (3.19)
X L

XC X L
X LC  (3.20)
XC  X L

1
X  2
   C  (3.21)
 XL 

The equivalent reactance XTCSC(1) in Equation (3.17) replaces XTCSC in

Equations (3.11) and (3.10), and the TCSC active and reactive power

equations at bus k are

Pk  Vk Vm Bkm sin( k   m ) (3.22)

Qk  Vk2 Bkk  VkVm Bkm cos( k   m ) (3.23)

Where

Bkk   Bkm  BTCSC(1) (3.24)

For equations at bus m, exchange subscripts k and m in Equations

(3.22) and (3.23). For the case when the TCSC controls active power

flowing from bus k to bus m, at a specified value, the set of linearised

power flow equations is:

 45

 Pk Pk Pk Pk Pk 

  Vk Vm
 m Vk Vm  TCSC 
   k 
Pm  
k

 Pk   Pm Pm Pm Pm 

 TCSC    m 
Vk Vm
 P    k  m Vk Vm
 m   Q Qk Qk Qk Qk   Vk 
 Qk    k
Vk Vm   (3.25)
    k  m Vk Vm  TCSC   Vk 
 Qm   Qm Qm Qm Qm Qm   Vm 
PkmTCSC    V V
 TCSC   Vm 

 m Vk Vm
k m
 TCSCk   
 Pkm PkmTCSC PkmTCSC PkmTCSC PkmTCSC   TCSC 
Vk Vm
   m Vk Vm  TCSC 
 k

Where PkmTCSC  Pkmreg  PkmTCSC,cal is the active power mismatch for the TCSC

module.  TCSC is the incremental change in the TCSC firing angle.

3.5 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR (STATCOM):

The STATCOM (or SSC) is a shunt-connected reactive-power

compensation device that is capable of generating and/ or absorbing

reactive power and in which the output can be varied to control the

specific parameters of an electric power system. It is in general a solid-

state switching converter capable of generating or absorbing

independently controllable real and reactive power at its output

terminals when it is fed from an energy source or energy-storage

device at its input terminals. Specifically, the STATCOM considered in

this chapter is a voltage-source converter that, from a given input of

dc voltage, produces a set of 3-phase ac-output voltages, each in

phase with and coupled to the corresponding ac system voltage

through a relatively small reactance (which is provided by either an

interface reactor or the leakage inductance of a coupling transformer).

The dc voltage is provided by an energy-storage capacitor.

 46

3.5.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

A STATCOM is a controlled reactive-power source. It provides

the desired reactive-power generation and absorption entirely by

means of electronic processing of the voltage and current waveforms

in a voltage-source converter (VSC).

In Fig. 3.7 a STATCOM is seen as an adjustable voltage source

behind a reactance—meaning that capacitor banks and shunt

reactors are not needed for reactive-power generation and absorption,

thereby giving a STATCOM a compact design, or small footprint, as

well as low noise and low magnetic impact.

Vac 0
AC System

Coupling
Transformer

Iac
Vout=kVdc 

Voltage-Sourced
Converter

Idc
Vdc

Fig 3.7 Functional model of a STATCOM

 47

The exchange of reactive power between the converter and the

ac system can be controlled by varying the amplitude of the 3-phase

output voltage, Es, of the converter. That is, if the amplitude of the

output voltage is increased above that of the utility bus voltage, Et,

then a current flows through the reactance from the converter to the

ac system and the converter generates capacitive-reactive power for

the ac system. If the amplitude of the output voltage is decreased

below the utility bus voltage, then the current flows from the ac

system to the converter and the converter absorbs inductive-reactive

power from the ac system.

If the output voltage equals the ac system voltage, the reactive-

power exchange becomes zero, in which case the STATCOM is said to

be in a floating state. Adjusting the phase shift between the converter-

output voltage and the ac system voltage can similarly control real-

power exchange between the converter and the ac system. In other

words, the converter can supply real power to the ac system from its

dc energy storage if the converter-output voltage is made to lead the

ac-system voltage. On the other hand, it can absorb real power from

the ac system for the dc system if its voltage lags behind the ac-

system voltage.

