Ac Controls PDF

Module Resource Manual
Air Conditioning
Controls
NR15
First published in April 2009 by
Manufacturing and Engineering Educational Services
NSW TAFE Commission
PO Box 218 Bankstown NSW 2200
This work is copyright. Any inquiries about the use of this material should be
directed to the publisher.
©
New South Wales Technical and Further Education Commission
AIR CONDITIONING CONTROLS

NR15
FEEDBACK
We value your opinion and welcome suggestions on how we could improve
this resource manual.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
1. CONTROL SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS AND DIAGRAMS 3
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 1 - CONTROL CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS 24
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 2 - CONTROL CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS 27
REVIEW QUESTIONS 30
2. TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS – GENERAL OVERVIEW AND FLUID FLOW
CONTROL 35
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 1 – CONTROL SYSTEMS 50
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 2 – FLUID FLOW CONTROL 53
REVIEW QUESTIONS 56
3. ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND BUILDING MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES 61
4. ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 65
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 1 – ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEM 76
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 2 – ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEM COMMISSIONING 78
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 3 – ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEM FAULT FINDING 80
REVIEW QUESTIONS 82
5. ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 87
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 1 – ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEM 98
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 2 – ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEM
COMMISSIONING 100
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 3 – ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEM FAULT
FINDING 103
REVIEW QUESTIONS 105
6. PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 109
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 1 - PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM 122
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 2 - PNEUMATIC CONTROL COMMISSIONING 124
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 3 - PNEUMATIC CONTROL FAULT FINDING 127
7. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS AND DIRECT DIGITAL
CONTROLS 135
PRACTICAL EXERCISE 142
SAMPLE TESTS 149
SAMPLE THEORY TEST 1 150
PRACTICAL TEST 1 162
SAMPLE PRACTICAL TEST 2 179
ANSWERS 185
Resources and references
Recommended textbooks
Automatic Control Principles. Honeywell, USA.
Boyle, G. Australian Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. 3rd Edition
Volume 1 and 2. ISBN 1 86442 037 5 TAFE Publication of Western
Australia, Perth, WA
Additional Reference
The following texts and videos may be of further assistance for this module.
Coffin, M.J. Direct Digital Control for Building HVAC Systems ISBN 0 442
23797 9 Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA.
Electrical and Electronic Drawing Practice for Students - SAA/SNZ HB3-

1996. ISBN 0 7337 0246 5 Standards Australia, Homebush, New South
Wales.
Engineering Manual of Automatic Control (SI Ed). Library of Congress

Catalog Card Number: 94-073455 Honeywell, USA, 1995.
General Information and General Index (AS 1102.101-1996) to Analogue

Elements (AS 1102.113-1996) Standards Australia, Homebush, New South
Wales.
Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning Seminar Booklet produced by

Honeywell
Langley, B.C. Control Systems for Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

Prentice-Hall ISBN 0 13 171679 4 01 New Jersey, USA
Suggested Videos
Air Conditioning 84-065 Regency College of TAFE, SA
Acknowledgments
TAFE NSW acknowledges and thanks all companies and individuals who
generously supplied diagrams, pictures and information. The following
companies provided information:
 Atlas Cop Co
 Belimo Australia Pty Ltd
 Celsius Magazine
 Daikin Australia
 Email Major Appliances
 Honeywell Limited
 Johnson Controls
 Kirby Refrigeration- Erie Controls
 Landis and Staefa Division – of Siemens Building Technology
 SMC Pneumatics (Australia) Pty. Ltd
 Toshiba International Corporation Pty. Ltd
Introduction
This resource manual contains learning exercises, review questions and
sample assessment instruments. It is designed to assist students achieve the
outcomes and purpose described in the national module descriptor NR15 and
is an example of the depth and breadth of learning expected.
The topics listed in the content are arranged in the preferred learning
sequence. It is recognised that this is not the only sequence in which the
material could be learnt. Assessment arrangements and sample assessment
instruments are based on the sequence of topics listed above. A teacher may
decide that for a particular student or group of students it is more effective to
present the topics in a different sequence. In this case the students must be
informed in writing of the resulting changes in the assessment events before
starting the module.
Learning plan
The following topic weighting will help you plan and allocate the effort
needed to achieve the purpose and outcomes of the module.
1. Control System Fundamentals and Diagrams 2.5%
2. Types of Control Systems – General Overview and Fluid Flow 12.5%
3. Energy Management Principles 12.5%
4. Electric Control Systems 12.5%
5. Electronic Control Systems 18.75%
6. Pneumatic Control Systems 18.75%
7. PLC and DDC Control Systems 12.5%
Imagine a world where humans manually operated air conditioning systems.

Whenever the temperature and / or humidity of a room moves outside pre-
agreed parameters, someone would have to start either the refrigeration or
heating equipment. Once the conditions move back into the agreed
parameters, the equipment would then have to be manually turned off. This
scenario is most impracticable and fortunately we know this is not necessary
because of the use of automatic controls.
This module is designed as an introduction to the various control systems

used in the air conditioning industry. The systems that will be covered
include electromechanical, pneumatic, electronic and microprocessor
systems.
If at the end of this module you feel you wish to learn more about control
systems at a greater depth than that provided by this module, you should
consider doing further modules in the controls area.
NR15 Air Conditioning Controls

Module Resource Manual 1
April 2009
Topics and Exercises
Topic Exercise Practical exercise
1. Control System  Drawing - Control circuit

Fundamentals and diagrams from a circuit
Diagrams diagram
 Drawing - Control
circuit diagrams
2. Types of Control Systems  Drawing - Observe and  Control systems

– General Overview and draw an existing fluid observation
Fluid Flow Control flow control system
3. Energy Management and  A 600 word assignment

Building Management on the principles behind
Principles Energy Management and
Building Management
4. Electric Control Systems  Explain the operation of  Electric control system

various electric controls. commissioning
 Electric control system
fault finding
5. Electronic Control  Explain the operation of  Electronic control system

Systems various electronic commissioning
controls.
 Electronic control system
fault finding
6. Pneumatic Control  Explain the operation of  Pneumatic control

Systems various pneumatic commissioning
controls.
 Pneumatic control fault
finding
7. Programmable Logic  Observe the operation of

Controllers and Direct a DDC air conditioning
Digital Controls control system and / or a
PLC air conditioning
control system.

2 Module Resource Manual
April 2009
1. Control System Fundamentals and
Diagrams
Purpose
This topic is divided into two sections. In the first section you will learn
about the principles, concepts, terminology and applications of air
conditioning control systems. The second section of this topic will allow you
to read, design and explain the sequence of operation of simple air
conditioning circuit and control circuit diagrams.
Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
 list and explain the principles of air conditioning control
 define various terms used in air conditioning control
 describe the operation of various simple control diagrams
 list various applications employing air conditioning control
 explain the sequence of operation of a simple air conditioning circuit
diagram
 draw a circuit diagram for a simple air conditioning system
 explain the sequence of operation of a simple air conditioning control
system diagram
 draw a control system diagram for a simple air conditioning system.
Content
- Terminology and Definitions
- Symbols
- Control System Fundamentals
- Principles
- Method of Control
- Closed Loop
- Open Loop
- Factors that Affect Loop Stability
- Automatic Control Elements
- Six Basic Functions of Automatic Control
- Symbols and Diagrams
- Diagrams
- Air Conditioning Diagrams
- Pneumatic and Logic Control Diagrams
- Electrical Diagrams

April 2009
- Block Diagrams
- Circuit Diagrams (Schematic Diagram)
- Wiring Diagrams
- Revision of Control Circuits
- Control Symbols
- Air Conditioning Circuit Diagrams
References
 ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.3; Volume 1, page 12.35; pages 12.43 –
12.44 and Glossary of Terms
Terms and definitions
 ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.1 – 29.3
Loops, control elements and functions of automatic control
 ARAC Volume 2, pages 28.16 – 28.18; pages 29.7 – 29.13; pages 29.38 –
39
Symbols and electrical diagrams
 NR08 Appliance Motors and Circuits and NR12 System Control –
module books
Discusses circuit components

April 2009
Terminology and definitions
Many of the Terminology and Definitions found below have been used with
permission of Honeywell Air Conditioning.
Actuator - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4
Algorithm - A calculation method that produces a control output by operating

on an error signal or a time series of error signals.
Analog - Continuously variable (e.g. a faucet controlling water from off to

full flow).
Authority - The influence that a second sensor has on a controller to produce

an output.
Automatic control / system - A system that reacts to a change or imbalance in

the variable it controls by adjusting other variables to restore the system or a
time series or error signals.
Binary - A numbering system used by computers to i) count and ii) perform

tasks.
Calibrate - Adjustment of control devices to ensure accurate operation.
Compensation control - A process of automatically adjusting the control

point of a given controller to compensate for changes in second measured
variable (e.g. outdoor air temperature). For example, the hot deck control
point is normally reset as the outdoor air temperature decreases. Also called
“reset control."
Control agent - The medium in which the manipulated variable exists. In a

steam heating system, the control agent is the steam and the manipulated
variable is the flow of the steam.
Control point - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.3
Control system - Made of all the equipment in which the controlled variable
exists but does not include the automatic control equipment.
Controlled medium - The medium in which the manipulated variable exists.

In a space temperature control system, the controlled variable is the space
temperature and the controlled medium is the air within the space.
Controlled value / desired value - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4
Controlled variable - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.3

April 2009
Controller - A device that sense change in the controlled variable (or
receives input from a remote sensor) and derives the proper correction output.
Corrective action - Control action that results in a change of the manipulated

variable. Initiated when the controlled variable deviates from setpoint.
Cycle - One complete execution of a repeatable process. In basic heating

operation, a cycle comprises one on period and one off period in a two-
position control system.
Cycling - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.3
Cycling rate - The number of cycles completed per time unit, typically cycles
per hour for a heating or cooling system. The inverse of the length of the
period of the cycle.
Dead band - A range of the controlled variable in which no corrective action

is taken by the controlled system and no energy is used. See also “Zero
Energy Band."
Desired value / controlled value - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4
Deviation - the difference between the set point and the value of the
controlled variable an any moment. Also called “Offset."
Differential gap / differential - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4 ARAC Glossary

page 7
Digital - A series of on and off pulses arranged to convey information.

Morse code is an early example. Processors (computers) operate using
digital language.
Digital control - A control loop in which a microprocessor-based controller

directly controls equipment based on sensor inputs and setpoint parameters.
The programmed control sequence determines the output to the parameter.
Direct Acting (DA) - A positive operation of the actuator caused by a positive

signal from a controller or visa versa.
Direct Digital Control (DDC) - ARAC Volume 2, page 12.36 Also see
Digital and Digital control.
Droop - A sustained deviation between the control point and the setpoint in a
two-position control system caused by a change in the heating or cooling
load.
Electric control - A control circuit that operates on line or low voltage and
uses a mechanical means, such as temperature-sensitive bimetal or bellows,

April 2009
to perform control functions, such as actuating a switch or positioning a
potentiometer. The controller signal usually operates or positions an electric
actuator or may switch an electric load directly or through a relay.
Electronic control - A control circuit that operates on low voltage and uses
solid-state components to amplify input signals and perform control
functions, such as operating a relay or providing an output signal to position
an actuator. The controller usually furnishes fixed control routines based on
the logic of the solid-state components.
Final control element - A device such as a valve or damper that acts to

change the value of the manipulated variable. Positioned by an actuator.
Hardware - Physical components of a computer, (not including the software).
Interface - A device that a computer uses to communicate with another

computer.
Input / Output (I/O) - Input is where information passes into a controller and
output is where information leaves the controller.
Lag - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4, ARAC Glossary page 12
Load - ARAC Glossary page 12
Logic - The process of arriving at a decision based upon information that has
been provided.
Manipulated variable - The quantity or condition regulated by the automatic

control system to cause the desired change in the controlled variable.
Measured variable - A variable that is measured and may be controlled (e.g.

discharge is measured and controlled, outdoor is only measured).
Microprocessor - ARAC Glossary page 13
Microprocessor-based Control - ARAC Volume 2, page 12.35
Modulating - An action that adjusts by minute increments and decrements.
Offset - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4
On / Off control - A sustained deviation between the control point and

setpoint of proportional control system under stable operating conditions.
Pneumatic control - A control circuit that operates on air pressure and uses a
mechanical means, such as a temperature-sensitive bimetal or bellows, to
perform control functions, such as actuating a nozzle and flapper or a

April 2009
switching relay. The controller output usually operates or positions a
pneumatic actuator, although relays and switches are often in the circuit.
Program Logic Control (PLC) - This is a computer based device that replaces
the “hard wired” control circuit and allows connections to be done by way of
a program.
Potentiometer / POT - ARAC Glossary page 15
Primary element - The proportion of the controller that senses the controlled
medium. For example, a thermostat bi-metal is a primary element.
Process - A general term that describes a change in a measurable variable

(e.g. the mixing of return and outdoor air streams in a mixed-air control loop
and heat transfer between cold water and hot air in a cooling coil) Usually
considered separately from the sensing element, control element, and
controller.
Proportional band - In a proportional controller, the control point range

through which the controlled variable must pass to move the final control
element through its full operating range. Expressed in percent of primary
sensor span. Commonly used equivalents are “throttling range” and
“modulating range."
Proportional control - A control algorithm or method in which the final

control element moves to a position proportional to the deviation of the value
of the controlled variable from the setpoint.
Proportional - Integral (PI) control - A control algorithm that combines the

proportional (proportional response) and integral (reset response) control
algorithms. Reset response tends to correct the offset resulting from
proportional control. Also called “proportional-plus-reset’ or ‘two-mode”
control.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control - A control algorithm that

enhances the PI control algorithm by adding a component that is proportional
to the rate of change (derivative) of the deviation of the controlled variable.
Compensates for system dynamics and allows faster control response. Also
called “three-mode” or “rate-reset’ control.
Relay - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4 & ARAC Glossary page 16
Reverse acting - To reverse the signal from a controller and used that signal
to open instead of close an actuator or visa versa.
Sensing device / element - ARAC Glossary page 17
Set point - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.3

April 2009
Signal - The message that is sent between components. Changes in voltages
or air pressures are primarily used in air conditioning control systems
Software - ARAC Volume 2, pages 12.43 - 44 Programs for computers.
Throttling range - In a proportional controller, the control point range

through which the controlled variable must pass to move the final control
element through its full operating range. Expressed in values of the
controlled variable (e.g. degrees C, percent relative humidity, kPa). Also
called “proportional band." In a proportional room thermostat, the
temperature change required to drive the manipulated variable from full off to
full on.
Time constant - The time required for a dynamic component, such as a

sensor, or a control system to reach 63.2 percent of the total response to an
instantaneous (or “step”) change to its input. Typically used to judge the
responsiveness of the component or system.
Two-position control - See On / Off control.
Variable - Something that can be changed or adapted (e.g. pressure is

variable)
Zero energy band - An energy conservation technique that allow

temperatures to float between selected settings, thereby preventing the
consumption of heating or cooling energy while the temperature is in this
range.
Zone / zoning - ARAC Glossary page 22

April 2009
Symbol Description Symbol Description
Double junction of
conductors
Direct Current
This shall be of used if
required by layout
considerations
Double junction of
conductors
Alternating Current
This shall be used if
required by layout
considerations
Indicates suitability for Normally Closed

use on either direct or Contacts
alternating supply.
Normally Open
Contacts
Positive Polarity
(Can be used as a
switch)
i. Contactor main contacts

- load bearing.
Negative Polarity
i. Main make contact
ii. Main break contact
ii.
Battery of accumulator
or primary cell.
Change-over break
NOTE: The longer before make contact.
line represents the
positive pole, the short
line represents the
negative pole.
Earth (General symbol) Two-Way contact with

center-off position
i. i. Connection of Triple Pole Switch

conductors
ii. Terminal
ii. (NOTE: The terminal
may be filled in.)

April 2009
Conductor or group of Circuit – breaker

conductors. (A line for
a particular path may
be emphasised by
increasing its
thickness.)
Conductor crossing (no t° Temperature-sensitive
connection) make contact
i. i. Manually operated Mechanical interlock

control. between two devices.
ii. Manually operated
ii. switch - Normally open
(General symbol)
i. i. Operated by push i. i. Automatic return

button (reset)
ii. Normally closed ii. Non-automatic return
ii. push button switch - ii. (reset)
non-latching.
i. i. Emergency switch i. i. Resistor (General

(mushroom-head safety symbol)
feature)
ii. Temperature -
ii. Normally closed ii. dependent resistor with
emergency stop button. negative resistance -
ii. t° temperature coefficient
(thermistor)
Break contact, delay Heating element
when the device
containing the contact
is being activated.
Break contact, delayed Single acting pneumatic
when the device or hydraulic control
is being de-activated.
Make contact; delay Double acting or
when the device hydraulic control
is being activated.
Make contact; delay Operated by stored

when the device mechanical energy
is being de-activated.

April 2009
Fuse Operated by
electromechanical effect
Fuse switch Information showing the

form of energy stored
may be added, e.g.
t° Temperature
t°
p Pressure
i. Connecting link r.h. Relative humidity
i. Closed Flow
Fluid level
ii. Open Thermal
ii.
Sail
Time Delay Relay Coil Capacitor (General
- (delay off) symbol)
Time Delay Relay Coil Inductor coil winding

(Delay on)
Solenoid valve Transformer with

ferromagnetic core
General Symbol for a Single phase automatic

motor transformer.
M (If used as an
autotransformer, tapping
% can be written on the
diagram.)
Three-phase, squirrel Simplified form of a

cage induction motor. transformer with two
M windings.
3
Three phase, squirrel i. i. Terminal strip

cage induction motor,
M star / delta connected.
3 1 2 ii. Terminal marks may
ii. be added

April 2009
General symbol for a Meters

clock A A = Amp meter
V = Volt meter
Clock with switch Watt-hour meter
Wh
Signal Lamp Contactor Coil
K1 K1 = component being
supplied and number
4
4 = Number of contacts
Incandescent Lamp (a) (a) Three pin male plug
(b) Three pin female

(b) socket
General symbol for a i ii. Contact Identification

discharge lamp, e.g. K1-1
Identification numbers
fluorescent lamp
are always to be
K2-2 opposite the moving
contact
Manual Reset Overload Manual Reset

contact Thermostat
(Contactor)
t°
Automatic Reset Multi-stage Thermostat

Overload contact
(Makes on a rise in
(Contactor) temperature.)
t°

April 2009
Pressure Control Multi-stage Thermostat

 Two Stage Cooling
(Breaks on rise in (Make on a rise in
pressure.) temperature.)
 Two Stage Heating
HP (Makes on a fall in
t° temperature)
Pressure Control Pressure Differential

(Makes on rise in Switch
pressure.) (Contacts make on the
correct air pressure
differential.)
LP
Manual Reset Pressure Manual Reset Oil

Control t° Pressure Failure Switch
(Break on rise in LP Note the doted lines
pressure.) around the control
shows that all the
HP OP components are in the
same body.
Dual Pressure Control Domestic Defrost Timer

t° - Time initiated,
Note the doted lines temperature terminated.
LP HP around the controls to
show that they’re in the (Make one contact,
same body. break the other.)
OR
HP: Break in rise
HP LP: Makes in rise
LP
Thermostat Domestic Defrost Timer

-
(Breaks on a rise in
temperature.) Time initiated,
temperature terminated.
t°
(Make one contact,
break one contact
Thermostat Single Phase Motor
L R R Compressor Starter
(Make on a rise in
temperature.) S
t°

April 2009
Control system fundamentals
Principles
Method of control (ARAC Volume 2, page 29.1)

Air conditioning systems are designed to perform a number of processes in
order to maintain constant conditions within a controlled space. Most
systems are able to cool and / or heat but there are other processes they can
carry out, depending on the equipment supplied.
ARAC Volume 2, pages 23.38 - 40 describes the following:
 Cooling
 Cooling and Heating
 Cooling and Dehumidification
 Heating
 Heating and Humidification
 Evaporative Cooling (Used in warmer and drier climates)
No matter the process the air conditioning system is trying to control, they all
operate by using one or a combination of the two control methods described
below, those being Closed Loop and Open Loop Control. (Other control
loops include cascade loops and interactive loops.)
Closed loop control (ARAC Volume 2, page 29.1)