3.5.2 V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF STATCOM:

A typical V-I characteristic of a STATCOM is depicted in Fig. 3.8.

As can be seen, the STATCOM can supply both the capacitive and the

inductive compensation and is able to independently control its

output current over the rated maximum capacitive or inductive range

 48

irrespective of the amount of ac-system voltage. That is, the STATCOM

can provide full capacitive-reactive power at any system voltage—even

as low as 0.15 pu.

Vt Transient
Rating (t<1 s)

Transient
Rating
1.0

0.75

0.50

0.25

IC ICmax Capacitive Inductive ILmax IL

Fig 3.8 V-I Characteristics of the STATCOM

The characteristic of a STATCOM reveals another strength of

this technology: that it is capable of yielding the full output of

capacitive generation almost independently of the system voltage

(constant-current output at lower voltages).

3.5.3 MODELING OF STATCOM FOR POWER FLOW STUDIES:

Following on the discussion of the STATCOM operational

characteristics, it is reasonable to expect that for the purpose of

positive sequence power flow analysis the STATCOM will be well

represented by a synchronous voltage source with maximum and

 49

minimum voltage magnitude limits. The synchronous voltage source

represents the fundamental Fourier series component of the switched

voltage waveform at the AC converter terminal of the STATCOM [40-

41].

The bus at which the STATCOM is connected is represented as

a PVS bus, which may change to a PQ bus in the event of limits being

violated. In such a case, the generated or absorbed reactive power

would correspond to the violated limit. Unlike the SVC, the STATCOM

is represented as a voltage source for the full range of operation,

enabling a more robust voltage support mechanism. The STATCOM

equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3.9 is used to derive the

k  k
mathematicalVmodel of the controller forVVR  VR
inclusion in power flow

Ik Z VR

IVR
Bus k

Fig 3.9 STATCOM Equivalent circuit

The power flow equations for the STATCOM are derived below

from first principles and assuming the following voltage source

representation:

Evr  Vvr cos vr  j sin  vr  (3.26)

Based on the shunt connection shown in Figure 3.9, the following may

be written:

Svr  Vvr I vr*  VvrYvr* Vvr*  Vk*  (3.27)

 50

After performing some complex operations, the following active and

reactive power equations are obtained for the converter and bus k,

respectively:

Pvr  Vvr2 Gvr  Vvr Vk Gvr cos vr   k   Bvr sin vr   k  (3.28)

Qvr  Vvr2 Bvr  Vvr Vk Gvr sin vr   k   Bvr cos vr   k  (3.29)

Pk  Vk2 Gvr  Vvr Vk Gvr cos k   vr   Bvr sin k   vr  (3.30a)

Qk  Vk2 Bvr  Vvr Vk Gvr sin k   vr   Bvr cos k   vr  (3.30b)

Using these power equations, the linearized STATCOM model is

given below, where the voltage magnitude Vvr and phase angle vr are

taken to be the state variables:

 Pk Pk Pk Pk 

  Vk Vvr 
Vk  vr Vvr 
 Pk   Qk
k
  k 
Qk Qk Qk V
 Q   Vk Vvr   k 
 k     k Vk  vr Vvr   Vk 
    (3.31)
 Pvr   Pvr Pvr Pvr Pvr
  Vk Vvr   vr 
Qvr    k Vk  vr Vvr   Vm 
 Qvr Qvr Qvr Qvr  V
 Vk Vvr   m 
  k Vk  vr Vvr 

3.6 UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER (UPFC):

The UPFC is the most versatile FACTS controller with

capabilities of voltage regulation, series compensation, and phase

shifting. The UPFC is a member of the family of compensators and

power flow controllers. The latter utilize the synchronous voltage

source (SVS) concept to provide a unique comprehensive capability of

transmission system control [46]. The UPFC is able to control

simultaneously or selectively all the parameters affecting power flow

 51

patterns in a transmission network, including voltage magnitudes and

phases, and real and reactive powers. These basic capabilities make

the UPFC the most powerful device in the present day transmission

and control systems.