Closed loop control systems provide feed back from the sensor so conditions
will be maintained within preset parameters. This is the most common
control loop used.
If conditions move
Actuator
outside preset
Controller parameters, the sensor
sends feedback to the
controller for a
corrective action
Sensor
Air Flow Heating Air Flow
or
Cooling
Coil
Closed loop control system

April 2009
Open loop control (ARAC Volume 2, page 29.2)
Open Loop systems receive no feed back from the space being conditioned
and will operate regardless of the effect of the conditions being prevailed on
the space. Open loops are not used by themselves but are used in connection
with other control loops. A typical example of where this loop is used is on
perimeter zone air conditioning using induction units.
Wall
Controller
Conditions of space being
controlled externally, [no
feedback].
Heating
Sensor Air Flow or
Cooling
Coil
Open loop control system
Factors that affect loop stability

There are four main factors that affect how accurately the control loop will
maintain the space conditions, they are:
1. The Speed of Operation of the Control Equipment
Excess cycling will occur if the control system can cause a change faster
than it can sense the change.
2. The Speed of the Controlled Equipment and Thermal Inertia
The equipment that the controlled system controls must be considered as
part of the control loop. Compressor delay on start up, thermal inertia of
heat exchangers, transport of the air through the ducts, etc., all slow the
corrective action and hence the loop stability.
3. Air Change Rate.
If there is too high an air change rate, there can be problems with
‘swamping’ of the conditions within the space being controlled. The
control equipment will respond according to the swamping which in turn
cycles the equipment excessively.
4. Sensor Location
The location of the sensor is also important to loop stability. It must be
located so as to avoid being:
 affected by residual cooling and or heating from coils

April 2009
 placed in stagnant, non consistent areas, e.g. bends and outlets of
ductwork.
Automatic control elements (ARAC Volume 2, page 29.2)

In all control systems there are three elements necessary to control conditions
automatically, they are:
1. A sensing device: used to sense a change in the ‘Controlled Variable’
whether that controlled variable be temperature,
humidity, pressure, etc.
2. A controller: which responds to the sensing device to initiate some
form of corrective action.
3. A controlled device: used to carry out the actual corrective action.
The three elements can be seen in the controlled loop diagrams previous.
The control device in this instance is an actuator on a water valve.
Six basic functions of automatic control (ARAC Volume 2, page 29.3)

The three elements perform the following six functions (see ARAC for
greater detail of each step):
1. Sensor Senses
Change to
Controlled Variable
6. Control 2. Controller
Device Ends Amplifies the
Corrective Sensor Signal
Action
5. Sensor Senses 3. Transportation of

Corrective Action Amplified Signal to
and Signals Control Control Device
Device
4. Corrective
Action

April 2009
Symbols and diagrams
Symbols
Symbols are used to represent components in a variety of diagram types, i.e.
mechanical, pneumatic, electrical, electronic, etc. Without the use of
symbols the components would have to be drawn as seen. It would depend
on the ability of the diagram's author as to how recognisable each component
would become and hence how easy the diagram would be to read. For this
reason there must be some standard for all to use to ensure consistency.
A variety of symbols are found in ARAC, they are:

 Symbolic Representation - Air Conditioning Drawings (ARAC Volume 2,
pages 28.16-18)
 Pneumatic and Logic Controls - which can be seen in ARAC Volume 2,
pages 29.38-39.
 Electrical Symbols - (ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.10 - 13) which will be
looked at and discussed in another section of this module.
It should be noted that many of the symbols are found across all types of
diagrams
Diagrams
Air conditioning diagrams (ARAC Volume 2, pages 28.16-18)

Air conditioning diagrams are used to represent components involved in the
transportation of air throughout a ducted system. The types of equipment that
may be represented are the ductwork, fans, dampers, vents, and even control
equipment.
Mixed Air Supply Air
Filter Fan Humidifier Air Cooler Air Heater
Basic Air Supply with Humidification
Pneumatic and logic control diagrams (ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.38-

39)
The following diagram shows a typical simple pneumatic control diagram
used in the Air Conditioning Industry. Pneumatic control circuit diagrams
will be discussed in a later section.

April 2009
ASV1
Restrictor
SA MA
CHWV HWV
Thermostat
+
Return Air T
Supply Air
Outside Air Basic Pneumatic Circuit with

Heating and Cooling Coil
Electrical diagrams (ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.7-9)

Approximately 75% of fault finding in the air conditioning industry involves
the need for electrical diagnosis. If a mechanic is unable to read the various
types of electrical diagrams available, the task of fault finding is made that
much harder than is necessary.
There are a number of electrical diagram types commonly used in the air
conditioning industry. Three of the typical diagrams are:
1. Block Diagram:
Block diagrams tend to be used to aid in the understanding of a circuit

operation. It identifies exactly what the circuit does without giving any
information on the circuit itself.
Contactor A and Resistors (for reduced Motor

Supply
Overload voltage starting)
Contactor B
On / Off / Safety Contactor Coil

Controls A
Timer
Contactor Coil
B
Block Diagram of a Primary Resistance Starter

April 2009
2. Circuit Diagrams (Schematic Diagram)
Circuit Diagrams are ideal for fault finding as it shows a circuit operation in a
logical sequence. Energy flows is from top to bottom and / or left to right.
Circuit diagrams can be either of a vertical or horizontal layout.
Contactor
A O/Load Resistors
L1
L2 Motor
L3
N
Start Stop
A4
A4
T
T1
Horizontal Layout of a B3
Circuit Diagram Showing a
Primary Resistance Starter

April 2009
3. Wiring Diagrams
Wiring diagrams are used to allow unskilled workers to complete wiring of

equipment. Often it is drawn on a panel layout drawing and shows point to
point connection of cables. A numbering system is often used on more
complicated diagrams.
L1 L2 L3 N
1 2 3 1 12 4 5 6 14 1 12
Contactor A Contactor B Timer

7 8 9 N 14 N
10 N
Overload
4 5 6 11 12
1 Start Button
Start / Stop
10
Station
4 5 6 Stop Button
Resistors
11
7 8 9
Wiring Diagram of a
Primary Resistance Starter
7 8 9
Motor
Revision of control circuits

The modules Motors (NR08) and System Controls (NR12) are designed as
introductions to the different types of motors and control circuits found in the
HVAC industry. Having completed these two subjects you should by now be
aware that:
 Motors are found in the power side of a wiring diagram along with other
load bearing components like heaters.
April 2009
 Components like thermostats, head pressure controls, low pressure
controls, etc are found in the control side of the diagram.
You should also be able to design basic electrical diagrams (with both power
and control circuits) and in addition be able to read a basic wiring diagram.
If you are not confident with working with control diagrams, ARAC 29.14 -
29.24 shows how control systems are build by using various components
through to a completed wiring diagram. It is from the understanding of the
basic control system that an understanding of more complicated Air
Conditioning Control systems can be gained and hence the ability to trouble
shoot these systems in event of a fault.
Control symbols (ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.10 - 29.13, SA/SNZ HB3-1996

and AS 1102-1996)
In the Air Conditioning industry, it appears that every controls diagram
differs from one to the next in the symbols they used. Australian Standards
HB3-1996 Electrical and Electronic Drawing Practice for Students and AS
1102-1996, shows electrical symbols that should be used to standardise
diagrams within both the Electrical and Air Conditioning industry. ARAC
pages 29.10 - 29.13 shows a number of typical symbols used in the industry
but it should be noted that they were written from HB3-1986 (an out dated
standard). An updated set of symbols has been supplied with this module to
conform with the new HB3-1996 standard and AS 1102-1996 standard.

April 2009
Air conditioning circuit diagrams
Air conditioning circuit diagrams range in complexity from the simple
domestic air conditioning unit with mechanical switches through to the more
complicated industrial air conditioning systems using electronic control
systems.
Kelvinator Room Air Conditioning Unit

(Reproduced with the permission of
Email Major Appliances)
Electrical Diagram of a Room
Air Conditioning Unit
SCS-klimo Controls
(Staefa Controls)
Diagram of an Electronic Connection Circuit

of a Landis and Staefa Controller.
(Reproduced with permission of Landis and Staefa
Division of Siemens Building Technology)

April 2009
Practical exercise 1 - Control circuit diagrams
Task
 Describe the sequence of operation of a simple air conditioning circuit
diagram.
 Draw a circuit diagram for a simple air conditioning system.
Procedure
1. Briefly write the sequence of operation for the wiring diagram of a
Kelvinator Heat Pump air conditioning unit (found below and in ARAC
Volume 2, page 29.9).
2. Convert the diagram into a circuit diagram so that it can be used for fault
finding.
Notes for Diagrams

Be sure to use the symbols supplied in this module.
 When you draw a line on the circuit diagram, cross out the original line on
the wiring diagram as you go. This avoids repeating wires that you have
already done on the circuit diagram or missing any wires.
 Draw sketches elsewhere so only your finished drawing appears in the

spaces provided.
(Reproduced with the permission of Email Major

Appliances)
Wiring Diagram from

ARAC page 29.9.

April 2009
Sequence of operation for the wiring diagram above
Active
Circuit diagram for the Kelvinator Heat Pump air conditioning unit Neutral

April 2009
Check your work with your teacher to be sure that you have identified the
correct sequence of operation and correctly converted the diagram. Note
below anything you wish to further investigate. NB: If you have any
questions don’t hesitate to ASK! The teacher is there to help you.

April 2009
Practical exercise 2 - Control circuit diagrams
Task
 Draw a circuit diagram for a simple air conditioning system.
 Describe the sequence of operation of a simple air conditioning circuit
diagram.
Procedure
1. Draw a control system diagram for a simple air conditioning system
using the components listed below.
2. Briefly explain the sequence of operation for the air conditioning system
diagram
Notes for Diagrams

 Be sure to use the symbols supplied in this module.
 Draw sketches elsewhere so only your finished drawing appears in the
spaces provided.
Components
 Three phase compressor fitted with sump heater

 Three phase evaporator fan motor
 Condensing unit containing three (3) single phase condenser fans.
 Three phase electric heater bank protected by an over temperature manual
reset thermostat.
 One heat / one cool thermostat
 Safety controls for compressor
 Fuses and / or circuit breakers
 Control switches

April 2009
L1 L2 L3 Neutral
Sequence of operation for the wiring diagram above

April 2009
Check your work with your teacher to be sure that you have identified the
correct sequence of operation and correctly converted the diagram. Note
below anything you wish to further investigate. NB: If you have any
questions don’t hesitate to ASK! The teacher is there to help you.

April 2009
Review questions
These questions will help you revise what you have learnt in this topic.
1. What are the three essential components of a control loop?
2. Describe the six major functions of these components.
3. What is the controlled variable in the control loop?
4. What is the set point of a controller?
5. What is the control point of a control loop?

April 2009
Review questions
6. What is the differential gap?
7. What is the offset of a control loop?
8. Define lag in a control loop.
9. What is meant by the term cycling in a control loop?
10. What does an actuator do?
11. What is the difference between a closed loop control system and an open
loop control system?

April 2009
Review questions
12. Define the term control point.
13. What are the three types of diagrams discussed in section 1?
14. What is a typical application for each of the diagram types:
 Air Conditioning Diagrams
 Pneumatic and Logic Control Diagrams
 Block Diagrams
 Circuit Diagram
 Wiring Diagrams
 Control Circuit Diagrams

April 2009
Review questions
15. Write down any control system components that you would expect to
find in a control diagram for a basic system to control conditioned air.
16. Identify the control system components that you would expect to find in
a control diagram for a system to condition water.
17. Draw the symbol for the following components:
 A thermostat that makes on rise.
 A thermostat that makes on fall.
 A two stage heating and two stage cooling thermostat
 A motor operated valve
 A sail switch

April 2009
Notes

April 2009
2. Types of Control Systems – General
Overview and Fluid Flow Control
Purpose
In this topic you will learn about the different types of control circuits,
sensing elements control actions, types of drives and fluid control.
Objectives
 list and explain the principles of air conditioning control
 explain the operation of various fluid flow control devices and systems.
Content
- Control Systems
- Control Signal Types
- Energy Transmission Types
- Electric Control Systems
- Electronic Control Systems
- Microprocessor
- Pneumatic
- The Three Elements of a Control System
- Sensing Elements
- Pressure Sensing
- Temperature Sensing
- Humidity Sensing
- Fluid Flow Sensors
- Orifice Plate or Vortex Nozzles
- Control Action
- On / Off or Two Position Controller
- Anticipators
- Multiposition or Multistage control
- Step Control
- Floating Control
- Proportional Control (PI & PID)
- Operation Type
- Control Valves – Liquid and Air Flow Control
- Other Forms of Drive

April 2009
35
References

Discusses On / Off control, humidity sensing

Discusses anticipators, floating control and proportional control
 ARAC Volume 1, pages 11.36 – 11.38; Volume 2, pages 29.23; 29.32 -

34
Discusses actuator / drive types
 Honeywell’s Heating, Ventilation Air Conditioning Training Manual

Discusses principles of automatic control
 Automatic Control Principles


April 2009
Control systems
Automatic control systems are used to maintain a controlled variable to a
desired condition. They are classified by the type of control signal it uses to
perform its function, either analog or digital and the type of energy
transmission. There are four energy transmission types commonly used in
the air conditioning industry, they are electric, electronic, microprocessor and
pneumatic control systems. Many control systems use a combination of the
above categories.
Control signal types

Analog and digital control (Excerpt from the Heating Ventilation Air
Conditioning Training Manual, page 25) Used with permission of
Honeywell Ltd.
Traditionally, analog devices have performed HVAC control. A typical
analog HVAC controller is the pneumatic type that receives and acts upon
data continuously.
The digital controller receives electronic signals from sensors, converts the
electronic signals to digital pulses (values), and performs the mathematical
operations on these values. The controller reconverts the output signal to
operate an actuator. The controller samples digital data at set time intervals,
rather than reading it continually.
The diagram below compares analog and digital control signals.
Comparison of Analog and Digital Control Signals

(Honeywell’s Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning Training Manual page 2-5)
(Reproduced with permission of Honeywell Ltd)

April 2009
37
Energy transmission types
Electric control systems

Electric control is the most basic control system of the three in its operation.
It tends to lend itself to mechanical modes of operation and uses higher
voltage in its control. They are generally slower to respond and are bulkier in
size.
Electronic control systems

Electronic control systems use sensitive equipment for faster more accurate
control. They have greater control capability when compared to other
control types and they usually take up less space. Lower voltages are used
which makes them safer to work with. Unfortunately, electronic controls
tend to be more expensive to purchase, though they are becoming more
reasonable as time goes on.
Microprocessor
Microprocessor-based controllers use digital control for a wide variety of
control sequences.
Pneumatic
Similar to electric but use compressed air as its energy source.
The three elements of a control system

Each control system, no matter the type requires three elements to control
conditions automatically, they are the sensing device, the controller and the
control device. This section of the module looks at:
1. the sensing elements used in the sensing device
2. the control action of the controller
3. the types of actuator / drive used by control devices.
Sensing elements
As mentioned previously, electric and pneumatic controls are similar in
operation and so use similar sensing equipment, called primary elements, to
attain automatic control. Electronic sensing is done by using low mass
primary elements that respond quickly to changes in the controlled condition.
Sensors are used to sense:
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Humidity

April 2009
 Fluid flow
 Other sensor types are available but will not be discussed in this module.
Pressure sensing
The following primary elements are used to sense pressure:
Electromechanical (ARAC Volume, pages 12.5 – 6 & Automatic Control
Principles page 7)
 Diaphragm
 Bellows
 Inverted bells immersed in oil
Electronic (Excerpt from Honeywell Engineering Manual of Automatic
Control page 127)
An electronic pressure sensors is usually a transmitter which converts
pressure into a variable such as voltage, current or resistance that can be used
by an electronic controller.
 Strain Gauge Pressure being
exerted from system
Flexible base
Fine (Serpentine) wire /
thin film metal
Strain gauge
shown flexing
Amplifier Connection
As pressure is exerted onto the strain gauge the length of the fine wire / thin
film metal stretches. The wires’ resistance changes according to the amount
of stretching that it undergoes.
 Capacitance Types Pressure Sensor

Pressure being
The capacitance type pressure sensor has exerted from
two plates in its assembly, a fixed plate and system
a flexible plate. As the pressure on the
flexible plate varies it moves closer to the Flexible Plate
fixed plate and changes the capacitance. Fixed Plate

April 2009
39
 Differential Pressure Sensor
Force is exerted onto a strain gauge in two Movement due to
directions. As with the strain gauge change in pressure
mentioned above, the resistance varies
depending on the pressure exerted. This
type of sensor can measure small Strain Gauge
differential pressure changes even with
high static pressure.
Temperature sensing (ARAC Volume 1, pages 12.4 – 5 & Automatic

Control Principles pages 7 –9)
The following primary elements are used to sense temperature:
Electromechanical
 Bimetal strips
 Rod-and-Tube Element
 Sealed Bellows
 Sealed bellows attached to a remote capsule or bulb.
Electronic
 Thermocouples
 Resistance Temperature Detectors – (RTD)
 Integrated Circuit Temperature Transducer (ICTT)
ICTTs are one of the latest progresses in sensor technology being that it
is a silicon chip soft soldered into a printed circuit board. They operate
on the principle that with a change in temperature the output, either a
voltage in millvolts or a current in milliamps, will vary accordingly.
 Thermistors
Thermistors can have either a positive or negative temperature co-
efficient.
 Positive Temperature Co-efficient (PTC): with a rise in temperature
there will be a rise in the resistance.
 Negative Temperature Co-efficient (NTC): with a rise in temperature
there will be a reduction in the resistance.

April 2009
+ +
Ohms Ohms
0 + 0 +
Temperature Temperature
Positive Temperature Co-efficient Negative Temperature Co-

(PTC) efficient (NTC)
Humidity sensing (ARAC Volume 1, pages 12.6 –12.7 & Automatic Control
Principles, page 10 – 11)
The following primary elements are used to sense humidity:
Electromechanical
 Nylon Ribbon or hair, either human or horse
 Wood
 Any material that responds to humidity like leather, horn and silk.
Electronic
 Hygroscopic (Gold – Foil Grid)
 The Capacitive Sensor (Excerpt from Honeywell Engineering Manual
of Automatic Control page 126)
Moisture Sensitive Polymer

Leads to controller or
sensing circuit
Gold foil or other type of
electrode plates
The capacitive sensor is a capacitor that has lithium chloride as a dielectric.

As the resistance of the lithium chloride varies with a change in humidity so
does the capacitance between the plates. With a change in capacitance there
will be either more or less current flow from the plates.

April 2009
41
Fluid flow sensors
Fluid flow control sensors are used to i. show fluid flow, ii. measure flow or
iii. measure temperature. Many of the sensors discussed will include both
the sensor and switchgear in the one body. Fluid control sensors include:
 Air pressure sensor – including pressure differential switch
These switches are used to sense a positive pressure in the duct to indicate
that the fan is running. The pressure differential switch can be used to
indicate a positive pressure, a negative pressure as well as differential
pressures and are used on applications according to the application.
Air Pressure Switch Differential Pressure Switch
(Reproduced with permission of Kirby Refrigeration - Erie Controls)
 Air flow sensor – sail switch

Sail switches are directional components that rely on airflow to make the
switch. Air movement lifts the sail that in turn makes a microswitch. Sail
switches are used for interlocking purposes; i.e. to hold off conditioning until
the fan is running.
Ductwork
Sail Sail Switch
Sail Switch shown mounted in Sail movement

ductwork. Airflow
 Air velocity sensor – using microelectronic circuitry.

A heated resistance element on a microchip is used as the primary sensing
element. By comparing the resistance of the heated element to the resistance
of an unheated element, the air velocity can be indicated.
 Liquid flow sensor – paddle switch
Paddle switches are used to detect water flow and are used for interlocking
purposes, i.e. as an indication that water is flowing before starting a chiller.
April 2009
Water movement makes a paddle move in the direction of the water flow, see
the diagram below. The paddle is connected to a microswitch that makes
with movement. It should be noted that this sensor / switch is a directional
component and must be installed accordingly.
On off signal to
controller Paddle Switch shown
Microswitch
fitted to into pipe
work
Pivot
Liquid Flow
(Reproduced with permission of No flow position Paddle fitted perpendicular to
Kirby Refrigeration) flow
 Differential water pressure sensor

These switches are designed both as a safety cut out and is used to detect
water flow. A typical application would be to mount the switch across a
water vessel (either a water cooled condenser or chilled water evaporator) to
confirm there is water flow.
Differential Water
Pressure Switch
(Reproduced with permission of Kirby Refrigeration)
Orifice plate or vortex nozzles

Flow meters measure the rate of fluid flow. Principle types of flow meters
use orifice plates or vortex nozzles that generate pressure drops proportional
to the square of the fluid velocity.

April 2009
43
Differential Pressure Water
Sensor To Controller Holes used for
the release of air
bubbles
Concentric Orifice Plate

Orifice Plate (other plate types are available)
Orifice Plate shown connected to a

differential pressure water sensor
Control action
Controllers are the link between a sensor and the equipment used to change
the controlled variable. There are two basic control types: On / Off and
Proportional though there are several variants of each.
The following diagrams are used to represent the behavior of a controller to

show the output versus the input relationship.
On/Off or two position controller (ARAC Volume 2, page 29.5 &

Automatic Control Principles, page 2)
As the name of this control type suggests, the control will either turn a
component on or off. On / Off control is the most common control type used
in the air conditioning industry. There are many examples of where this form
of control is used; on contactors (used for heating, cooling, motors, etc),
solenoid coils, reversing valves, etc. Different controls can and often do
combine different functions, like thermostats controlling both heating
contactors for heating and compressors for cooling.
On
On
State On
Off
Off
Set point
Diagrams used to represent cycling

in electronic controls
The above diagrams represent compressors cycling on and off on cooling

April 2009
Anticipators (ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.5-6)
Heaters are used in conjunction with the bimetal strip (primarily element) to
turn on and off the controlled device quicker. Anticipators are used for more
accurate control by minimising overshoot and can be used on both heating
and cooling. Overshoot
On
Off
Undershoot
Without Heat Anticipator With Heat Anticipator
Multiposition or multistage control (Automatic Control Principles,

page 3)
Multiple stages are used to attain smoother operation than for example just
one stage of heating or one stage of cooling.
Step control
Step Control uses proportional input to obtain proportional output using
equipment with On / Off control. This type of control is typically used on
larger air conditioning systems. Step controllers can be mechanical in that
they use cams to drive open and close microswitches or they can be
electronic.
Differential Throttling Range

3 On Off Off On
S
On Off Off On
T
2
A
G
Off Off On
E 1 On
Setpoint
20 21 22 23 24
Space Temperature °C
Step control showing Three Heat Three Cool Operation

April 2009
45
Floating Control (ARAC Volume 2, page 29.7 & Automatic Control
Principles, page 3)
Floating control uses fast responding sensors and slow moving actuators.
The sensor adjusts the controlled device until the controlled medium moves
back into the dead band area. The following graph demonstrates how
floating control is constantly moving the damper to match the load.
A Graph Showing Floating Control

(Used with permission of Honeywell)
Proportional Control (ARAC Volume 2, page 7 & Automatic Control

Principles, pages 4 & 16-17)
This type of control proportions the equipment to match the load. As the
load increases the controller opens an actuator at a rate that matches load
increase and visa versa. Proportional control tends not to bring the control
point to the set point and so is not used in the industry.
Maximum Full On
Heating Cooling
Output
Proportional Control Showing
Both Heating and Cooling
Minimum Full Off

Set Point
Increasing Temperature
April 2009
The proportional band can be calculated by the formula:
% Proportional Band = Throttling Range x 100

Span of Sensor
Example: A sensor has a range of 0 to 30°C, it would a range (called sensor
span) of 30K. If the final control element has a throttling range of 3K with
the set point at 22°C, the proportional band would be:
% Proportional Band = Throttling Range x 100

Span of Sensor
= 3K x 100
30K
= 20%
Other types of proportional control used include Proportional – Integral (PI)

and Proportional – Integral – Derivative (PID). A brief description and a
graphical comparison of each are given below. PI and PID controls will be
discussed at greater depth in latter control modules.
Proportional – Integral (PI) Control

Proportional – Integral acts as the proportional control described above but
with an automatic reset function. Integral shifts the proportional band to
bring back the controlled medium to the set point but over a period of time,
see Fig 2. This form of proportional control is the most common type used.
Proportional – Integral – Derivative (PID) Control

The derivative function of the control opposes any change in temperature and
is proportional to the rate of change. PID is quicker to bring the control point
back to set point, see Fig 3. Though this control is tighter in the parameters it
maintains, it is more expensive and hence generally used in applications
where accuracy is needed.
Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Fig. 1
Proportional-Integral Proportional-Integral-
Proportional
Control Derivative Control
A Graphical Comparison of the Three Forms of Proportional Control

(Honeywell’s HAVC Training Manual p.2-16)

April 2009
47
Actuators/drives
Many of the actuators listed below will be discussed at greater depth in other
sections of this workbook.
An actuator is a device that converts electric or pneumatic energy into a

rotary or linear action. Electronic systems do not have the inherent power to
drive valves or dampers. Electronics are used for the logic part of the
operation that in turn operates electric relays to do the physical work of
actuating the valves or dampers.
An actuator creates a change in the controlled variable by operating a variety

of final control devices such as valves and dampers.
Operation type
 Motorised Actuators including pneumatic actuators and motors: (ARAC
Volume 2, page 29.23, ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.32 – 34 and
Automatic Control Principles, page 28)
 Electronic Actuators
Control valves - liquid and air flow control

(Automatic Control Principles pages 17-18 and 35-42)
A control valve is any device that can be opened, closed, started or stopped
so as to regulate the flow of fluid being controlled. Actuators are fitted to
control valves to allow for automatic control. Typical flow control valves
used in air conditioning are classified by:
Construction
 Single seated valves
 Double seated valves
 Three-way mixing valves
 Three-way diverting valves
Method of controlling flow

Three Way Mixing and
 Sliding plug valve Diverting Valves
(Reproduced with permission of
 Rotary plug valve Kirby Refrigeration)
 Butterfly valve
Type of actuator
 Solenoid valve
April 2009
 Diaphragm valve
 Motorised valve
Type of dampers
 Flap type
 Splitter damper
 Pinch damper
 Louver damper
 Parallel blade damper Solenoid Coil Fitted to a Single
 Opposed blade damper Seated Valve
(Reproduced with permission of Kirby
Refrigeration)
Other forms of drive

 Electric
- Contacts for example on a relay (ARAC Volume 2, pages 12.19 –
20)
 Electronic
- Triac - (ARAC Volume 1, page 11.38)
- Transistor (ARAC Volume 1, pages 11.36 - 37)
 Thermal Expansion Fluid
A fluid that is used in an actuator that when heated will expand moving a
shaft that in turn can be used to drive open or closed dampers or valves. See
electronic control for further details.

April 2009
49
Practical exercise 1 – Control systems
Task
 Observe the operation of various simple air conditioning control devices.
 Explain the operation of various air conditioning control devices.
Procedure
1. Observe the operation of simple air conditioning control devices, one

system using On / Off control, one using step control and one system
using proportional control. (Do not observe Honeywell/ Johnson electric
modulating motors at this stage, they will be investigated in electric
control).
2. Briefly explain the operation of the simple air conditioning control

devices shown.
Remember: Work safely at all times!

 Systems may start automatically so make sure you keep fingers,
tools, hair, clothing etc away from rotating machinery.
 You cannot see electricity so consider all systems to be live until
proven otherwise.
 Make sure you are supervised when working on live circuits.
 If you are working with live circuits to diagnose electrical
problems, used extreme caution so as to avoid damage to testing
equipment, electrical shock or even electrocution.
.

April 2009
The operation of a On / Off control
The operation of a step control
The operation of proportional control

April 2009
51
Check your work with your teacher to be sure that you have carried out the
work required by this exercise. Note below anything you wish to further
investigate. NB: If you have any questions don’t hesitate to ASK! The
teacher is there to help you.

April 2009
Practical exercise 2 – Fluid flow control
Task
 Observe the operation of various fluid flow control devices and systems.
 Explain the operation of various fluid flow control devices and systems.
 Draw a control system circuit diagram.
Procedure
1. Observe the operation of a simple fluid flow control system, either a
water distribution system / or an air distribution system.
2. Briefly explain the operation of the water distribution system and / or an

air distribution system.
3. Draw a control system circuit diagram of the fluid flow control circuit.

 Systems may start automatically so make sure you keep fingers, tools,
hair, clothing etc away from rotating machinery.
proven otherwise.
 If you are working with live circuits to diagnose electrical problems,
used extreme caution so as to avoid damage to testing equipment,
electrical shock or even electrocution.
 Cooling towers may be contaminated, use safety equipment.
The operation of a water distribution system and / or an air distribution

system

April 2009
53
Control system circuit diagram

April 2009

April 2009
55
Review questions
1. What are the four major types of control systems available in the air
conditioning industry?
2. Briefly describe the difference between a digital and analog signal.
3. What is the function of a sensor?
4. How does a bimetal strip thermostat work?
5. How does a mercury tilt switch work?
6. What is the primary function of a Fluid Flow Sensor within an air

conditioning control system?

April 2009
Review questions
7. Where would a sail switch be fitted into a control circuit to keep

conditioning (heating and cooling) off until airflow was established?
8. Why would a paddle switch be fitted into a chilled water circuit?
9. What is the “controlled differential”?
10. What is the “throttling range” of a proportional controller?
11. What are the operating differences between “on-off” and “floating”
control types?
12. What are the operating differences between “floating” and

“proportional” control types?

April 2009
57
Review questions
13. What is the term for the device, which incorporates an actuator that
drives a shaft that has many cams, mounted on it to operate micro-
switches for a number of output devices?
14. What is the purpose of a relay in a control system?
15. What are the major design and operational difference between opposed
blade dampers and parallel blade dampers?
16. What effect would a parallel blade air damper and an opposed blade
damper have on the airflow at the half-open position?

April 2009
Review questions
17. In the following sketch are the valves mixing or diverting types?
18. Sketch in the correct location of a mixing valve on the cooling coil
below. Show all piping and indicate water flow directions.

April 2009
59
Review questions
19. Sketch in the space below a face and bypass damper control arrangement
and describe its operation.
Operation

April 2009
3. Energy Management and Building
Management Principles
Purpose
In this topic you will learn about the principles of both energy and building
management and the various systems used in air conditioning.
Objectives
 Explain the principles of both energy and building management and the
various systems used in air conditioning.
 

April 2009
61
Energy management and building management principles
The buildings that are currently being constructed in the major cities use a
great deal of glass that makes them aesthetically pleasing. For all their
beauty though, the use of so much sealed glass makes air conditioning an
absolute must throughout. The cost of air conditioning these buildings
makes up for a large part of the energy expense for running the building.
The following graph shows a comparison of energy usage in the commercial
sector of the USA:
Refrigeration 7% Other 14%
Water Heating 7%
Cooking 4%
Office Equipment 3%
Lighting 26%
HVAC 39%
US Commercial Sector Primary Energy Usage - 1993

(Celsius Magazine Vol. 26, No. 5, May 1998, p.10.)
Reproduced with permission of Celsius Magazine
The graph shows that HVAC makes up the largest percentage of the
consumption of energy, consumption that has to be paid for, consumption
that can be reduced.
Energy management has become a major concern for building owners in that
large savings can be made once different energy saving methods have been
installed. You are required to investigate the various methods that can be
used to attain those energy savings, the assignment for this section can be
found on following page.

April 2009
Energy management and building management assignment
You are required to do an assignment of approximately 600 words to

investigate the principles behind Energy Management and Building
Management. Time will be provided during class hours to do this
assignment. It will be due in hour 24 though this us up to the teacher in
charge of the module. The assignment will be worth 15% of the total mark
for this module.
The following topics are to be addressed:

What is:
 Energy Management
 Building Management and what type of systems are available?
 Economizer System
 Night Purge
 Thermal Storage
Other information to be investigated is:

 Running Costs What are the potential savings (if any)?
 Capacity Control What type of capacity control is / can be used in
Building Management and Energy Management?
Many of the topics listed above will discuss by your teacher throughout this
module.
Suggested area for your research:

1. Text Books
 ARAC
 Honeywell Engineering Manual of Automatic Control.
2. Industry Magazines
 Celsius Magazines
 AIRAH Journals
3. The Internet
Hints on using the Internet.
 Use just the words you are looking for, i.e. night purge in the search
box. The Internet will look for the words night and purge and will
show you a list of matches to your inquiry. You then can go through
the findings as you wish.

April 2009
63
 To narrow the findings, many of the search engines allows you to
link the words and so receiving findings closer to your needs. Try
Night and Purge, “Night Purge” etc. for example.
 Use questions to provide you with the answers you require, like:
What is night purge? etc.
 Use a variety of search engines. The author of this module has found
the search engine ‘Infoseek’ to be a good for technical information.
Other search engines include Excite, Yahoo, Alta Vista and Lycos,
etc.
4. Manufacturers of BMS systems, like: Honeywell, Landis and Staefa, etc
5. Ring building owners / building managers who are currently using
Energy Management / Building Management systems and speak to them
about their systems. Your college may supply you with a list of building
owners / managers that you may be able to approach.
Note: References should be provided on the last page of your assignment.
It should be noted that questions will be asked on this topic in the
theory tests.

April 2009
4. Electric Control Systems
Purpose
In this topic you will learn about electric control systems, the advantages and
disadvantages, major components, how to safely and correctly commission
and fault find electric control systems.
Objectives
 list and explain the principles of electric control systems
 determine the settings for various control devices
 safely and correctly start up, adjust and commission a simple electric air
conditioning control system
 identify electric system faults and their cause
 repair electric control system faults.
Content
- What is Electric Control
- Advantages of Electric Control
- Disadvantages of Electric Control
- What is in an Electric Controller
- Electric Control Components
- Integral Sensor / Controllers
- Electric Controller Types
- Step Controllers
- Electric Actuators
- Modulating Motors
- Application of Electric Control
- Electric Control System Commissioning
- Equipment Required When Testing and / or Commissioning Electric
Controls
- Controlled Variable Calibration Testing
- Two Stage Temperature Control Adjustments
- Setpoint Adjustment

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65
- Differential Adjustment
- Cutout Adjustment
- Other Tests that Can be Done to Electric Control Systems
- Insulation Resistance Test
- Resistance Tests
- Line Current Tests
- Volt Meter Tests
- Trouble Shooting of Electric Systems
- The Use of the Four Senses
References


April 2009
Electrical control systems
What is electric control? (Automatic Control Principles, page 5)
Electric controls have been around from the advent of air conditioning. It is
the most basic of control systems, using heavy robust components to provide
On / Off control. Variants of proportional control are possible either by
using modulating motors or step controllers (the use of On / Off control to
achieve a stepped output similar to proportional).
Typical voltages used with electric control range anywhere from 12 volts
through to 415 volts. All connection between control components is hard
wired.
Advantages of electric control (Automatic Control Principles, page 5)

See Automatic Control Principles
Other advantages include:
 Control components tend to be more robust in their construction.
 They tend to be an integral sensor / controller
 The sequence of control tends to be simple.
Disadvantages of electric control (Automatic Control Principles, page 5)

Other disadvantages include:
 Greater care must be taken when servicing electric controls because of
the higher voltages used
 Minor changes can require major wiring alterations to achieve the desired
result.
 A high degree of accuracy is often difficult to achieve.
 Electric controls are typically large therefore requiring more room for
mounting.
 The modulating actuators can be complex.

April 2009
67
What is in an electric controller?
For the most basic electric controller, the sensing element and switching
components are located within the one body. The switching arrangement is
directly coupled to the sensing element. As mentioned previously, hard
wiring is used to interlink other controls or actuators within the control
system.
Bulb Type Sensing

Element
Terminals for
Switching
Setpoint Knob
Picture showing both the switching

and sensing element all in the one
Multistage Thermostat
(Reproduced with permission of of Johnson
Controls)
Electric control components
Integral sensor / controllers

As the name Integral sensor / controller implies, both the sensor and the
controller are contained within the one body. This is typical of most electric
control equipment. See below for example of typical sensor / controllers.
BULB SENSING
ELEMENT
MERCURY BULB
BI-METAL STRIP
Potentiometric Thermostat fitted with Mercury Bulb, Bi-Metal Thermostat

a Sensing Bulb with Anticipation
(Reproduced with permission of Johnson Controls)

April 2009
SENSING ELEMENT
Made of a continuous band
of cellulose acetate
butyrate.
Humidistat
Low Range Pressure
Control
Electric controller types
Step controllers
Electric step controllers are being replaced with modern electronic step
controllers but they are still in the field and an awareness of them is
necessary in the event that you will need to service one. On / Off sensor /
controllers are typically used to control step controllers. The sensors used
are generally located remote to (away from) the step controller. Whenever
the controller makes contact, a motor is powered. The motor drives a set of
adjustable cams (see diagram below) that can make and or break a series of
microswitches. These microswitches can be used to sequence on and off a
range of air conditioning equipment like liquid line solenoid coils
compressors, heaters etc.
Motor Terminal Position Dial
Shown as a percentage (%) of travel
Wiring from motor Cams
0°
terminals to motor
90°
Bi-directional
synchronous motor
Microswitches
Common (1)
Switch Position (2)
Drive between motor Switch Position (3)
and cam
A
1
B A
Diagram Showing Step Controller 2
and Microswitch Operation
1 B
2
April 2009
69
Forward
Reverse
°t
Motor
Terminal
Block
Three Stages of Heating Three Stages of Cooling
Step Controller Wiring Diagram Showing

One of Many Combinations of Output
Electric actuators (Automatic Control Principles, pages 27-42)
The types of electric actuators used with electric control include:

 Magnetic coils
 Relays
 Contactors
Relay
Johnson Controls)
 Motors – ranging from the synchronous motor shown in the step

controller above to the reversible motors seen on pages 28 - 29 of
Automatic Control Principles.
 Synchronous
 Permanently Split Capacitor
 Shaded Pole
 Spring Return Light Duty Motor Actuator
(Reproduced with permission of Johnson
Controls)
 Modulating motor – Described as electronic motors in Automatic

Control Principles (pages 32-35).
Modulating motor (Automatic Control Principles, pages18-20)

The motors shown are the precursor to the modern day electronic actuator.
These motors use a potentiometric controller, a second potentiometer and a
balancing relay (part of the motor) as its basis of operation.

April 2009
Modulating Motor incorporating a
balancing relay
Application of electric control

Electric control:
 was originally and still is to varying degrees was across the spectrum of
the air conditioning industry.
 is used in domestic room air conditioning units through to large
commercial and industrial applications.
 can and often is used with other control systems.
Electric control system commissioning

(Video: Air Conditioning Commissioning – 88-042 - SA TAFE)
Equipment required when testing and / or commissioning

electric controls
Before the commencement of any commissioning exercise, the technician
should become familiar with the operating parameters for the plant being
commissioned. The manufacturer of the equipment, the consultant or the
design engineer looking after the job will provide the technician with the
relevant data to be able to commission the job correctly.
Once the commissioning data is attained, the correct testing equipment is

required to properly carry out the job. A list of the typical equipment that
you will need when working on electric based control systems is listed
below.
 Controlled Variable Measuring Devices – ie Sling Psychrometers,
Digitemps, etc.
 Insulation tester (Megga)
 Multimeter
 A resistance meter
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71
 Volt meter
 Amp meter (tong tester)
Controlled variable calibration testing

Controlled variable calibration testing is done using test instruments like
Digitemps for temperature, Sling Psychrometers for both temperature and
humidity, pressure gauges for pressure, etc.
Many of the air conditioning integrated sensor / controllers have preset

differentials and the only adjustment is the set point. Each adjustment
recommended below would depend on the type and brand of the control you
are working on. To test a control for calibration:
1. Measure the controlled variable condition – ie pressure, temperature or
relative humidity using the appropriate measuring instrument.
2. Adjust the set point of the control until it corresponds to the control
variable condition. If the control is not asking for a corrective action,
(sitting within the dead band) test for differentials. If the control is not
sitting within the dead band, an adjustment will be required.
3. Test the differentials of the control and adjust if possible accordingly.
If in doubt of any adjustments call the manufacturer of the control and get
them to send out the relevant information on their product.
The information below shows typical adjustments that can be made on a
variety of controls:
Two stage temperature control adjustments
(Pictures reproduced with permission of Johnson Controls)

April 2009
Setpoint adjustment
To adjust the setpoint turn the
adjustment shaft in the desired direction
required.
Differential adjustment
Rotating the adjusting cam counter
clockwise as shown in the diagram
will increase the differential between
the stages.
Cut out adjustment

The cut out is adjusted by sliding the
stop to the front of the thermostat.
Other controls have adjustments located on the front of the control like that
of the Low Pressure control shown earlier in this section.
Other tests that can be done to electric control systems
Insulation resistance test
NEVER TEST ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS WITH AN INSULATION

TESTER AS ELECTRONICS WILL NOT TAKE HIGH VOLTAGES.
Testing should be done between all live conductors and earth (without power
on). According to the Electrical Wiring Rules – AS 3000:
 You should always test the electrical component at approximately twice
the rated voltage, ie. 240 component – use the 500V setting of the meter.