3.6.1 BASIC OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF UPFC:

As illustrated in Fig 3.10, the UPFC is a generalized SVS

represented at the fundamental frequency by controllable voltage

phasor of magnitude Vpq and angle injected in series with the

transmission line. Note that the angle ρ can be controlled over the full

range from 0 to 2π. For the system shown in Fig 3.10, the SVS

exchanges both real and reactive power with the transmission system.

Vp P
VS q VR
VX
Qp I
q
X

VSeff=VS+Vp
Ppq
q

VX
Vpq

VR
VS
VSeff

Fig 3.10 Representation of UPFC in a two-machine power system

 52

In the UPFC, the real power supplied to or absorbed from the

system is provided by one of the end buses to which it is connected.

This meets the objective of the UPFC to control power flow rather than

increasing the generation capacity of the system.

Transmission Line
i V Vpq V+Vpq
Supply Transformer
Converter-1 Converter-2 Series
Transformer

ac Vdc ac

Vpq

Measured V V+Vpq
Variables Vref
Control Z
Parameter σref
ref
Settings Qref

Fig 3.11 UPFC Implemented by two back-to-back voltage source converters

As shown in Fig 3.11, the UPFC consists of two voltage-sourced

converters, one in series and one in shunt, both using Gate Turn-Off

(GTO) thyristor valves and operated from a common dc storage

capacitor. This configuration facilitates free flow of real power between

the ac terminals of the two converters in either direction while

enabling each converter to independently generate or absorb reactive

power at its own ac terminal.

 53

The series converter, referred to as Converter 2, injects a voltage

with controllable magnitude Vpq and phase ρ in series with the line

via an insertion transformer, thereby providing the main function of

the UPFC. This injected voltage phasor acts as a synchronous ac

voltage source that provides real and reactive power exchange between

the line and the ac systems.

The reactive power exchanged at the terminal of series insertion

transformer is generated internally while the real power exchanged is

converted into dc power and appears on the dc link as a positive or

negative real power demand. By contrast, the shunt converter,

referred to as Converter 1, supplies or absorbs the real power

demanded by Converter 2 on the common dc link and supports the

real power exchange resulting from the series voltage injection. It

converts the dc power demand of Converter 2 into ac and couples it to

the transmission line via a shunt connected transformer.

Converter 1 can also generate or absorb reactive power in

addition to catering to the real power needs of Converter 2;

consequently, it provides independent shunt reactive compensation

for the line. It is to be noted that the reactive power exchanged is

generated locally and hence, does not have to be transmitted by the

line. On the other hand, there exists a closed path for the real power

exchanged by the series voltage that is injected through the converters

back to the line. Thus, there can be a reactive power exchange

between Converter 1 and the line by controlled or unity power factor

 54

operation. This exchange is independent of the reactive power

exchanged by Converter 2.

3.6.2 TRANSMISSION CONTROL CAPABILITIES:

The UPFC can fulfill the functions of reactive shunt

compensation, series compensation, and phase angle regulation.

Hence it can meet multiple control objectives by injecting a voltage

phasor with appropriate amplitude and phase angle to the terminal

voltage. The basic UPFC power flow control functions are

 Voltage regulation with continuously variable in-phase/out of

phase voltage injection;

 Line-impedance compensation or series reactive compensation

by the series injected voltage. This injected voltage phasor can

be kept constant over a broad range of the line current while the

voltage across the compensating impedance varies with the line

current;

 Phase-shifting control that is achieved by injecting a voltage

phasor with any particular angular relation with the terminal

voltage. In other words the desired phase shift can be obtained

without any change in the voltage magnitude;

 Simultaneous multifunction power flow control by an adequate

adjustment of the terminal voltage, series impedance

compensation, and phase shifting. This functional capability is

unique to the UPFC; no other single conventional equipment

has similar multifunction capability.