April 2009
73
 An electrical component is bad between zero (0) and one (1) and good
between one (1) megohm and infinity. Between one (1) and two (2)
megohm you would be very wary of using it.
Resistance tests
 Test circuit wiring, switches, safety controls, etc for continuity.
 Check coils on relays, motors and heater elements for correct resistance.
Line current tests

 Check motors and equipment for operating currents compared to rated
line currents.
 Check all currents in each phase are approximately the same.
Voltmeter tests
 Check for correct voltage across:
 Supply
 Motors
 Coils
 Heater etc.
The voltmeter can be a very useful tool to detect open circuit by simply
turning the circuit on and checking where the supply stops.
Trouble shooting of electric systems

Regardless of the type of control system used, whenever a technician is
required to trouble shoot faults on an air conditioning system they must do
four things.
1. Recognise that a fault or faults has occurred on the plant, this may occur
during general servicing or when a customer makes a complaint.
2. With the recognition that there is a fault, the next thing to do is to locate
the fault(s) and the reason for the fault.
 It should be remembered that the most valuable asset in fault
finding is knowledge and common sense.
 Fault finding requires a knowledge of both circuit operation and
equipment operation.
 When checking for faults use logic by starting at the beginning of
the circuit and work through.

April 2009
3. Once the fault and its cause have been identified, the technician must
carry out all necessary repairs to the equipment.
4. With all repairs complete, the plant can be restarted and a final check
done to ensure its correct operation.
The use of the four senses

Four senses should be used when fault finding and can be used as follows:
Look - Check for broken wires, blown fuses, broken switches or
burnt out coils, etc.
Smell - Burnt varnish (i.e. burnt out coils) is a distinctive smell that
should be acquired.
Listen - Listen for buzzing or chattering relays or contactors, noisy or
groaning motors.
Touch - Feeling for excess component temperatures. Care should be
taken when touching components for overheating as many
components in an electrical system operate in excess of
100°C.
When touching electric component, care should also be taken to avoid
electric shock.

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Practical exercise 1 – Electric control system
Task
Explain the operation of various electric controls.
Procedure
You will observe the operation of various electric control systems including
an example of on/off control, proportional controller (e.g. a Johnson or
Honeywell modulating motor), etc. From your observations you are required
to describe the operation of various electric controls that your teacher will
identify.

proven otherwise.
Operation of electric controls as identified by your teacher
Name of Component: On / Off Control
Operation:

April 2009
Name of Component: Johnson or Honeywell Modulating Motor
Operation:
Name of Component:
Operation:
Name of Component:
Operation:

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77
Practical exercise 2 – Electric control system
commissioning
Task
 Wire a basic air conditioning electric control system
 Determine the settings for various electric control devices.
 Safely and correctly start up, adjust and commission a simple electric
control system.
Procedure
From the commissioning sheet provided, you will:
1. Wire a basic electric air conditioning control system as per the wiring
diagram provided (using the equipment available in your college.) Your
teacher will provide you with any alterations that are necessary.
2. Test the integrated sensor / controller for accuracy and make any
adjustments that are required.
3. Commission all actuators.

proven otherwise.

April 2009
Commissioning electronic controller data
Control circuit diagram
K1
On / Off 3
Switch Evaporator Fan
K2
3
°t
Heater Contactor
Heater Safety Coil
Sail Switch
K3
5
°t Safety Control
Circuit Compressor
One Heat / One Contactor Coil
Cool Thermostat
RH Humidistat
Systems operating parameters

 The conditions of the space are to be maintained at 22.5°C
 The compressor is to cycle on and off between 23°C and 24°C.
 The heater bank is to cycle on and off between 21°C and 22°C.
 A humidistat is required to maintain conditions in the space between 55
to 60% RH.
 The heater safety (usually non-adjustable fitted with a manual reset), but
for this exercise a manually adjustable thermostat is to cut out the heater
if the temperature reaches 60°C.
 The sail switch will make whenever the fan is operating.

April 2009
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Practical exercise 3 – Electric control system fault finding
Task
 Identify an electric control system fault and it’s cause.
 Repair the fault.
Procedure
1. One or a number of faults will be placed on an electric fluid control
system by your teacher and you will be required to identify the fault/s as
you see it / them.
2. Your teacher may require you to repair the fault/s and then test the
system for correct operation or you may simply be required to describe
the repairs required in the space provided below.

proven otherwise.
Fault Identification
Type of Fault:
Possible Cause for Fault:

April 2009
Repairs Required:
Type of Fault:
Repairs Required:

April 2009
81
Review questions
1. What control action does the electric control system lend itself to best?
2. Is it possible to attain true proportional control from electric control?

Explain your answer.
3. Name three advantages of electric control.
4. Name three disadvantages of electric control.
5. Step Controllers are used on large air conditioning applications.

Describe how a Step Controller would operate in conjunction with an
integrated temperature sensing / floating controller.

April 2009
Review questions
6. Step controllers are fitted with microswitches. What are microswitches

and what is their function?
7. What is the simplest type of control system actuation?
8. Permanently split capacitor motors can be used as actuators. Describe

how the motor’s direction can be changed.
9. What is the function of limit switches on modulating motors?
10. Briefly describe the operation of the balancing relay in the modulating
motor.
11. What is an integrated sensor / controller?

April 2009
83
Review questions
12. How would an integrated humidity sensor / controller be tested for

accuracy when it was being commissioning?
13. What is the insulation resistance tester used to test?
14. Describe how the insulation resistance tester is used (ie, the settings and
expected outcomes)
15. What are the four things technicians must do every time they fault find
on an air conditioning system?
16. When fault finding, why was it suggested that the senses be used?
17. Which senses were suggested and what faults could they be used to
identify?

April 2009
Review questions
18. In the following drawings of simple electric control circuits, identify the
various components as indicated by the numbers.
Three Phase
Power 5
4
3
From Supply Heater Stage 1

Fan
8 °t Heater Stage 2
High-Limit Manual
2 Reset ? °t
1 7 6
Two Stage Electric

Heating
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

April 2009
85
Notes

April 2009
5. Electronic Control Systems
Purpose
In this topic you will learn about electronic control systems, the advantages
and disadvantages, major components, how to safely and correctly
commission and fault find electronic control systems.
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to:
 list and explain the principles of electronic control systems
 safely and correctly start up, adjust and commission a simple electronic
air conditioning control system
 identify electronic system faults and their cause
 repair electronic control system faults.
Content
- What is Electronic Control
- Advantages of Electronic Control
- Disadvantages of Electronic Control
- What is in the Electronic Controller
- The Bridge
- The Amplifier
- The Output Circuit
- Electronic Controller Types
- Magnetic Actuators
- Motorised Actuators
- Thermal Actuators
- Electro-hydraulic Actuators
- Applications of Electronic Control Systems

April 2009
87
- Electronic Control System Commissioning
- The Sensor
- The Controller
- Final Control Devices
- Specialised Service Tools Required for Electronic Control Work
References

April 2009
Electronic control system
What is electronic control?

Electronic control systems use electronic components like resistors, diodes,
transistors, silicon controlled rectifiers, diacs, triacs, etc, to produce more
accurate control of environmental conditions. (Electronic components will
not be discussed at any great length in this module). They use extra low
input signals (millivolts etc) and increases the signal to a useable values at
the output of the controller (ie 0 –10 V).
Sensing elements in the input circuit are generally of the resistive type (see
section 2 for electronic sensor types). The outputs are fundamentally
proportional but On / Off control is also available.
Advantages of electronic control (Automatic Control Principle, page 5)

Disadvantages of electronic control (Automatic Control Principles,

page 6)
 Initial purchase cost of electronic control equipment more expensive than
electric control equipment.
 The actuators and controllers are more complex.
What is in the electronic controller?

(Automatic Control Principles, page 20, Control Systems for Air Conditioning and
Refrigeration, pages 113-115)
There are three basic parts of a simple single-element electronic controller,
they are:
The The Output

The Bridge Amplifier Circuit
The bridge
The bridge incorporates the sensing part of the controller. It works on the
principle of the Wheatstone Bridge described in the Automatic Control
April 2009
89
Principles (page 18 - 20) but with the addition of an electronic sensing
element and a variable resistor for set point adjustments.
Resistor Resistor
Variable Resistor t° Electronic Sensing

Required to adjust set point Element
The Bridge Circuit
The amplifier
As the signal from the bridge circuit of the controller does not have enough
power to operate an actuator connected to the output, the signal must be
amplified. The amplifier must increase the millivolt signal from the bridge
to an output voltage of between 0 – 10 volts. The controller generally has
two amplifiers fitted, one for direct acting signals and one for reverse acting
signals.
The output circuit
The output circuit is where the actuators are connected on the controller to
provide the correct sequence of operation. The diagram below shows a
typical one heat / one cool proportional control that could be connected to the
output circuit.
10V 0V 10V
For a balance to occur in the bridge,
both the sensing element and the set
Reverse Acting Direct Acting point variable resistor must be in
balance. When this occurs the output
will be at zero volts.
Setpoint
Temperature Increase
Outputs on Electronic Controller

April 2009
With a drop in temperature below the set point temperature, the reverse
acting output signal will increase proportionally to 10 volts and the direct
acting output will be at zero.
At set point both outputs will be at zero, this point is considered to be the
null position.
With an increase in temperature above the set point temperature, the direct
acting output signal will increase proportionally to its maximum output and
the reverse acting output will be at zero.
SCS-klimo Proportional SCS-klimo On / Off

Controller Controller
(Reproduced with permission of Landis and Staefa Controls)
Electronic controller types

Electronic controllers are available in a wide variety of types and styles
depending on the manufacturer. Typical controls that Landis and Staefa
produce include:
 On / Off Control
- One, two and three outputs
 Proportional Control
- One, two and three outputs
 Proportional Integral (PI) and Proportional Integral Derivative (PID)
 Step Controllers
 Two and Three in One Controller

- Both temperature and humidity is contained in the one controller
body
 Energy Recovery Controller

 Transducer Modules
April 2009
91
 Other control types are available like high and low selectors, etc.
Electronic actuators (Control Systems for Air Conditioning and

Refrigeration, pages 117 – 119)
Electronic Actuators are available as proportional, two-position, and two-
position with spring return configurations. There are primarily four main
types of electronic actuators, they are:
 Magnetic
 Motorised
 Thermal
 Electro Hydraulic
Magnetic actuators
There are two types of magnetic actuator:
 On / Off - Solenoid type actuator
 Variable - The core of the actuator changes its position against a
counter spring with each change in current. This allows for
small movements to be transferred to the valve being
controlled.
Example of a Magnetic Actuator

Steam Humidifier Valve
(Reproduced with permission of Landis and
Staefa Controls)

April 2009
Motorised actuators
The motorised actuator makes use of synchronous motors that convert rotary
motion into linier motion.
SCS-klimo Motorised Control Valve Belimo Motorised Damper

Actuator Actuator
(Reproduced with permission of Landis and Staefa Controls) (Reproduced with permission of Belimo
Aust Pty Ltd)
Thermal Actuators
Thermal actuators are made up of a heating element and a solid expansion
medium. The heater heats up and cools down according to the variation in
the output voltage from the electronic controller. With an increase in
temperature, the solid expansion medium will expand causing a force to be
exerted creating a stroke movement. If the voltage is reduced from the
controller, the heater cools, the expansion medium contracts again causing
the opposite effect in stroke movement.
Expansion Medium
ie Wax Heater
Seal
Shaft and Sring
Thermal Actuator
SCS-klimo Thermal Actuators

3 Way Valve
(Reproduced with permission of Landis
and Staefa Controls)

April 2009
93
Electro-hydraulic actuators
Electro hydraulic actuators use an oil pump and a pump valve (similar to a
solenoid) to create valve or damper movement. If the voltage from the
output of the electronic controller increases the pump valve closes isolating
the actuators bottom chamber from the top. The pump fills the bottom
chamber, extending the actuator shaft. If the voltage from the controller
decreases, the servo valve opens relieving pressure back into the top
chamber. The actuator shaft retracts.
Oil Reservoir Hydraulic Fluid Flow

Pump Valve
Hydraulic Pump
Pressure Chamber
Diaphragm
Piston
Actuator Shaft and Spring
Electro-hydraulic Actuator
Applications of electronic control systems

Electronic controls are used in all forms of air conditioning systems from
domestic through to large industrial applications.
Electronic control system commissioning
You will be required to commission an electronic control set up applicable to

your college. The following control components will be commissioned: a
sensor, a controller and at least one final control device. The exercise
assumes that the wiring of the control circuit has been done to an acceptable
Australian standard and there are no faults.
WARNING NEVER TEST / COMMISSION ELECTRONIC

CONTROLS WITH AN INSULATION RESISTANCE METER
(MEGGA). YOU WILL DESTROY THE CONTROLS THAT ARE
CONNECTED AT THE TIME!
The sensor
Electronic sensors are used to measure a variety of mediums, for example,
temperature, humidity, pressure, pressure difference, etc. Where there is a
April 2009
change in the medium condition, the sensor senses the change and reacts by
varying its output to the controller. Sensor outputs vary between
manufacturers, and the output types used are listed below:
 resistance (PTC or NTC),
 voltage (mV)
 amperage (mA).
The manufacturer of the sensor will produce a table or a chart that compares
the change in medium to the output for the sensor in question.
If you find that the sensor being tested does not compare to the
manufacturer’s specifications, either adjust the sensor (if possible) or replace
it.
The controller
The controller takes the signal from the sensor and amplifies it into some
form of energy that can be used to turn on and off components, drive
actuators open and closed etc.
Again as with sensors, each controller will vary in the type of adjustments
available. Many of the domestic controllers only have simple adjustments
available to both the service person as well as the customer. They tend to
have a combination of the following alterations available:
 temperature
 fan speed
 zoning
Your teacher will show you typical domestic electronic controls with simple
adjustments.
Other controllers, typically commercial and up are more complicated in that

they have a wide variety of alterations available to the service person and
minimal alterations available to the customer. The controls described can
include the following alterations:
 Set point
 Differential
 Dead band
 Proportional band, etc
Your teacher will show a controller or controllers that contains some / all of
the above adjustments. The adjustments are typically done using a ‘pots’ or
button adjustment.

April 2009
95
Final control devices
Final control devices are components that receive the output signal from the
controller and make the corrective action occur. Final control devices can
include:
 Motors
 Actuators
 Contactors
 Relays, etc.
Again each final control device adjustment will vary depending on the
manufacturer. Adjustments can include:
 Direction
 Reverse acting
 Direct acting
 Length of stroke
 Degree of rotation, etc.
Specialised service tools required for electronic controls work

Electronic control manufactures produce a variety of tools specific to their
control system for ease of commissioning and service work. The diagram
below shows a tool used to allow for easy access of operating conditions /
outputs of a Landis and Gyr electronic controllers. See other manufacturers
for tools specific to their control systems.
Landis and Gyr (now Landis and Staefa Controls)

Electronic Controller Access Tool
(Reproduced with permission of Landis and Staefa Controls)

April 2009
Fault finding electronic control systems
Many of the fault finding techniques and meters used in electronic fault
finding are the same as those discussed in electric control fault finding. The
one major difference is that you should NEVER use an Insulation Resistance
Tester (Mega) to test electronic equipment!
Again a good working knowledge of electronic control systems is a benefit

when fault finding. If in doubt, do not hesitate to call the electronic
manufacturer for technical data. They are generally open to offering product
specific advice.

April 2009
97
Practical exercise 1 – Electronic control system
Task
Explain the operation of various electronic controls.
Procedure
You will observe the operation of a complete electronic control system and
from your observations briefly explain the operation of various electronic
controls that your teacher will identify.

proven otherwise.
Operation of electronic controls identified by your teacher
Name of Component:
Operation:

April 2009
Name of Component:
Operation:
Name of Component:
Operation:
Name of Component:
Operation:

April 2009
99
Practical exercise 2 – Electronic control system
commissioning
Task
 Wire a basic air conditioning electronic control system
 Determine the settings for various electronic control devices.
 Safely and correctly start up, adjust and commission a simple electronic
control system.
Procedure
From the wiring diagram and commissioning sheet provided by your teacher,
you will:
1. Wire a basic electronic air conditioning control system such as Micro
Air, Eberle, Carel, Innotceh etc.
2. Identify the operating temperatures, setpoint, dead bands / zones,
proportional bands and differentials that the electronic controller/s and
actuators will operate at to satisfy the diagram requirements.
3. Commission the electronic controllers within the settings provided.
4. Commission all actuators attached to the electronic controllers.

proven otherwise.

April 2009
Step 1 The operating temperatures, setpoint, dead bands / zones,
proportional bands and differentials identified on the commissioning sheet.
Controller 1 (Type) _______________________________________

 Setpoint ____________________
 Proportional Band ____________________
 Differential ____________________
 Dead Zone ____________________
 Dead Zone ____________________
 Forward / Reverse Acting ____________________
 Forward / Reverse Acting ____________________
Actuator Operating Range (in volts)
 Full open: ______________ Volts

 Full closed: ______________ Volts
Step 2 Commission the controllers and actuators according to the figures

identified above. Do not forget to set the switches to ensure correct
operation.
Your teacher MUST check your wiring before power is supplied to the
controllers!

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101
Step 3 Confirm that the electronic controllers are operating as per the
commissioning sheet.
Is the controller operating as per the commissioning sheet?

Yes / No
Explain your answer
Is the actuator operating as per the commissioning sheet? Yes / No
Explain your answer

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Practical exercise 3 – Electronic control system fault
finding
Task
 Identify an electronic control system fault and it’s cause.
 Repair the fault.
Procedure
1. One or a number of faults will be placed on the electronic system by
your teacher and you will be required to identify the fault/s as you see it
/ them.

proven otherwise.
Type of Fault:

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Repairs Required:
Type of Fault:
_________________________________________________
Repairs Required:

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Review questions
1. What is the major difference between the electronic control system and
the electric control system?
2. What are the two types of control action provided by electronic

controllers?
3. What are the three major components in a simple electronic control

system?
4. Briefly describe the operation of a Wheatstone Bridge.
5. Name the three advantages of electronic control

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Review questions
6. Name three disadvantages of electronic control
7. Name the three basic parts of a simple single element controller
8. Name the four types of actuator used in the AC industry
9. In your own words briefly describe the operation of a thermal actuator
10. Briefly describe the operation of a electrohydraulic actuator

April 2009
Review questions
11. What meter should never be used when servicing electronic control
systems? Explain your answer.
12. Draw a graphical representation using the following system description

on the graph provided below.
System description
The room temperature in the controlled space is to be maintained at

19°C. It is not to deviate further away than + 1K or – 0.5 K. There is to
be no dead zone.
Full Open / On
Full Closed / Off
17 18 19 20 21
13. Using the information provided in the description and the graph from
question 10, complete the following table.
Controller Type:
Set Point
Proportional Band 1
Dead Zone 1
Proportional Band 2
Dead Zone 2

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Review questions
14. Using the information provided in the graph shown below, complete the
following table.
Full Open / On
1 2
Full Closed / Off

19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Controller Type:
Set Point
Differential 1
Dead Band 1
Differential 2
Dead Band 2

April 2009
6. Pneumatic Control Systems
Purpose
In this topic you will learn about pneumatic control systems, the advantages
and disadvantages, operating pressures, major components, how to safely and
correctly commission and fault find pneumatic systems.
Objectives
 list and explain the principles of pneumatic control systems
 safely and correctly start up, adjust and commission a simple pneumatic
air conditioning control system
 identify pneumatic control system faults and their cause
 repair pneumatic control system faults.
Content
- What is Pneumatic Control
- Advantages of Pneumatic Control
- Disadvantages of Pneumatic Control
- What is in a Pneumatic System
- Air Compressors
- Operating Conditions of a Pneumatic Circuit
- Keeping the Air Supply at the Correct Operating Pressure, Clean and
Dry
- Pressure Reducing Device
- Main Line Filter
- Refrigerated Air Dryer
- Pneumatic Transmission
- Controllers
- Other Pneumatic Controls

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- Humidity and Air Pressure Sensors
- Pneumatic Actuators or Motors
- Applications of Pneumatic Control Systems
- Pneumatic Control System Commissioning
- Specialised Service Tools Required for Pneumatic Controls Work
- Component Commissioning
- Air Regulator Commissioning
- Pneumatic Thermostat Commissioning
- Testing the Operating Range of a Water Valve
- Setting the Stroke of a Damper
- Fault Finding Pneumatic Control Systems
References

Discusses pneumatic control

April 2009
Pneumatic controls (ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.27 – 29.39)
What is pneumatic control?

Pneumatic control is the use of clean dry air as a power source in place of
voltages and currents in the operation of control equipment within the air
conditioning plant. In place of a mains power supply, an air compressor is
used to supply the systems energy needs. Instead of copper conductors, soft
drawn copper tubing with soldered fittings or nylon-reinforced plastic or
polyethylene tubing is used to transport the air around the control system.
Apart from these significant differences much of the controls equipment

stays the same (other than the fact that they operate by air.) Sensors are still
required to sense the conditions; controllers to operate according to the
sensor signal and pneumatic controlled devices to operate to control the load.
Electricity and / or electronics can be coupled into the pneumatic system.

This is done so i. equipment like compressors, heaters, etc can be initiated
and ii. to get the benefit of accuracy that electronics give. Control equipment
like Pneumatic – Electric (PE) relays (switching devices) and Electronic –
Pneumatic transducers (sensing devices) are used to link the different
systems together.
Advantages of pneumatic control (ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.27-29.28)

Other advantages include:
 Can be used in hazardous environments. If electric switching were to be
used in explosive atmospheres like armament factories there could be
the potential for explosion every time the contacts opened. (Pneumatic
controls do not arc when they open and close.)
 The actuators for valves and dampers are simple, powerful and reliable
 Pneumatic control provides the simplest of modulating control
Disadvantages of pneumatic control

 Some mechanics consider pneumatic control systems to be difficult to
work with. Many pneumatic systems have been replaced with
electronic systems due to the lack of knowledge about a systems
operation.
 At temperatures below zero, the air lines may provide trouble
 Clean dry air is required to make the pneumatic control system working
to it maximum potential.

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What is in a pneumatic system?
Air compressors
Air compressors are generally single stage, air-cooled and of the
reciprocating type. They range in size from 200 watts to 13 kW and the
smaller sized compressors are mounted on the receiver tank. Pressure
switches are used to start and stop the compressor and therefore maintain the
operating pressures required by the system.
Reciprocating Air
Compressor
Air Receiver
Air Compressor
(Reproduced with permission of Atlas Copco)
Operating Conditions of a Pneumatic Circuit

(ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.28-29)
Supply Air Main Air Branch Lines
SA MA
Air Solenoid
Valve T
PE
Thermostat Actuator
Diagram of a basic pneumatic Pressure - Electric
control circuit. Relay
The above diagram helps to identify the names and the extent of the various
air supply regions of a pneumatic control system. The list below is a
description of the different supplies and the operating pressures that they
operate within.
System Air (SA): is the air that is held in the stored in the receiver tank
of the compressor and feeds to the pressure reducing
April 2009
device. ARAC suggests the operating pressure to be
approximately 700 kPa.
Main Air (MA): is the supply to the components like controllers and
valves etc, after the system air has been reduced to
between 100 and 120 kPa.
Branch (B): is the air that leaves a controller and that is varied
according to load. ARAC suggests that the operating
pressure in the branch to be between 20 and 90 kPa.
The Branch Line is sometimes called the Pilot line (P).
Keeping the air supply at the correct operating pressure, clean

and dry
As was mentioned in the introductory paragraph, the air supply must be kept
both clean and dry to ensure the reliable operation of the pneumatic control
system. Equipment throughout the control system has many small orifices
and hence the potential for blockages due to impure air. There are two
minimum requirements necessary for the supply air, to be kept clean and dry.
The components use to meet these requirements are shown below.
AX Valve
Water
Separator
Compressor
Condenser
A Refrigerated Air Dryer

(Reproduced with permission of Atlas
A Main Line Filter / Regulator Copco)
(Reproduced with permission of SMC Pneumatics)
Pressure reducing device

The air pressure being supplied to the main system must be reduced from the
system air pressure of approximately 700 kPa to between 100 and 120 kPa.
A pressure reducing device called an air pressure regulator is used, (see the
diagram above) and can be fitted with a filtering device if required.

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Main line filter
The main line filter must be capable of eliminating small particles from the
supply and will usually be able to filter oil to prevent oil contamination of the
system. Most filters capable of absorbing oil will change colour, often
becoming red. The extent of colour change indicates the need for filter
replacement, (see manufacturer notes for further details.)
Refrigerated air dryer

As well as the need for cleanliness, there is the need for dry air.
Refrigerated air dryers are usually fitted and should be checked regularly for
its proper operation. Some plants are equipped with chilled water air dryers.
Another method of dehydration is to use chemical driers. Silica gel is

generally used as the drying agent.
Dehydration is required to prevent the:

 Collection of moisture in the lower sections of piping.
 Collection of moisture that will reduce airflow in the piping and in
instruments causing orifice openings to block.
 Corrosion of instruments rendering them inoperative.
It should be noted that oil discharged into the main supply line would
eventually penetrate the whole system causing similar problems to those
mentioned under dehydration.
Pneumatic transmission
The transmitter is a sensor that is used to measure temperature and relative
humidity. It measures the controlled variable and converts it into a pressure
signal of between 20 and 90 kPa. The sensitivity of a transmitter is equal to
the change in output pressure divided by the change in the measured
variable.
Controllers (ARAC 29.29-31)

A pneumatic controller is a device that reduces mains air pressure into a
signal that varies between 20 kPa and 90 kPa. They are either two position
or proportional. Control types include:
 The bleed-type controller – This system wastes a lot of air as it is
continually exhausting air from the branch line.
 The non bleed system – Only exhaust while reducing the branch line
pressure.

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 The pilot bleed system – A combination of the bleed-type and non-bleed
systems.
 High Capacity controller
Controllers may be either direct acting or reverse acting. (See the Glossary
in this module for further details.)
Other pneumatic controls (ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.31–32)

As with all the other control systems, they can become quite complex in
operation requiring a variety different control types to make them work
effectively. The following list identifies a number of typical relay types that
can be found in pneumatic control systems and shows a typical application
for each. See the ARAC reference for details on these relays.
(The following pictures have been reproduced with permission of Honeywell
Australia.)
 Two position relays
Snap Acting Relay

Typical Application for a Snap
Acting Relay
 Selector relays
Load Analyser
Higher-of-Two-Pressures
Relay
A Typical Application for
the Load Analyser

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115
 Proportional relays
Ratio Relay
A Typical Application for a

Ratio Relay
 Reverse-acting relays
Revering Relay
Typical Application for

a Reversing Relay
Transducers
Electronic Pressure Transducer

Other transducer types are available like
electromagnetic transducers or relay etc.
(Reproduced with permission of Johnson
Controls)
There are many more control types available and these can be found in the
Honeywell Engineering Manual of Automatic Control. Other suppliers of
pneumatic controls (like Johnson Controls) can be approached for
information relating to their products.
Humidity and air pressure sensors (ARAC Volume 2, page 29.32)

See the ARAC reference and earlier information in this module for further
details.

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Pneumatic actuators or motors (ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.32 – 34)
Air From Controller
Cover
Piston
Diaphragm
Yoke
Spring
Retaining Nut
Cutaway of an Oval-Top Actuator

A pneumatic actuator is a controlled device that is the part of the system that
does the work, i.e. opens dampers, opens valves etc. When air from the
controller enters the space above the piston (see the diagram below) it causes
the piston to move against the spring. The force exerted and the amount of
movement depends on two factors:
1. The strength of the spring
2. The amount of pressure above the spring.
If greater forces are required than can be delivered by a piston type actuator,
the diaphragm actuator is commonly used. (To calculate the force (Newton)
being exerted, multiply the diaphragm area ( d2 ) by the pressure (Pascal).
4
Applications of pneumatic control systems

(ARAC Volume 2, pages 29.34 – 36)
See the ARAC reference for details.
Pneumatic control system commissioning

The following information will show you how to commission a selection of
pneumatic equipment found typically in the simplest pneumatic system.

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117
Specialised service tools required for pneumatic controls work
The tools used to fault find and commission is different than those used on
other control systems. Pneumatic tools read air quantities, not voltages,
amperage and resistance. Meters are still required though wherever
transducers are used.
Both Honeywell and Johnson Controls have pneumatics tools used to

calibrate and test pneumatic controls. They are sold either as a service test
kit or individually. The kit includes:
 A stab. See the description of its purpose in ARAC Volume 2, page

29.37.
Stab Gauge
Test Probe Assembly with
hypodermic needle.

Johnson Controls)
 A hand pump (also known as a squeeze bulb) is used to test actuator

operation.
Knurled knob used to relieve
pressure slowly when testing actuators
Hand pump similar to the blood Pneumatic Tubing is used

pressure tester that your local to connect onto actuators
doctor would use.
Squeeze Bulb

April 2009
Component commissioning
Air regulator commissioning

Adjustment Knob
No.1
Pressure Gauge
No.2
Drain
No.3
A Main Line Filter / Regulator
(Reproduced with permission of SMC Pneumatics)
1. Check the supply pressure before adjusting the main pressure.

2. By turning the adjusting knob clockwise (No.1) there will be an increase
in the main air pressure and by turning the knob counter clockwise the
pressure will be reduced. A pressure gauge (No.2) is generally fitted to
the regulator to show the operating pressure.
3. Test the setting by bleeding air from the drain (No.3) to make sure the
regulator will maintain the correct pressure feed that has just been set.
Pneumatic thermostat commissioning
Throttling Range
1
Calibration Screw
Adjustment
3
2
Honeywell Controls)

Johnson Controls)

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119
For both the following steps, the stab gauge must be installed in the
thermostat and air must be supplied to the system.
Step 1 Adjusting the throttling range

1. Move the temperature adjusting dial (No. 1) until the stab gauge pressure
reads zero.
2. Move the temperature so the pressure on the stab gauge moves in a
positive direction noting how many Kelvin it takes for the pressure to
raise from the minimum operating pressure to the maximum operating
pressure, see commissioning diagram for throttling range.
3. If the pressure range did not occur over the throttling range, adjust the
throttling range – Honeywell, Sensitivity –Johnson Controls (No.2) until
it does.
4. Retest and recalibrate if necessary. The throttling range is now set.
Step 2 Calibrating the set point

1. Measure the control point of the area as close as possible to the
thermostat. Do this three times to be sure of an accurate reading.
2. Set the setpoint dial (N0.1) until the needle lines up with the temperature
you had just taken. Be sure not to submit the thermostat to any outside
temperature influence, i.e. your breath or heat from your hand etc as you
do this.
3. Adjust the set point calibration screw (N0.3) until the pressure on the
stab gauge reads the set point pressure, see the commissioning diagram
for details. Again this must be done without disturbing the sensor by
breathing on it or touching it, etc.
4. Return the setpoint dial to its correct setting, usually 22° C but check the
diagram.
5. Allow time for the thermostat to settle and regain control. Take further
temperature readings to ensure the correct operation of the system, whilst
remembering that offset will increase with deviation of the control point
from the set point.
The thermostat is now calibrated to the requirements of the diagram.
Testing the operating range of a water valve

Note the operating range of the water valve, usually stamped on the head of
the actuator. Compare this pressure range to that stated on the pneumatic
diagram, they should be the same. Also check if the valve is normally open
or normally closed again comparing this to the diagram requirements.
1. Disconnect the valve actuator from the system and connect the hand
pump to it.

April 2009
2. Pump up the pressure on the valve to its minimum operating pressure
while watching the valve’s spindle. The valve should not have moved.
3. Continue to pump while watching the valve as you do. If the valve is
operating OK, it should be completely open at its rated maximum
operating pressure.
4. Open the knurled knob on the pump to slowly release the pressure on the
valve. Watch as the pressure on the valve is reduced back to its
minimum.
5. The check is now complete, reconnect the valve to the system.
Setting the stroke of a damper (Honeywell pages 26-27)

Adjust the stroke of the outside air damper according to the requirements of
the pneumatic diagram. See the Honeywell reference for further details.
Fault finding pneumatic control systems

Learning how to use the tools described in the commissioning section of this
topic and the ability to read a pneumatic diagram will allow you to cope with
most faults you may come across.
Remember when fault finding:
 Fault finding of pneumatic control systems requires as with other control
system types a basic understanding of the equipment and the operating
ranges that they must operate over. Without this understanding it will be
difficult to identify the fault. If unsure, attain documentation on the
equipment contained in the installation. System diagrams showing
operating conditions are usually kept near hand or if they are not
available approach the manufacturers of the equipment for data sheets on
individual pneumatic components.
 Electronic control system operating voltages were designed around the
pneumatic operating pressures. If you are used to working with
electronic systems, pneumatic systems should not be too much of a worry
for you.

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Practical exercise 1 - Pneumatic control system
Task
Explain the operation of various pneumatic controls.
Procedure
You will observe the operation of a complete pneumatic control system and
from your observations briefly explain the operation of various pneumatic
controls that your teacher will identify.

 Air compressors may start automatically so make sure you keep
fingers, tools, hair, clothing etc away from rotating machinery.
 High air pressures can be present throughout pneumatic systems.
Operation of pneumatic controls identified by your teacher
Name of Component: __________________________________________
Operation:
Operation:

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Operation:
Operation:

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123
Practical exercise 2 - Pneumatic control commissioning
Task
 Determine the settings for various pneumatic control devices.
 Safely and correctly start up, adjust and commission a simple pneumatic
control system.
Procedure
From the commissioning sheet provided, you will:
1. Identify the operating temperatures, setpoint and pressures that the
thermostat, chilled water valve and outside air damper will operate at to
satisfy the diagram requirements.
2. Commission an air regulator to maintain a constant pressure of 120 kPa.
3. Commission a thermostat to operate within the settings provided.
4. Confirm that the chilled water valve will open and close at the desired
operating pressures by testing with the hand pump.
5. Stroke an outside air damper to operated within the parameters set out
below.

The operating temperatures, setpoint and pressures that a thermostat, water

valve and outside air damper.
Thermostat
 Setpoint _________________________ °C
 Setpoint Pressure: ________________________ kPa
 Throttling Range: _________________________ K
 Operating Pressure Range: ________________________ kPa

April 2009
Chilled Water Valve
 Operating pressures on diagram: ________________________ kPa
 On the valve made available to you: ________________________ kPa
Outside Air Damper

 Fully Opened Pressure: ________________________ kPa
 Fully Closed Pressure: ______________________ kPa
Confirm that the chilled water valve will open and close at the desired
operating pressures
Is the chilled water valve working within the range required by the:
Diagram: Yes / No
Pressures recorded on the head of the actuator on the valve: Yes / No
Stroke an outside air damper

Has the outside air damper been stroked as per the diagrams requirements?
Yes / No
If no, what is the problem and what can be done to rectify it?

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Commissioning sheet for an outside air sequence with chilled
water valve
R/A MA
D/A
DM3 R/A SP 220C

DM2
CWV 56–91 kPa
T TR 20C
21-56 kPa ASV2
DM1
O/A SA
LEGEND
91 Open
SP = Setpoint
CHWV TR = Throttling Range
ASV = Air Solenoid Valve
SA = System Air
kPa 56 MA = Main Air
Closed R/A = Return Air
O/A = Outside Air
O/A S/A = Supply Air
D/A = Discharge Air
21
Open Further Notes
ASV1 is energised through the supply fan
Setpoint contactor.
ASV2 is energised through an outside air
21 22 23 thermostat which is set to make at 180C and
°C break at 220C.

April 2009
Practical exercise 3 - Pneumatic control fault finding
Task
 Identify pneumatic control system fault/s and their cause.
 Repair the fault/s.
Procedure
1. One or a number of faults will be placed on the pneumatic system by
your teacher and you will be required to identify the fault/s as you see it /
them.

Type of Fault: _________________________________________________
Repairs Required:

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Type of Fault: _________________________________________________
Repairs Required:

April 2009
Review questions
1. What is pneumatic control?
2. What is the purpose of combining electronic / electric control with

pneumatic control?
3. What is the purpose of fitting refrigeration units in the supply air of the
air compressor?
4. What are the pressure ranges mentioned in the pneumatic section and
what lines would you find them in?
Range Lines Pressure Range Used In
5. What type of primary element is used in pneumatic thermostats?
6. In your own words briefly describe the operation of a ‘bleed’ thermostat.

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Review questions
7. In ARAC, pneumatic controllers are available in two styles, they are?
8. It is not effective to use a bleed thermostat on large capacity actuators.

Why is this the case and what is done to overcome this problem?
9. What is the difference between direct acting and reverse acting sensors?
10. What are the following relays used for:

 Two Position Relay
 Select relay
 Reverse acting relay
11. What materials are used to sense humidity?

April 2009
Review questions
12. Describe the method of operation of a pneumatic actuator.
13. A spring is also incorporated in the actuator. What is the purpose of the
spring?
14. What problem/s can occur if the air compressor breaks down on a system
without a ‘fail safe’ operation? What can be done to overcome the
problem / s? (See Applications for Pneumatic Control Systems)
15. List the steps to service a pneumatic system on a three monthly

maintenance program.
16. What tools are required to commission pneumatic control equipment

like thermostats, valves and dampers and describe what they are used to
do.

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131
Review questions
17. To increase the mains pressure at the regulator, the regulator would need
to be turned Clockwise / Counter Clockwise
18. From the diagram below, identify the:
91
HWV CWV
kPa 56
21
20 21 22 23 24
°C
Set Point: ___________ °C
Hot Water Valve Full Open Position Pressure: __________ kPa
Hot Water Valve Full Closed Position Pressure: __________ kPa
Chilled Water Valve Full Open Position Pressure: __________ kPa
Chilled Water Valve Full Closed Position Pressure: __________ kPa
Dead Band: between __________°C
19. In the diagram in question 18, if the thermostat reaches 24°C the
pressure in the branch line from the thermostat would be 91 kPa. What
is the problem with this scenario and what can be done to rectify the
problem?

April 2009
Review questions
20. Briefly describe in your own words how to calibrate the setpoint of a
pneumatic thermostat.
21. Describe how to test the hot water actuator operation if the system had
no air being supplied to it and what tool/s would be required?