 55

3.6.3 MODELING OF UPFC FOR POWER FLOW STUDIES:

It follows from that discussion that an equivalent circuit

consisting of two coordinated synchronous voltage sources should

represent the UPFC adequately for the purpose of fundamental

frequency steady-state analysis. Such an equivalent circuit [47,48] is

shown in Figure 3.12. The synchronous voltage sources represent the

fundamental Fourier series component of the switched voltage

waveforms at the AC converter terminals of the UPFC [40, 41].

The UPFC voltage sources are:

Evr  Vvr cos vr  j sin  vr  (3.32)

E cr  Vcr cos cr  j sin  cr  (3.33)

Where Vvr and vr are the controllable magnitude (Vvr min  Vvr Vvr

max) and phase angle (0 vr 2) of the voltage source representing

the shunt converter. The magnitude Vcr and phase angle cr of the

voltage source representing the series converter are controlled

between limits (Vcr minVcr Vcr max) and (0 cr  2), respectively.
Vk  k VCR  CR V m  m

Ik Z CR
+
Im
ICR

Bus k IVR Bus m

Z VR
Re(  VVR IVR
*
 VCR I m* )=0

+
VVR  VR

Fig 3.12 UPFC Equivalent circuit

 56

The phase angle of the series-injected voltage determines the

mode of power flow control. If cr is in phase with the nodal voltage

angle θk, the UPFC regulates the terminal voltage. If cr is in

quadrature with respect to θk, it controls active power flow, acting as

a phase shifter. If cr is in quadrature with the line current angle then

it controls active power flow, acting as a variable series compensator.

At any other value of cr, the UPFC operates as a combination of

voltage regulator, variable series compensator, and phase shifter. The

magnitude of the series-injected voltage determines the amount of

power flow to be controlled. Based on the equivalent circuit shown in

Figure 3.12 and Equations (3.32) and (3.33), the active and reactive

power equations are

At bus k:

k kk k m km
 k

P  V 2G  V V G cos     B sin   
k m

km k
 m

 Vk Vcr Gkm cos k   cr   Bkm sin k   cr  (3.34a)
 Vk Vvr Gvr cos k   vr   Bvr sin k   vr 

k kk k m km
 k

Q  V 2 B  V V G sin     B cos   
k m km
 k
 m

 Vk Vcr Gkm sin k   cr   Bkm cos k   cr  (3.34b)
 Vk Vvr Gvr sin k   vr   Bvr cos k   vr 

At bus ‗m‘:

P  V 2G
m m mm
V V G
m k mk

cos(   )  B
m k mk
sin(   )
m k
 (3.35)
 VmVcr Gmm cos( m   cr )  Bmm sin( m   cr )

Q  V 2 B
m m mm
V V G
m k mk

sin(   )  B
m k mk
cos(   )
m k
 (3.36)
 VmVcr Gmm sin( m   cr )  Bmm cos( m   cr )
 57

At Series Converter:

P V2G
cr cr mm cr k km

 V V G cos(   )  B sin(   )
cr k km cr k
 (3.37)
 Vcr Vm Gmm cos( cr   m )  Bmm sin( cr   m )

Q  V 2 B
cr cr mm cr k km

 V V G sin(   )  B cos(   )
cr k km cr k
 (3.38)
 Vcr Vm Gmm sin( cr   m )  Bmm cos( cr   m )

At Shunt Converter:

vr vr vr vr k vr

P  V 2 G  V V G cos(   )  B sin(   )
vr k vr vr k
 (3.39)

vr vr vr vr k vr

Q  V 2 B  V V G sin(   )  B cos(   )
vr k vr vr k
 (3.40)