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Notes

April 2009
7. Programmable Logic Controllers
and Direct Digital Controls
Purpose
In this topic you will learn about Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) and
Direct Digital Controls (DDC).
Objectives
 list and explain the principles of PLC and DDC control systems.
Content
- Microprocessors
- Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)
- Advantages of PLC
- Disadvantages of PLC
- Application of PLC Systems
- Direct Digital Control (DDC)
- What is Direct Digital Control
- Sensing Function
- Decision Function
- Memory Function
- Action Function
- Advantages of DDC
- Disadvantages of DDC
- Applications of DDC Systems
References

Discusses programmable logic control

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135
Microprocessors
The microprocessor is a computer-based system that can be used to control
air conditioning systems. The main benefit of microprocessor control is that
it can control more accurately than other forms of control systems. The two
main types of microprocessor control are:
 Programmable Logic Controllers
 Direct Digital Controls
The following block diagram shows the basis of how a microprocessor
systems work.
Input Analog to Digital Central Processor Digital to Analog Output

Information Converter (CPU) Converter Information to
from Control Devices
Sensors
Microprocessor
Microprocessor Block Diagram
Programmable logic controllers (PLC)
What is a programmable logic controller

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) tend not to be as popular in use in
the HVAC industry as Direct Digital Control (DDC) though it still can be
used. A PLC is a computer-based system that converts analog signals from
the sensor into digital values. It compares the sensor input against its
programmed parameters and then produces a corrective action. PLCs
simplify circuits by having many control circuit components within the
microprocessor (the brain of the controller), components like:
 Inputs
 Outputs
 Internal relays
 Latching relays
 Timers, etc
The following diagram shows the control panel with the programming keys
and the program display window. Large programs can go over a number of
pages (screens) and can be scrolled through at any time.

April 2009
Display Window where
ladder diagram is
drawn.
Programming Panel
showing input keys
Representation of a Toshiba PLC Programming Keypad

(Reproduced with permission of Toshiba International Corp)
The following diagram shows how a typical cool only ladder diagram would
appear as a PLC ladder diagram. Further note the key used to identify the
inputs and the outputs.
Inputs
On / Off Switch X1
On /off Evaporator Fan Motor Sail Switch X2
Switch
Thermostat X3
Thermal Overload X4
Compressor Outputs
t Evaporator Fan Y1
Compressor Y2
Sail Switch Thermostat O/Load
Condenser Fan Y3
Condenser Fan Motor
Key to Ladder Diagram
Typical Ladder Diagram of a Cool
Only Air Conditioning System
X1 Y1
PLC Ladder Diagram

Note the differences between
Y1 X2 X3 X4 Y2 the two diagrams
Y1 Y2 Y3

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Advantages of PLC
 Less hard wiring is required with PLC controls.
 Changes to the control circuit can be done with a program alteration
where hard-wired systems (like electric and electronic systems) may need
wiring alterations to effect the same outcome.
 Less output components are required like timers, relays, etc as they are
incorporated within the control body
Disadvantages of PLC
 Programming can be difficult to grasp as unlike typical ladder diagrams,
the ladder diagrams used in programming do not allow for crossing over
of lines. Other peculiarities exist between the normal ladder diagram and
programming ladder diagram.
Application of PLC Systems

PLC systems are generally used with the fire alarm system of a building and
are maintained by the fire control company looking after the site.
If you wish to learn more about PLCs, you should consider doing further
studies with the electrical trades’ section at your local TAFE.
Direct Digital Control (DDC)

References
Direct Digital Control for Building HVAC Systems
What is direct digital control?

PLCs are the early relatives of the current day DDC controller. Digital
Control was introduced to HVAC applications during the 1970s as a result of
the energy crisis of the time. A second factor that lead to move to DDC
control is that it allowed a variety of functions to be performed from the one
control. The following three screens show various parts of a building air
conditioning plant controlled by a DDC system. If this were an electronic
system there be would at least one controller looking after the chilled water
circuit, one for cooling tower water circuit and one for each air handling unit.

April 2009
A Chilled Water Piping Schematic as Seen on a Cooling Tower Schematic as Seen on a DDC
DDC Screen Screen
Air Handling Unit as Seen on a DDC Screen

(Reproduced with permission of Honeywell Controls)
As mentioned, DDC are computer based (microprocessor) machines that can

be used to maintain set conditions of an air conditioning application. To
maintain those conditions, the DDC system must perform four functions,
they are:
 Sense Function
 Decision Function
 Memory Function
 Action Function
Sensing function
As with the other control systems, the sensor senses the control variable and
transfers the information to the microprocessor for interpretation and
response through the input of the controller. The input can be either On / Off
(binary) or analog.
Sensing inputs can include temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. The typical
signal input can include one or more of the following types:
 A variable resistance signal
 Variable milliamps signal i.e. 0-20 mA
 Variable DC voltage signal i.e. 0-12 V

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Decision function
This is where the input information is processed. It compares the input to the
information stored in the memory by making calculations on the deviation.
Once the calculations are made a logical decision on the corrective action is
taken.
Memory function
The memory of the processor is like our brain. It is where the DDC
remembers what to do, how it does it, and even analyzes the result of every
completed task. It does this with the use of a program.
The program provides both the information and instructions for the DDC
system. If programmed correctly the system will perform the correct
sequence of operations to provide optimal conditions of the medium being
controlled.
Action function
Once the decision has been made for some form of action, the
microprocessor carries out the corrective action by using action units of the
DDC. The action functions are called the outputs of the system.
The two types of outputs include Binary (On / Off) and Analog (variable)
The action unit can be used to turn on and off supply fans, compressors, etc,
communicate information to humans and / or other computers (alarms, etc).
Advantages of DDC
 DDC equipment tends to be smaller and sometimes simpler.
 DDC systems are very accurate and they do not loose their set point, i.e.
they do not drift like other control systems.
 They are energy efficient under all load conditions; this makes for long
term cost savings.
 DDC control is compatible with building management systems.
 Adjustments can be done through the program. The building manager /
owner / control company can even make alterations remotely to where
the air conditioning system is located, i.e. in another building, in another
state, etc.
 Programs can incorporate adaptive control capability that allows the air
conditioning system to adjust itself to changing conditions in the
controlled environment.
 Programs can be password protected to protect against tampering.
 DDC can use pneumatic actuators.

April 2009
Disadvantages of DDC
 The initial cost of installing a DDC system.
- Equipment
- Computers, desktop and / or lap top computer.
- The cost of someone writing the system specific program, etc.
 Programs can be password protected to protect against tampering but this
may incur the added cost of employing a controls company to make a
minor alteration.
Applications of DDC systems

As mentioned previous, DDC systems are an energy efficient control system
and therefore are used as a result of their energy savings. DDC systems are
frequently used for the control of larger applications like multistory
buildings, hospitals, clubs etc.
If you wish to learn more about Direct Digital Controls you should consider
further studies in the controls area.

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Practical exercise
If there is no operational DDC or PLC system available for viewing in the
section, it is recommended that an excursion to a DDC or PLC controlled
building be arranged!
If you are on an excursion, remember that you are a guest in someone’s
establishment. Be courteous to the people showing you around and don’t
tamper with any equipment that you see.
Task
Observe the operation of a DDC air conditioning control system and / or a
PLC air conditioning control system.
Procedure
 Observe the operation of a DDC controlled building.
 Identify the inputs, microprocessor, and the outputs of the DDC system
 Draw and label one page of the program as seen on the monitor of the
computer
 Describe the operation of the drawn screen.

Types of inputs used
Type of microprocessor used

 Manufacturer of the program: __________________________________
 Is it Windows or DOS base: ___________________________________
 What computer language was used to write the product:______________

April 2009
If the building was another form of control system before being converted to
computer based system:
 has it saved money due to energy conservation YES / NO
Explain your answer
 what benefits over the previous system has been attained
 has there been any disadvantages by going to a computer based system
Types of outputs used
Draw and label one page of the program as seen on the monitor of the
computer.

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Describe the operation of the drawn screen

April 2009
Review questions
1. What is the major difference between an electronic system and a

microprocessor based system?
2. What is the major difference between a programmable controller and a

conventional computer?
3. Why would a building owner install DDC control in place of either an

electric or electronic control system?
4. Direct Digital Controls perform four functions, they are:

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Review questions
5. Briefly describe each function
6. What is the function of the program?
7. What functions can the terminal be used for?
8. What is the function of the central processing unit?
9. Write down the typical input signal values for a DDC control

April 2009
Review questions
10. Name two devices used to provide input into the input interface.
11. Name two devices used to receive control system output.
12. What is the name of the device located between the input and the output
of a PLC control system?
13. Why is it easier to change the performance of the PLC controller than an
electronic controller?

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Notes

April 2009
Sample tests
The following tests are included as an example of the expected coverage and
depth. The assessment of this module is holistic in nature and to successfully
pass the module, you must show evidence that you have achieved the module
purpose, which incorporates the module outcomes.
The Sample Tests provide for an overall assessment of the module, as
follows:
Test Topic Covered Timing Duration

Theory test 1 1, 2, 3 and 4 18/36 60 minutes
Practical test 1 2 and 4 18/36 30 minutes
Theory test 2 1 to 7 36/36 60 minutes
Practical test 2 2 to 6 36/36 60 minutes

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Sample theory test 1
Time Allotted: 75 minutes
Multiple Choice – Circle the best answer
1. The diagram below is an example of a:
Desired Control Error Servo Switch

Value Mechanism Correction Mechanism Valve or
Actuator
Temperature Perimeter
Sensor Temperature
(A) a resistive loop circuit

(B) a capacitive loop circuit
(C) a closed loop circuit
(D) a open loop circuit
2. A high temperature alarm sensor is part of:
(A) a resistive loop circuit

(B) a capacitive loop circuit
(C) a closed loop circuit
(D) a open loop circuit

April 2009
3. The following diagram is an example of a:

100%
OPEN
ACTUATOR
POSITION 50%
OPEN
CLOSED
22 23 24
CONTROL POINT (°C)
THROTTLING RANGE
(A) reverse acting two position controller schedule

(B) direct acting two position controller schedule
(C) reverse acting proportional controller schedule
(D) direct acting proportional controller schedule
22C
(A) reverse acting two position control

(B) direct acting two position control
(C) reverse acting proportional control
(D) direct acting proportional control

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5. Flow control sensors include:

(A) air pressure switch, sail switch and paddle switch.
(B) differential water pressure sensor, orifice plate and sail switch
(C) air pressure switch, pressure differential switch and orifice plate
(D) sail switch, paddle switch and orifice plate.
6. The objective of Building Management is to:

(A) centralise the monitoring, operation and management of a building.
(B) decentralise the monitoring, operation and management of a
building.
(C) allow building owners to manage the air conditioning system.
(D) allow the service technician to manage the air conditioning system.
7. Economiser Cycle is:

(A) the use of iced water that was produced during low tariff periods.
(B) the use of smaller capacity compressors during low load conditions
(C) the use of return air conditions to cool the building in preference to
mechanical cooling
(D) the use of outdoor conditions to cool a building in preference to
mechanical cooling.
8. Electric control is described as the most basic of control systems.

Electric control primarily lends itself to which type of control?
(A) On / Off Control
(B) Proportional Control
(C) Step Control
(D) Analog Control

April 2009
9. The use of four senses were recommended when fault finding. The four
senses are:
(A) Sight, Smell. Taste and Touch
(B) Taste, Touch, Sound and Sight
(C) Sight, Smell, Sound and Touch
(D) Smell, Taste, Touch and Sound
10. In an automatic electric control system a Permanently Split Capacitor

Motor’s direction is changed using:
(A) A thermostat with a double pole double throw switching
arrangement
(B) A thermostat with a single pole double throw switching
arrangement
(C) A Potentiometric controller
(D) A spring return

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Short answer questions
1. Explain what is meant by the term “Automatic Control System”.
2. Name three factors that affect loop stability
3. List six functions that should be performed by an automatic control

system
4. What is the difference between digital control and analog control?

April 2009
5. Describe the function of a sensor.
6. Briefly describe the difference between the output signal of a two-

position control and the output signal of floating control.
7. What type of control method does the graph (below) represent?
B
C
8. What control characteristics are indicated by the letters on the graph?
 Overshoot
 Undershoot
 Setpoint
 Differential

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9. Describe the function of an actuator.
10. Fluid control sensors are used to do two things, they are:
11. Explain what is meant by the term ‘Energy Management’.
12. What is the purpose of Night Purge in relation to Energy Management?
13. What is thermal storage and what is its benefit?

April 2009
14. Draw an integrated cool only sensor / controller labeling all parts and
describe its operation.
15. With the aid of the wiring diagram for a package unit on the next page
answer the following questions.
(a) During what part of the operating cycle is the crankcase heater
energised.
(b) What is the supply voltage for the control circuit?
(c) What is the function of the normally closed contact 52C [at terminal
point (7)]?

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(d) What is the supply voltage to the control transformer, in Australia?
(e) What is item 62C, what is its function?
(f) What is the result if MF1 fails to energise due to a burnt out
contactor coil? List all results of this failure.

April 2009

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Wiring Diagrams
In the space below draw a 240 volt circuit diagram in a ladder format for a
simple air conditioning system containing the following components:
 Compressor
 Evaporator Fan
 Condenser Fan
 Electric Heater (including a heater safety thermostat)
 One Stage Heat / One Stage Cool Thermostat
 All Relevant Operating and Safety Controls
 No Lockout Relay
Use pencil to sketch out your diagram before completing it in pen.
Active Neutral

April 2009
Describe the operation of your diagram.
Fan only
Cooling
Heating

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Sample practical test 1
Practical test 1
Your teacher will set a series of fault finding and practical commissioning
exercises on Electric and / or Fluid Flow control systems to reflect what you
have learnt in class. The following examples of fault finding and
commissioning exercises are typical of what your teacher could provide you.
The following are examples of typical faults that could be fitted on electric
and fluid flow control systems. Identify the fault and recommend the repairs
that would be required to correct the fault.
Electrical control fault finding

A customer has called you out and complains that during the winter period,
as conditions outside drop in temperature the space temperature drops also.
Upon inspection of the outdoor coil it is found that the coil is iced up
completely. From the diagram on next page of a split system, identify the
fault (if any) and recommend any repairs required (if any).

April 2009
Vent Condition
Indoor Unit
Fan Speed Selection
°t
415 Volt 50Hz

3 Phase 24 V Relay
Supply Reversing Valve
Solenoid Coil
Defrost Timer
Crankcase
Heater
Compressor
Contactor
Outdoor Unit
Pressure
Control
Compressor
Fan
Motor
Fault:
Repairs Required:

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Fluid control fault finding
The air conditioning system in a shop will neither heat nor cool though
ventilation (the fan) is operating. Upon inspection you find the air pressure
switch to have 240 volts across it, all other safeties in the circuit are found to
be OK
What does this tell you?
What could have caused this problem?
Recommend the repairs (if required).

April 2009
Electrical control commissioning
For the electrical commissioning practical exercise you would be supplied

with a simple air conditioning system ready for commissioning. The system
would be fully charged and with no refrigeration problems fitted as well
there would be no electrical faults fitted.
Describe in point form the procedures that you would take to commission the
air conditioning system found below (also found in ARAC p. 29.23, fig
29.23) noting all settings where possible.

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Multiple Choice – Circle the best answer
1. Resistance type sensing elements are only used in:

(A) Electronic control systems.
(B) Electric control systems.
(C) Pneumatic control systems.
(D) Temperature control systems.
2. Changing the proportional band adjustment on an electronic controller is

the same as the:
(A) Dead band adjustment
(B) Throttling range adjustment
(C) Authority adjustment.
(D) Set Point adjustment
3. Dead band on a cooling electronic controller is:

(A) The difference between cut in and cut out
(B) The difference between set point and end of the proportional band
(max. end)
(C) The difference between set point and start of the proportional band
(min. end)
(D) The difference between the start and the end of the proportional
band
4. When controlled by an electronic control system, if a heating water

valve is ‘hunting’, the most likely cause would be:
(A) A proportional band setting that is too narrow
(B) A proportional band that is too wide
(C) A dead band setting that is too wide
(D) A dead band setting that is too narrow

April 2009
5. The simplest pneumatic control is:

(A) a non-bleed type controller
(B) a bleed type controller
(C) a pilot-bleed controller
(D) a sensor controller
6. The control (branch line) pressure for pneumatic control system

actuators is:
(A) 20 Pa to 150 Pa
(B) 20kPa to 150 kPa
(C) 150 kPa to 400 kPa
(D) 150 Pa to 400 Pa
7. The main (line) pressure used in pneumatic control systems is:

(A) 20 Pa to 150 Pa
(B) 20kPa to 400 kPa
(C) 150 kPa to 400 kPa
(D) 150 Pa to 400 Pa
(A) reverse acting bleed type controller

(B) direct acting bleed type controller
(C) reverse acting proportional controller
(D) direct acting proportional controller

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9. DDC stands for:

(A) Direct Digital Control
(B) Direct Digital Controller
(C) Direct Digit Control
(D) Direct Digit Controller
10. DDC systems is made up of three main parts, they are:

(A) the input, the controller and the output
(B) the input, the switching mechanism and the output
(C) the input, the microcomputer and the output
(D) the input, the microprocessor and the output

April 2009
Short answer questions
1. Describe the operation of a PTC (Positive Temperature Co-efficient of

resistance) sensor.
2. Briefly explain the operation of the Bridge in the electronic controller.
3. Briefly explain the operation of the Amplifier in the electronic

controller.
4. What is the output circuit?

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5. What are three advantages and three disadvantages of electronic control?
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
6. What is a Two in One Controller?

April 2009
7. Name the Actuator seen in the diagram below and describe its operation.
Oil Reservoir Hydraulic Fluid

Pump Hydraulic Pump
Valve
Pressure Chamber
Diaphragm
Piston
Actuator Shaft and

Spring
Actuator Name:
Operation:
8. Name the Actuator seen in the diagram below and describe its operation.
Expansion Medium
ie Wax
Heater
Seal
Shaft and Sring
Actuator Name:
Operation:

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9. For electronic controls define the following terms:
 Set point:
 Deadband:
 Differential:
 Control Point:
 Offset:
10. How would you test a resistive sensor if you suspected it to be

inaccurate?
11. Identify two advantages and two disadvantages of pneumatic systems

when compared to electrical systems.
Advantages
Disadvantages

April 2009
12. From the following diagram below name the components indicated.
A B
F
E
A_________________________________________________________
B_________________________________________________________
C_________________________________________________________
D_________________________________________________________
E_________________________________________________________
F_________________________________________________________
G_________________________________________________________
H_________________________________________________________
I _________________________________________________________
13. Describe the operation of a bleed thermostat.

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14. Name the two primary types of pneumatic actuators:
15. What is the purpose of a refrigerated air dryer?
16. Briefly explain the function of the following pneumatic control

equipment:
Two position relay
Selector switch
Electro-pneumatic transducer
17. What is the difference between a pneumatic direct and reverse acting
temperature sensor / controller?

April 2009
18. The following diagram shows a basic pneumatic control system. Name
and explain the function of the four components numbered. Explain the
sequence of operation of this circuit.
4
______________________________________________________________
_____________
______________________________________________________________
________________
Sequence of Operation:

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19. Why do pneumatic control systems require regular maintenance?
20. What should that maintenance include, list five points?

April 2009
21. Identify the type of control systems from the diagrams provided.
1. Type of System
2. Type of System
22. Identify the blocks marked A, B and C of the following Microprocessor

diagram
Input Output
Information
A B C Information to
from Control Devices
Sensors
Microprocessor
A: ___________________________________________________________
B: ___________________________________________________________
C: ___________________________________________________________

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23. Name an application for a PLC
24. What are the four functions that a DDC must perform to maintain a set
of conditions of an air conditioning application?
25. Briefly describe each function
26. Name an application of a DDC system

April 2009

Your teacher will set a series of fault finding and practical commissioning
exercises on Electronic and Pneumatic control systems to reflect what you
have learnt in class. The following examples of fault finding and
commissioning exercises are typical of what your teacher could provide you.
The following are examples of typical faults that could be fitted on electric
and pneumatic control systems. Identify the fault and recommend the repairs
that would be required to correct the fault.
Electronic control fault finding
You have been called on a service call because the customer is complaining
that the temperature out of the air conditioning vent is constantly going from
hot to cold. Upon inspection, the following information is has been
identified:
 The temperature of the space is found to 22.5°C.
 The reversing valve is found to keep turning on and then off while the
compressor continues to run.
 The following graph shows what you have found.
On / Open
Y2 Y1
Off / Closed
Set Point
20 21 22 23 24
Identify the fault and recommend the repairs / alteration required.
Fault:
______________________________________________________________

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Repairs / Alterations Required:
Pneumatic control fault finding
Another of your fellow mechanics had completed a series of pneumatic line

replacements the day because of water in the lines. The mechanic had also
made minor alterations throughout the pneumatic system. You have been
called out to the job the next day, as the whole building is too hot. Upon
arrival you find all the clubs heating to be on. See the diagram below to
identify the problem and recommend repairs.
Supply Air Main Air Branch Lines
700 kPa 70 kPa 20 –50 kPa
SA MA
Air Solenoid
Valve T
PE
Thermostat Actuator
Pressure -
Electric Relay

April 2009
Fault:
Repairs Required:
Electronic control commissioning

You are to commission the following electronic controllers to operate to the
specification shown in the diagrams below. Your teacher would check each
controller to make sure all settings are correct and the system they are
connected with works accordingly.
2 1
1.
ON
Output
OFF
Setpoint
21 22 23 24
Temperature (°C)

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Type of Controller: ____________________________________________
Setpoint: __________________________
Deadband 1: __________________________
Differential 1: __________________________
Deadband 1: __________________________
Differential 2: __________________________
2. Open
Actuator
Position
Closed
Setpoint
21 22 23 24
Temperature (°C)
Type of Controller: _________________________________________
Setpoint: ____________________
Deadband 1: ____________________
Proportional band: ____________________

April 2009
Pneumatic control commissioning
You are to commission a bleed thermostat to operate to the specification

shown in the diagram below ensuring the thermostat’s set point is correctly
calibrated. Your teacher would check the controller to make sure all settings
are correct.
91
CWV
Pressure
(kPa) 56
HWV
21
Setpoint
21 22 23 24
Temperature (°C)
 Setpoint: ____________________ °C
 CWV
 Full Open Position: ____________________ kPa
 Full Open Position: ____________________ °C
 Full Closed Position: ____________________ kPa
 Full Closed Position: ____________________ °C
 HWV
 Full Open Position: ____________________ kPa
 Full Open Position: ____________________ °C
 Full Closed Position: ____________________ kPa
 Full Closed Position: ____________________ °C
 Throttling Range: ____________________ K

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Notes

April 2009
Answers
Review questions
1. Control system fundamentals and diagrams
1. The three essential components of a control loop are:

 Sensing device
 Controller
 Control device
2. The six major functions of these components are:

 The sensor senses a change to the controlled variable.
 The controller amplifies the sensor signal.
 The amplified signal is transported to the control device.
 A corrective action takes place.
 The sensor senses the corrective action and signals the control device.
 The control device ends the corrective action.
3. The controlled variable in the control loop is the control medium, i.e.
water, air or many other material whose condition is being controlled.
4. The set point of a controller is the value at which the indicator is set to
on the control’s scale.
5. The control point of a control loop is the value of the condition actually
maintained in the space as recorded by the control.
6. The differential gap is the range through which the space condition must
travel from on to off.
7. The offset of a control loop is the difference between the set point and
the control point.
8. The lag in a control loop is the delay in the effect on the controlled space
if the corrective action.
9. Cycling in a control loop is the consistent repetition of change in the

control point.
10. An actuator is a motor, relay, solenoid etc., in which energy from the
controller is converted into rotary, linear or switching action to bring
about change in the controlled space or condition.

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11. The difference between a closed loop control system and an open loop
control system is that closed loop systems receive feed back and controls
accordingly. The open loop system on the other hand operates
regardless of the impact on the space, i.e., has no feedback.
12. The control point is the value of the conditions actually maintained in
the space.
13. The three types of control diagrams are:

 Air conditioning diagrams
 Pneumatic and Logic Control diagrams
 Electrical diagrams
14. A typical application for each of the following diagrams would be:
 Air Conditioning Diagrams: used to show the transport of air
throughout a ducted system.
 Pneumatic and Logic Control Diagrams: Used to show circuit
operation of pneumatic and logic circuit.
 Block Diagrams: used to aid in the understanding of circuit operation
 Circuit Diagram: used for fault finding
 Wiring Diagrams: used to complete wiring equipment
 Control Circuit Diagrams: used to show circuit operation and can be
seen in most air conditioning units circuit boards from the simple
domestic through to industrial applications.
15. The control components that you would expect to find in a control
diagram for a basic system to control conditioned air would be:
 Switches to turn on and off the system
 Thermostat to automatically turn on and off the compressor
 Contactors for starting and starting the compressor, fan motors, etc
 Protective controls like:
 Overloads to protect against excess current
 High pressure, low pressure or dual pressure controls to protect
against high and low system pressures.
 Over temperature devices like thermistors to protect motors
against excessive operating temperatures.
16. Other control system components that you would expect to find in a
control diagram for a system to condition water would be:
 Safety thermostats: to protect chillers against icing up.
 Contactors for starting and stopping chilled water pumps.
 Water valves
 Flow switches to allow the system to know that the pump is
circulating water.

April 2009
17. The symbol for the following components are:
 A thermostat that makes on rise.
t°
 A thermostat that makes on fall.
t°
 A two stage heating and two stage cooling

thermostat
t°
 A motor operated valve M M

or
 A sail switch

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2. Types of control systems – general overview and fluid Flow
Control
1. The four major types of control systems available in the air conditioning
industry are electric, electronic, microprocessor and pneumatic.
2. The difference between on a digital signal and an analog signal is that the
analog signal is continuous where the digital signal controller samples
digital data at set time intervals.
3. The function of a sensor is to detect and measure changes in the

controlled variable.
4. A bimetal strip thermostat works on the principle that with a temperature

change the bimetal strip (fitted with contacts and supplied with
electricity) will either springs open or close due to the different
coefficients of the two metals in the bimetal strip.
5. A mercury tilt switch is fitted to a plate that can be rotated by a linkage

from a sensing element like a bimetal strip. When the switch tilts the
mercury pool flows to the lower end and makes contact between the
contacts. (See page 12 of Automatic Control Principles for further
details.)
6. The primary function of a Fluid Flow Sensor within an air conditioning

control system is to show fluid flow or measure flow.
7. In order to keep conditioning off until airflow is established a sail switch

would be fitted in series with the conditioning circuit (see below).
M
Vent Evaporator
Switch Fan Motor
Condition To compressor
Switch and condenser etc.
°
Sail Thermostat
Switch
8. A paddle switch is fitted into a chilled water circuit to stop the

compressor/s starting and icing up the evaporator causing major damage.
9. The “controlled differential” is the difference between the cut in and cut
out temperatures or pressures.

April 2009
10. The “throttling range” of a proportional controller is the control point
range through which the controlled variable must pass to move the final
control element through its full operating range.
11. The operating differences between “on-off” and “floating” control types
is that on-off has only two positions where floating control has a sensing
element that is attached to a selector that is free to drift between contact
points. When the selector makes, it drives an actuator motor in one
direction until the sensed condition moves back into tolerable limits and
then the contacts open.
12. The operating differences between “floating” and “proportional” control

types is that proportional is always on and there is constant feedback
between the controlled device and the sensing element. Floating is like
an On-Off version of proportional control.
13. The term used for the device, which incorporates an actuator that drives a
shaft that has many cams, mounted on it to operate micro-switches for a
number of output devices is a step controller.
14. The purpose of a relay in a control system is to perform a function

beyond the capacity of the original controller.
15. The major design and operational difference between opposed blade
dampers and parallel blade dampers is that:
 Parallel blade dampers: all the blades rotate in the same direction
 Opposed blade dampers: alternate blades rotate in opposite directions.
16. The effect on the airflow of a parallel blade air damper and an opposed
blade damper at the half-open position would be that:
 Parallel blade air damper: there would be approximately 80% of the
supply air moving through the damper.
 Opposed blade damper: there would be approximately 40% of the
supply air moving through the damper.
17. The valves shown in the sketch are mixing valves. Mixing valves have
two lines in and one line out. See Automatic Control Principles (p.39) to
see the difference between the two valve types.

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18. The correct location for the mixing valve on the cooling coil is shown
below with directional arrows to identifying water flow.
-
19. The following sketch shows a face and bypass damper control
arrangement.
Bypass Damper
Air Flow
Cooling Coil
Face Damper
Damper Motor
Operation
As the temperature of the space rises the modulating motor opens the
face damper opens allowing air to pass across the cooling coil and then
to the space. The bypass damper closes off at the same time as the face
damper opens. As the temperature of the space drops the face damper
closes back down again while the bypass damper opens allowing air to
bypass the cooling coil.

April 2009
4. Electric control systems
1. The control action that the electric control system best lends itself is the
On / Off control action.
2. Yes it is possible to attain true proportional control. Proportional control

is attained in electric control with the use of a potentiometer and a
proportioning (modulating) motor.
3. The advantages of electric control include:

 Available wherever there is electricity
 Simple and easy to install
 Amplification of signals is readily accomplished
 Signals from sensing elements can be combined and or sequenced to
perform several functions
 Remote control capability
 No time lags
 Linear response
 Wide ambient operating temperature range
 Components and functions are easily integrated with other control
types
 Robust in their construction
 Tend to be an integral sensor / controller
 Sequence of operation tends to be simple.
4. The disadvantages of electric control include:

 More complex than pneumatic control
 Often needs more maintenance
 Elaborate protection required in hazardous locations
 Needs skilled service personnel
 Higher voltages so greater care must be taken
 Many control changes require wiring alterations to achieve the
change
 Accuracy can be difficult to achieve
 Physical size of control components can be a problem
 Modulating actuators can be complex

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5. If the temperature varies above or below the set point, the thermostat
makes, driving the step controller in one direction or the other. The cams
in the step controller are turned making microswitches in their travel.
The microswitches are used to energise or de-energise heating and
cooling components according to the load requirement.
6. A microswitch is a snap acting switch whose contacts are made or broken

by the movement of a sensing element or cam mechanism.
7. The simplest type of control system actuation is On / Off.
8. The permanently split capacitor motors direction can be changed simply

with the use of a single pole double pole switch.
Single Pole, Double

Throw Switch Forward Winding
Reverse Winding
9. The function of limit switches on modulating motors is to stop the motor

from continually driving in one or the other direction.
10. The balancing relay in the modulating motor works on the principle that
if more current flows through one coil and less to the second coil, the
magnetic fields created causes the relay to pivot.
Coil with the Coil with more current

least current
11. An integrated sensor / controller has both the sensor and the contacts
contained within the one body.
12. To test for an integrated humidity sensor / controllers accuracy you must:
 Take the humidity of the area being controlled.
 Set the controller’s set point to the same humidity setting as the
condition that was just taken. Make adjustment if necessary.
 Check the differential and adjust if necessary.
13. The insulation resistance tester is used to test for earth leakage.

April 2009
14. To use the insulation resistance tester for earth leakage:
 Connect one of the meter leads to the electrics of the component
being tested and the other lead to the metal frame.
 Set the meter to that which is recommended in the wiring rules,
(approximately double the voltage rating of the component being
tested.
 Take a reading. If the component reads from zero to 1 megohm the
component is faulty. If the meter reads from 1 megohm to infinity
the component is OK.
15. The four things technicians do every time they fault find are:
 Recognise that a fault or faults has occurred on the plant.
 Locate the fault(s) and the reason for the fault.
 Carry out all necessary repairs to the equipment.
 Restart the plant and do a final check
16. The use of the senses can be a quick way of identifying faults.
Verification with the appropriate testing equipment should always be
done to confirm the fault.
17. The senses suggested and the types of faults that can be identified are
listed below:
 Sight: Visually identifies breaks or damaged
components.
 Smell: The scent of burnt components and wiring
 Hearing: Listen for unusual noises like chattering, buzzing
or groaning coming from components.
 Touch: Feel for excess temperature
18. The components indicated are:

1. Sail switch
2. Transformer
3. Three phase switch
4. Fuses
5. Heater
6. Contactor coil
7. Two stage heating thermostat
8. High-limit manual reset thermostat.

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5. Electronic control systems
1. The major difference between the electronic control system and the
electric control system is in the symbols they use, components they use,
voltages they use, etc.
2. The two types of control action provided by electronic controllers are On

/ Off and proportional control.
3. The three major components in a simple electronic control system are

the same as electric and pneumatic controllers, they are the sensor, the
controller and the controlled device.
4. The Wheatstone Bridge operates on the principle that in the event of an

imbalance or resistance between two paths, a voltage difference will
occur at points A and B (see below). The extent of imbalance can be
calculated by using Ohms Law. This out of balance can be amplified
and used to serve other functions in the control system.
A V B
5. Listed below are typical advantages of electronic control systems:

 Simple , low voltage interconnections
 Smaller equipment size
 Sensing elements are faster to respond
 Can be mounted in any position
 Vibration and dirt resistant
 Remote set point capability
 Application flexibility
 Superior calibration
 Simple adjustment
6. The three disadvantages of electronic control are:

 Some temperature sensing elements will continue with temperature
change beyond their own control range.
 The initial purchase cost can be expensive.
 Actuators and controls tend to be complex.

April 2009
7. The three basic parts of a single element controller and the function for
each are listed below:
 Bridge - The sensing circuit for the controller
 Amplifier - Increases the signal into a useable signal
 Output Circuit - Connection point for actuators, contactors,
relays, etc.
8. The four major types of actuator used in the air conditioning industry is:
 Magnetic
 Motorised
 Thermal
 Electrohydraulic
9. Operation of a Thermal Actuator:

Thermal actuators are made up of a heating element and a solid
expansion medium. The heater heats up and cools down according to the
variation in the output voltage from the electronic controller. With an
increase in temperature, the solid expansion medium will expand
causing a force to be exerted creating a stroke movement. If the voltage
is reduced from the controller, the heater cools, the expansion medium
contracts again causing the opposite effect in stroke movement.
10. Operation of a Electrohydraulic Actuator

Electro hydraulic actuators use an oil pump and a pump valve (similar to
a solenoid) to create valve or damper movement. If the voltage from the
output of the electronic controller increases the pump valve closes
isolating the actuators bottom chamber from the top. The pump fills the
bottom chamber, extending the actuator shaft. If the voltage from the
controller decreases, the servo valve opens relieving pressure back into
the top chamber. The actuator shaft retracts.
11. An insulation resistance tester should never be used on electronic

controls because the excess voltage that it produces will damage the
electronic equipment.

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12. Your graphical answer to question 13 should look the same as the one
shown below.
Full Open / On
1 2
Full Closed / Off

17 18 19 20 21
13. The answers are both bolded and italic
Controller Type: Proportional Controller

Set Point 19°C
Proportional Band 1 0.5 K
Dead Zone 1 0K
Proportional Band 2 1K
Dead Zone 2 0K
14. The answers are both bolded and italic
Controller Type: On / Off Controller

Set Point 22°C
Differential 1 2.5 K
Dead Band 1 - 0.5 K
Differential 2 1.5 K
Dead Band 2 0.5 K

April 2009
6. Pneumatic controls
1. Pneumatic control is the use of air as an energy source in place of
electric or electronics.
2. The purpose of combining electronic / electric control with pneumatic
control is to allow for:
 Electronic- for the greater accuracy of electronic control.
 Electric – for the initiation of electric components.
3. Refrigeration units are fitted to the supply air of the air compressor to
remove any moisture before it enters the rest of the system where it may
cause problems.
4. Range Lines Pressure Range Used In

700 kPa From the air compressor tank and the supply
lines to the regulator
100 – 120 kPa From the regulator through the mains lines to
controllers. This pressure can also be supplied
to control devices.
20 – 90 kPa From controllers to control devices.
5. The type of primary element used in pneumatic thermostats is the bimetal

strip.
6. Bleed thermostats operate by bleeding various amounts of branch line

pressure to the atmosphere. The position of the ‘flapper’ with respect to
the nozzle will determine how quickly the air is bled off and vary the
branch line accordingly. The position of the flapper is determined by a
temperature sensitive bimetal element. The branch line is used to control
an actuator or become the input signal to a controller.
7. The two styles of controller described in ARAC are: Proportional

controllers and High capacity controllers.
8. A simple bleed thermostat’s capacity would be too small to operate large

capacity actuators at a reasonable speed. High capacity controllers or
pilot operated actuators are used to overcome this problem.
9. The difference between direct acting and reverse acting thermostat is:
 Direct Acting: With an increase in temperature there is an
increase in the pressure output.
 Reverse Acting: With an increase in temperature there is a decrease
in the pressure output.

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10.  A two position relay is used to open one branch and close another.
 A select relay is used to select a highest or lowest signal from a
number of controllers and direct an actuator.
 A Reverse-Acting Relay is used to reverse the signal from a
controller so that an actuator may open instead or close or vice versa.
11. The following materials are used to sense humidity: human hair, wood
or nylon, or electric-pressure transducers may be used.
12. The method of operation of a pneumatic actuator is that as air is

admitted into the actuator, it fills the space between the rubber sealing
diaphragm on top of the piston. As the pressure rises, it overcomes the
spring pressure (and the load) to force the piston and shaft down.
13. Springs are used in actuators to set the operating range that they will
operate over.
14. The problem/s that can occur in the event of an air compressor breaks
down on a system without a ‘fail safe’ operation is that without
pneumatic pressure full cooling would be applied. To overcome this
problem a reversing relay and a normally closed valve with the same
operating range would need to be fitted.
15. The steps described to service a pneumatic system on a three monthly

maintenance program include:
 Cleaning of all components
 Checking all moving parts for operation (thermostats, actuators, etc).
 Check to ensure that the control sequences are effective as originally
commissioned.
 Recalibrate where necessary.
 Check all airlines, actuators, diaphragms, etc, for air leaks.
 Other checks could include: check operation of automatic water
bleeds, check strainers, filters, refrigeration equipment in supply air
from air compressor, etc, clean / repair as necessary.
16. The tools that would be required to commission pneumatic control

equipment include:
 Stab Gauge: used to identify system operating pressures.
 Hand pump: used to pressure test operating ranges of pneumatic of
pneumatic actuators.
 Small Flat Blade Screwdriver: used to calibrate the pneumatic
actuators.

April 2009
 Large Flat Blade Screwdriver and or shifter: used to stroke dampers
and valves.
 Sling Psychrometer or Digitemp thermometer: used to calibrate the
thermostat.
17. To increase the mains pressure at the regulator, the regulator must be
turned clockwise.
18. From the graph in question 4:

 Set Point: 22 °C
 Hot Water Valve Full Open Position Pressure: 91 kPa
 Hot Water Valve Full Closed Position Pressure: 21 kPa
 Chilled Water Valve Full Open Position Pressure: 91 kPa
 Chilled Water Valve Full Closed Position Pressure: 21 kPa
 Dead Band: between 21.5 and 22.5 °C
19. If the thermostat reaches 24°C the pressure in the branch line from the
thermostat would be 91 kPa. The problem with this scenario is that both
the chilled water valve and the hot water valves would be open. To
rectify this problem a reversing relay would have to be fitted to the hot
water circuit.
20. To calibrate the setpoint of a pneumatic thermostat

 Measure the control point of the area as close as possible to the
thermostat. Do this three times to be sure of an accurate reading.
 Set the setpoint dial until the needle lines up with the temperature
scale. Be sure not to submit the thermostat to any outside
temperature influence, i.e. your breath or heat from your hand etc as
you do this.
 Adjust the set point calibration screw until the pressure on the stab
gauge reads the set point pressure, in this instance 56kPa. Again this
must be done without disturbing the sensor by breathing on it or
touching it, etc.
 Return the setpoint dial to its correct setting in this case 22° C.
 Allow time for the thermostat to settle and regain control. Take
further temperature readings to ensure the correct operation of the
system, whilst remembering that offset will increase with deviation of
the control point from the set point.