Assuming loss-less converter valves, the active power supplied to the

shunt converter, Pvr, equals the active power demanded by the series

converter, Pcr; that is,

P P 0 (3.41)
cr vr

Furthermore, if the coupling transformers are assumed to contain no

resistance then the active power at bus k matches the active power at

bus m. Accordingly,

P P P P 0 (3.42)
cr vr k m

The UPFC power equations, in linearized form, are combined

with those of the AC network. For the case when the UPFC controls

the following parameters: (1) voltage magnitude at the shunt converter

terminal (bus k), (2) active power flow from bus m to bus k, and (3)

reactive power injected at bus m, and taking bus m to be a PQ bus,

the linearized system of equations is given by equation 3.52, where

Pbb is the power mismatch given by Equation (3.58)

 58

If voltage control at bus k is deactivated, the third column of

Equation (5.60) is replaced by partial derivatives of the bus and UPFC

mismatch powers with respect to the bus voltage magnitude Vk.

Moreover, the voltage magnitude increment of the shunt source,

Vvr/Vvr is replaced by the voltage magnitude increment at bus k,

Vk/Vk. If both buses, k and m, are PQ the linearised system of

equations is given by equation 3.53

 Pk Pk Pk Pk Pk Pk Pk 

  Vk Vm Vcr
 m Vk Vm  cr Vcr  vr 
 k 
 Pm Pm Pm
Vk
Pm
Vm
Pm Pm
Vcr
Pm    k 
 Pk    k  m Vk Vm  cr Vcr  vr    m 
 P   Qk  
Qk Qk Qk Qk Qk Qk   Vk 
 m   Vk Vm Vcr 
 Qk    k  m Vk Vm  cr Vcr  vr   Vk 
   Qm Qm Qm Qm Qm Qm Qm   Vm 
 Q     Vk Vm Vcr  
m
 m Vk Vm  cr Vcr  vr   Vm 
 Pmk   k
   Pmk Pmk Pmk Pmk Pmk Pmk Pmk    cr 
Qmk    k
Vk Vm Vcr  
 m Vk Vm  cr Vcr  vr   Vcr 
 P   Q Qmk Qmk Qmk Qmk Qmk

Qmk   Vcr 
 bb   mk Vk Vm Vcr
  k  m Vk Vm  cr Vcr  vr    vr 
 P Pbb Pbb Pbb Pbb Pbb Pbb 
 bb Vk Vm Vcr 
  k  m Vk Vm  cr Vcr  vr 
(3.43)
 Pk Pk Pk Pk Pk Pk Pk 
  Vvr Vm Vcr
 m Vvr Vm  cr Vcr  vr 
 k 
 Pm Pm Pm
Vvr
Pm
Vm
Pm Pm
Vcr
Pm    k 
 Pk    k  m Vvr Vm  cr Vcr  vr    m 
 P   Qk  
Qk Qk Qk Qk Qk Qk   Vvr 
 m   Vvr Vm Vcr 
 Qk    k  m Vvr Vm  cr Vcr  vr   Vvr 
   Qm Qm Qm Qm Qm Qm Qm   Vm 
 Q     Vvr Vm Vcr  
m
 m Vvr Vm  cr Vcr  vr   Vm 
 Pmk   k
   Pmk Pmk Pmk Pmk Pmk Pmk Pmk    cr 
Qmk    k
Vvr Vm Vcr  
 m Vvr Vm  cr Vcr  vr   Vcr 
 P   Q Qmk Qmk Qmk Qmk Qmk

Qmk   Vcr 
 bb   mk Vvr Vm Vcr
  k  m Vvr Vm  cr Vcr  vr    vr 
 P Pbb Pbb Pbb Pbb Pbb Pbb 
 bb Vvr Vm Vcr 
  k  m Vvr Vm  cr Vcr  vr 
(3.44)
 59

Different FACTS devices modeling is discussed in this chapter.

In the next chapter power flow studies with FACTS devices for well

conditioned system is presented.