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21. To test the hot water actuator operation if the system had no air being
supplied to it you would have to use a hand pump.
 Disconnect the valve actuator from the system and connect the hand
pump to it.
 Pump up the pressure on the valve to its minimum operating pressure
while watching the valve’s spindle. The valve should not have
moved.
 Continue to pump while watching the valve as you do. If the valve is
operating OK, it should be completely open at its rated maximum
operating pressure.
 Open the knurled knob on the pump to slowly release the pressure on
the valve. Watch as the pressure on the valve is reduced back to its
minimum.
 The check is now complete, reconnect the valve to the system.
7. Programmable logic controllers and direct digital

controls
1. The major difference between an electronic system and a microprocessor
based system is that the electronic system uses an analog signal
throughout the controlling process where PLC use digital in the
processor.
2. The major difference between a Programmable Logic Controller and a

conventional computer is the language they use. PLCs use ladder
diagrams where computers use computer language like BASIC and
Fortran.
3. When compared to either electrical and electronic control systems, a

DDC system will provide more accurate conditions and at the same time
provide energy efficient cost savings to the building owner.
4. The four functions that a direct digital control performs are:

 Sensing Function
 Decision Function
 Memory Function
 Action Function

April 2009
5. The Sensing Function is the sensing of control variable and the
transferring of that information to the microprocessor for interpretation
and response.
The Decision Function is the processing of the input information
The Memory Function is where the controller remembers what to do,
how to do it, and the analysis of the result of every completed task.
The Action Function is the corrective action of the DDC system, the
output of the system.
6. The program is a set of instructions that tells the microprocessor what to

do.
7. There are two functions of the terminal: to allow for programming and
trouble shooting the circuit.
8. The function of the central processing unit is to establish the electronic

circuitry needed to carry out the instructions and to perform those
instructions.
9. The typical input signals for a DDC control could include:

 A variable resistance signal
 Variable milliamps signal ie. 0-20 mA
 Variable DC voltage signal ie. 0-12 V
10. Examples of devices used to provide input into the input interface are
 start / stop switches
 flow switches
 pressure switches (ie. HP / LP controls)
 time clocks
 thermostats, etc.
11. Examples of devices used to receive control system output are: motors (if
small enough), lights, solenoid coils, contactor coils, etc.
12. The name of the device located between the input and the output of a
PLC control system is called a microprocessor.

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13. To change the performance of the PLC controller it is simply a case of
changing the program. With than an electronic controller, hard wiring
may have to be changed to attain the same performance.

April 2009
Multiple choice questions
1. (C) A closed loop circuit
2. (C) A closed loop circuit
3. (D) Direct acting proportional controller schedule
4. (A) Reverse acting two position control
5. (A) Air pressure switch, sail switch and paddle switch.
6. (A) Centralise the monitoring, operation and management of a building.
7. (D) The use of outdoor conditions to cool a building in preference to

mechanical cooling.
8. (A) On/ Off Control
9. (C) Sight, Smell, Sound and Touch
10. (B) A thermostat with a single pole double throw switching arrangement
Short answer
1. An “Automatic Control System” is a system that will automatically
regulate a HVAC system output in response to varying indoor and
outdoor conditions to maintain general comfort conditions.
2. The factors that affect loop stability include:

 Speed of operation of the control equipment
 Speed of the controlled equipment and Thermal Inertia
 Air change rate
 Sensor Location
3. The six functions which should be performed by an automatic control

system is
 The sensor senses a change to the controlled variable
 The controller amplifies the sensor signal
 The amplified signal is transported to the control device
 A corrective action takes place
 The sensor senses the corrective action and signals the control device
 The control device ends the corrective action

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4. The difference between digital control and analog control is in the
control signal it uses.
 Analog controller receives and acts upon data continuously.
 The digital controller samples digital data at set time intervals.
5. The function of a sensor is to detect and measure a disturbance in the

control variable.
6. The difference between the output signal of a two-position controller and

the output signal of a proportional controller is:
 The two-position controller signal is either On / Off or open / closed.
 The proportional controller signal is variable, it can range anywhere
between open and closed or on and off.
7. The type of control method represented in the graph is On / Off control.
8. The control characteristics indicated by the letters on the graph are:

 Overshoot A
 Undershoot D
 Stepoint B
 Differential C
9. The function of the actuator is to convert electric energy into a rotary

action
10. Fluid control sensors are used to show fluid flow or measure flow
11. Energy Management is the optimisation of the operation, temperature

and process of an air conditioning system within a building.
12. Night Purge in relation to Energy Management is where outside night air
is used to cool a building space when outside conditions are favourable.
13. Thermal storage is the process of making use of lower tariff periods to
store energy, i.e. turning water into ice. The energy stored can then be
reused at a more expensive tariff period, i.e. remelting the ice to chill
water which is then fed to air handling units. This is to in place
mechanical cooling.

April 2009
14. The diagram of the integrated cool only sensor / controller could look
like the following diagram, it is an example only:
Mechanical connection between

sensing element and contacts
Contacts Bellows
Bulb
Terminals for
hard wiring
Operation: As the temperature of the controlled variable warms, the bulb

pressure increases forcing the contacts to close. Cooling
would be initiated by the making of the contacts. With a
decrease in the controlled variable temperature, the bulb
pressure decreases opening the contacts. The cooling cycle is
complete.
15. The answers that relate to the wiring diagram are as follows:
 The crankcase heater is energised during the off cycle.
 The supply of the control circuit is 24 volts.
 The function of the normally closed contact 52C at terminal point 7
is to open and de-energise the crankcase heater.
 The supply voltage to the control transformer in Australia is 240
volts at 50 hertz.
 Item 62C is a recycle guard timer and its function is stop the
compressor short cycling. (Ensures the compressor will not stop and
then try to restart too quickly.)
 The results of MF1 failing to energise due to a burnt out contactor
coil is that the compressor, evaporator fan and condenser fans will
not operate. The system will not therefore cool.

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Wiring diagrams
The following diagram is only meant to show one possible answer to the
wiring diagram exercise.
Neutral
Active
M
VENT
SWITCH
Evaporator Fan
Motor
M
CONDITION
SWITCH
LP HP Compressor
Condenser Fan
Motor
°t Heating Element
°t
Thermostat
Manually Reset Over-
temperature Thermostat
Operation
Fan Only
The fan will operate once the vent (fan) switch is turned on. Conditioning
cannot come on until the vent switch is turned on even if the condition switch
is turned on.
Cooling
The compressor will only start once the vent and condition switches are
turned on, the thermostat is calling for cooling and all the safety controls are
closed. As the condenser fan is in parallel with the compressor, it will start
as well.

April 2009
Heating
As with cooling, heating will only come on once the vent and condition
switches are turned on and there is a call for heating. The over temperature
thermostat will trip in the event of excess heat (i.e. due to no fan).

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Practical test 1
Electrical control fault finding

Fault:
The neutral of the reversing valve solenoid coil is connected straight to the
neutral (at the defrost timer) so it will never change over and deactivate the
coil.
Repairs Required:
The neutral of the reversing valve solenoid coil must be reconnected at the
same terminal as the outdoor fan motor on the defrost timer.
Fluid control fault finding

What does this tell you?
By having a 240 volt potential difference across the air pressure switch there
is no circuit through the switch, the switch has not made when air has started
to flow.
What could have caused this problem?
There may be a number of reasons why the air pressure switch did not make.
They could include the following answers:
 The microswitch may have become open circuited (damaged points, etc.)
 Line/s form the air pressure switch may have fallen out of the ductwork.
 Blockages of air lines not allowing air pressure to be registered by the
switch, etc.
Repairs Required:
The repairs could include, depending on the fault:
 Replacement of the switch.
 Refit the line/s back into the ductwork securing them so that they will not
fall back out.
 Unblock the air line/s if possible, etc.

April 2009
Electrical commissioning
Your answer to the electrical commissioning exercise could include the
following:
 Set the compressor overload to 7 amps (FLA), NO HIGHER.
 Set the HP/LP control to the required pressures and test their operation.
(See NR12 - System Control how to calculate cut out and cut in
pressures).
 Set the thermostat to 22°C and test for calibration, dead bands,
differentials, etc.
 Carry out an amperage test (using a tong tester) on all motors to ensure
that they are operating within amperage limits. (See diagram for FLA
ratings).
 Check the system on both heating and cooling operation to make sure
that the system operates correctly on both cycles.
 Test both the de-ice thermostat and the de-ice heating element for correct
operation, (the operating conditions are not described on the diagram so
you may have to call the manufacturer for details).
 Test the low ambient thermostat and low ambient heating element /
circuit operation.
Further commissioning tests you may need to do: (see NE172 - Electrical
Wiring and Equipment and Australian Standards 3000 - SAA Wiring Rules
(current edition).
 Check to make sure that there is no excess uninsulated conductors
hanging out of terminals, etc.
 Test to make sure all terminals are tight (no loose joints.)
 Ensure correct fixing of conductors.
 Test for earth leakage and resistance between conductors. (The
electrician wiring the job should have carried out these tests before
handing it over to you.)

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1. (A) Electronic control systems.
2. (B) Throttling range adjustment.
3. (C) The difference between set point and start of the proportional band
(min. end).
4. (A) A proportional band setting that is too narrow.
5. (B) A bleed type controller.
6. (B) 20kPa to 150 kPa.
7. (C) 150 kPa to 400 kPa.
8. (A) Reverse acting bleed type controller.
9. (A) Direct Digital Control.
10. (D) The input, the microprocessor and the output.
Short answer
1. The PTC (Positive Temperature Co-efficient of resistance) sensor’s
resistance increases with a rise in temperature and visa versa.
2. The Bridge of an electronic controller operates on the principle of a

Wheatstone Bridge. It operates by using two sets of two resistors
connected in parallel across a DC power source. In the event that the
sensing element resistance changes due to temperature change, the
bridge would no longer be in balance and a voltage difference will
occur. The difference in voltage between the two paths can then be
amplified.
3. The Amplifier of an electronic controller is to increase the signal from

the bridge circuit.
4. The output circuit is where the actuators are connected on the controller
to provide the correct sequence of operation.

April 2009
5. Listed below are typical advantages and disadvantages of electronic
control systems that you could have written:
Advantages
 Simple , low voltage interconnections
 Smaller equipment size
 Sensing elements are faster to respond
 Can be mounted in any position
 Vibration and dirt resistant
 Remote set point capability
 Application flexibility
 Superior calibration
 Simple adjustment
Disadvantages
 Some temperature sensing elements will continue with temperature
change beyond their own control range.
 The initial purchase cost can be expensive.
 Actuators and controls tend to be complex.
6. A Two in One Controller is a controller that can control two types of

variables, i.e. temperature and humidity.
7. The type of actuator shown is an Electro-hydraulic Actuator.

Its operation:
Electro hydraulic actuators use an oil pump and a pump valve (similar to
a solenoid) to create valve or damper movement. If the voltage from the
output of the electronic controller increases the pump valve closes
isolating the actuators bottom chamber from the top. The pump fills the
bottom chamber, extending the actuator shaft. If the voltage from the
controller decreases, the servo valve opens relieving pressure back into
the top chamber. The actuator shaft retracts.
8. The actuator shown in question 7 is a Thermal Actuator

Its Operation
Thermal actuators are made up of a heating element and a solid
expansion medium. The heater heats up and cools down according to the
variation in the output voltage from the electronic controller. With an
increase in temperature, the solid expansion medium will expand
causing a force to be exerted creating a stroke movement. If the voltage
is reduced from the controller, the heater cools, the expansion medium
contracts again causing the opposite effect in stroke movement.

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9.  The Set Point: is the desired value that the controller is expected to
maintain
 The Dead Band: is the range through which an input signal will be
varied without initiating a response from the controller.
 The Differential: is the difference between on and off state.
 The Control Point is the actual value of the controlled variable that
the controller maintains.
 The Offset is the sustained deviation between the control point and
the setpoint of a control.
10. To test the resistive sensor, you would:

 Disconnect the sensor from the controller and measure the resistance.
 Measure the ambient air close to the sensor.
 Compare the temperature and the resistance of the sensor against the
relevant resistance curve for its accuracy.
11. Advantages of a pneumatic systems when compared to electrical

systems:
 Pneumatic systems can be safely used in hazardous environments.
 Pneumatic actuators can be built to operate from the smallest to the
largest valves and dampers.
 The controller is naturally and inherently operates as proportional
control but tow-position is easily provided.
 It is easy to include a great variety of control sequences.
Disadvantages of a pneumatic systems when compared to electrical

systems:
 Expensive to purchase and more equipment to maintain (i.e. air
compressors, driers, etc.)
 Many mechanics consider pneumatic controls difficult to work with.
12. The components identified in the pneumatic diagram are:

(A) Intake filter
(B) Air compressor
(C) Pressure switch
(D) Motor
(E) Refrigerated air dryer

April 2009
(F) Pressure regulator
(G) Thermostat
(H) Actuator
(I) Valve
13. The bleed thermostat operates that with a change in temperature a

bimetal strip will either open or close a tiny nozzle, so varying the air
pressure in the valve or damper actuator.
14. The two primary types of pneumatic actuator include:

 Two position actuator
 Proportional actuator
15. The purpose of the refrigerated air dryer is to remove all moisture before
it enters the system and causes blockages in the many small orifices
throughout.
16. The function of each component listed is explained below:

 Two position relay:
To open one branch line and close another
 Selector switch:
To choose either the highest or lowest signal from a number of
controllers and with this signal /s operate an actuator/s.
 Electro-pneumatic transducer:
To change an electric signal into a pneumatic signal or vice versa.
17. The difference between a direct and a reverse acting sensor is that with
an increase in temperature the direct acting sensor will deliver an
increase in output where the reverse acting sensor would deliver a
decrease in output.
18. The name and the function of the four components numbered are:
1. Reverse acting thermostat: to send a signal to the hot water valve
actuator and also to the reversing relay.
2. Chilled Water Valve: meters the flow of chilled water into the chilled
water coil
3. Hot Water Valve: meters the flow of hot water into the hot water coil.
4. Reversing relay: changes the signal from the thermostat to operate the
chilled water valve.

April 2009
213
The sequence of operation:
 With a decrease in temperature, the reverse acting thermostat’s
branch press increases and modulates the hot water valve open
(between 60 and 90 kPa). The chilled water stays closed because the
branch pressure has been reversed by the reversing relay.
 As the temperature increases the branch pressure decreases
modulating the hot water valve closes at 60 kPa. With a further
increase in temperature the thermostat branch pressure continues to
drop. The reversing relay will reverse this signal until the chilled
water range is begins to operate.
 Between 50 and 60 kPa branch pressure (from the thermostat), both
valves will be closed
19. The recommended period for maintenance of a pneumatic control system

is three monthly.
20. The maintenance should include the following:

 Clean all components
 Check all moving parts for operation (thermostats, actuators, etc.)
 Check the sequence of operation as installed
 Recalibrate where necessary
 Check for air leaks on all lines.
21. The two systems shown are

1. Programmable Logic Controller
2. Direct Digital Control
22. A: Analog to Digital Converter

B: Central Processor (CPU)
C: Digital to Analog Converter
23. An application for a PLC would be in the fire alarm system of a

building.
24. The four functions that of a DDC must perform to maintain a set of
conditions are:
 Sense Function
 Decision Function
 Memory Function
 Action Function

April 2009
25. Sense Function: As with the other control systems, the sensor senses the
control variable and transfers the information to the microprocessor for
interpretation and response through the input of the controller.
Decision Function: This is where the input information is processed. It

compares the input to the information stored in the memory by making
calculations on the deviation. Once the calculations are made a logical
decision on the corrective action is taken.
Memory Function: The memory of the processor is like our brain. It is

where the DDC remembers what to do, how it does it, and even analyzes
the result of every completed task. It does this with the use of a
program.
Action Function: Once the decision has been made for some form of
action, the microprocessor carries out the corrective action by using
action units of the DDC. The action functions are called the outputs of
the system.
26. An application of a DDC system might include larger applications like

multistory buildings, hospitals, clubs, etc.

April 2009
215
Practical test 2
Electronic control fault finding
Fault:
The controller has been set up without a dead band between heating and
cooling. The unit will constantly go from heating to cooling and back again
without ever turning off.
Repairs / Alterations Required:
The dead band between heating and cooling must be reset to allow for an off
cycle.
Pneumatic control fault finding

Fault:
The mains air pressure is too low and thus reducing in turn the branch
pressures.
Possible Repairs Required:
 Check the air pressure regulator and dryer for incorrect adjustment. If
incorrect adjust the pressure until the mains pressure is maintained
between 100 and 120 kPa.
 Check to make sure the air pressure regulator is not blocked or partially
blocked. Repair the blockage.
 If the air pressure regulator is operating OK and there is still reduced
pressure in the mains, check the refrigerated air dryer for blockages,
check manual and automatic purges etc. Repair as necessary.
Electronic control commissioning

1. Type of Controller: Two Position Controller
Setpoint: 22 °C
Deadband: 0K
Differential 1: -1.5 K
Setpoint 2: 0.5 K
Deadband 2: -1.5 K

April 2009
2. TYPE OF CONTROLLER: PROPORTIONAL
Setpoint: 22 °C
Deadband: 0.5 K
Proportional band : 2K
Pneumatic Control Commissioning

 Setpoint: 22.5 °C
 CWV
 Full Open Position: 91 kPa
 Full Open Position: 24 °C
 Full Closed Position: 56 kPa
 Full Closed Position: 22.5 °C
 HWV
 Full Open Position: 21 kPa
 Full Open Position 21 °C
 Full Closed Position: 56 kPa
 Full Closed Position: 22.5 °C
 Throttling Range: 3K

April 2009
217

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Module Resource Manual

AIR CONDITIONING CONTROLS

Electrical and Electronic Drawing Practice for Students - SAA/SNZ HB3-

Engineering Manual of Automatic Control (SI Ed). Library of Congress

General Information and General Index (AS 1102.101-1996) to Analogue

Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning Seminar Booklet produced by

Langley, B.C. Control Systems for Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

Imagine a world where humans manually operated air conditioning systems.

This module is designed as an introduction to the various control systems

NR15 Air Conditioning Controls

1. Control System  Drawing - Control circuit

2. Types of Control Systems  Drawing - Observe and  Control systems

3. Energy Management and  A 600 word assignment

4. Electric Control Systems  Explain the operation of  Electric control system

5. Electronic Control  Explain the operation of  Electronic control system

6. Pneumatic Control  Explain the operation of  Pneumatic control

7. Programmable Logic  Observe the operation of

NR15 Air Conditioning Controls

NR15 Air Conditioning Controls

NR15 Air Conditioning Controls

Actuator - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4

Algorithm - A calculation method that produces a control output by operating

Analog - Continuously variable (e.g. a faucet controlling water from off to

Authority - The influence that a second sensor has on a controller to produce

Automatic control / system - A system that reacts to a change or imbalance in

Binary - A numbering system used by computers to i) count and ii) perform

Calibrate - Adjustment of control devices to ensure accurate operation.

Compensation control - A process of automatically adjusting the control

Control agent - The medium in which the manipulated variable exists. In a

Control point - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.3

Controlled medium - The medium in which the manipulated variable exists.

Controlled value / desired value - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4

Controlled variable - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.3

NR15 Air Conditioning Controls

Corrective action - Control action that results in a change of the manipulated

Cycle - One complete execution of a repeatable process. In basic heating

Cycling - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.3

Dead band - A range of the controlled variable in which no corrective action

Desired value / controlled value - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4

Differential gap / differential - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4 ARAC Glossary

Digital - A series of on and off pulses arranged to convey information.

Digital control - A control loop in which a microprocessor-based controller

Direct Acting (DA) - A positive operation of the actuator caused by a positive

NR15 Air Conditioning Controls

Final control element - A device such as a valve or damper that acts to

Hardware - Physical components of a computer, (not including the software).

Interface - A device that a computer uses to communicate with another

Lag - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4, ARAC Glossary page 12

Load - ARAC Glossary page 12

Manipulated variable - The quantity or condition regulated by the automatic

Measured variable - A variable that is measured and may be controlled (e.g.

Microprocessor - ARAC Glossary page 13

Microprocessor-based Control - ARAC Volume 2, page 12.35

Modulating - An action that adjusts by minute increments and decrements.

Offset - ARAC Volume 2, page 29.4

On / Off control - A sustained deviation between the control point and

NR15 Air Conditioning Controls

Potentiometer / POT - ARAC Glossary page 15

Process - A general term that describes a change in a measurable variable

Proportional band - In a proportional controller, the control point range

Proportional control - A control algorithm or method in which the final

Proportional - Integral (PI) control - A control algorithm that combines the

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control - A control algorithm that