Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene

ISSN: 1545-9624 (Print) 1545-9632 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uoeh20

Comparison of a Novel Surface Laser Scanning

Anthropometric Technique to Traditional Methods
for Facial Parameter Measurements

Paula S. Joe , Yasushi Ito , Alan M. Shih , Riedar K. Oestenstad & Claudiu T.
Lungu

To cite this article: Paula S. Joe , Yasushi Ito , Alan M. Shih , Riedar K. Oestenstad & Claudiu
T. Lungu (2012) Comparison of a Novel Surface Laser Scanning Anthropometric Technique
to Traditional Methods for Facial Parameter Measurements, Journal of Occupational and
Environmental Hygiene, 9:2, 81-88, DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2011.640557

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Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 9: 81–88
ISSN: 1545-9624 print / 1545-9632 online
Copyright
c 2012 JOEH, LLC
DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2011.640557
Comparison of a Novel Surface Laser Scanning
Anthropometric Technique to Traditional Methods
for Facial Parameter Measurements
Paula S. Joe,1 Yasushi Ito,2 Alan M. Shih,2 Riedar K. Oestenstad,1
and Claudiu T. Lungu1
1
Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham,
Alabama
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
This study was designed to determine if three-dimensional
(3D) laser scanning techniques could be used to collect accu-
rate anthropometric measurements, compared with traditional
methods. The use of an alternative 3D method would allow
for quick collection of data that could be used to change
the parameters used for facepiece design, improving fit and
protection for a wider variety of faces. In our study, 10 facial
dimensions were collected using both the traditional calipers
and tape method and a Konica-Minolta Vivid9i laser scanner.
Scans were combined using RapidForm XOR software to create
a single complete facial geometry of the subject as a triangu-
lated surface with an associated texture image from which
to obtain measurements. A paired t-test was performed on
subject means in each measurement by method. Nine subjects
were used in this study: five males (one African-American and
four Caucasian females) and four females displaying a range
of facial dimensions. Five measurements showed significant
differences (p < 0.05), with most accounted for by subject
movements or amended by scanning technique modifications.
Laser scanning measurements showed high precision and ac-
curacy when compared with traditional methods. Significant
differences found can be very small changes in measurements
and are unlikely to present a practical difference. The laser
scanning technique demonstrated reliable and quick anthropo-
metric data collection for use in future projects in redesigning
respirators.
Keywords facial anthropometry, personal protective equipment de-
sign, respirators, surface laser scanning, three-
dimensional facial measurement
Correspondence to: Claudiu T. Lungu, Department of Environ-
mental Health Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
RPHB 530, 1530 3rd Ave. S., Birmingham, AL 35294; e-mail:
clungu@uab.edu.
INTRODUCTION
M illions of workers in the United States are employed
in hazardous environments that can cause respiratory
Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene
illness and/or injury. When exposure to these environments
cannot be adequately reduced by engineering and/or adminis-
trative controls, the use of respiratory protection is required.
As a result, an estimated 5 million U.S. workers are legally
required to use respiratory protective equipment while
working.(1)
Key factors in the performance and protective value of a
respirator are its fit and the integrity of the face seal it affords.
The lack of an intact face seal leaves the wearer vulnerable to
potentially hazardous exposures. In addition, if the respirator
does not fit properly when donned, or the users perceive it to not
properly fit, the user will be less likely to comply with its use.
One of the reasons for the lack of compliance could be
the poor fit of respirators, to some wearers, that could be
attributed to the limited size/form options available.(2) Simply
stated, there are face shapes that cannot be properly fitted
by the currently available small, medium, and large respirator
facepieces. To design better respirators, new fit test panels need
to be developed, and the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) is collecting anthropometric facial
parameters from a sample population representative of the
current U.S. work force.(3)
To collect these data, NIOSH is using both traditional
caliper and ruler measures as well as advanced 3D scanning
techniques. Over 1000 subjects were scanned using a Cyber-
ware rapid 3D digitizer (Cyberware, Inc., Monterey, Calif.)
and its associated data processing software. Ten relevant facial
dimensions were obtained for each scanned subject, the same
as those measured using the traditional method.(4) The use
of 3D methods in anthropometry has several advantages over
the traditional use of calipers and steel tape. Measurements
in 3D lack some of the inherent errors of manual methods,
particularly the compression of soft tissues of the face. This
type of compression can occur while closing the calipers or
pulling the tape across the face to obtain a measurement,
and results in a decreased parameter value. Three-dimensional
February 2012 81
methods also avoid the limitations of instrument marcation by
being capable of calculating dimensions to several decimal
places. These 3D methods have the additional benefits of
being less invasive, allow the collection of additional infor-
mation that traditional methods do not (volumes, areas, and
replicate the contour of the subject’s face), as well as the
ability to archive an exact copy of the subject’s face for later
reference.(4)
For all the benefits of 3D methods, there are some signif-
icant limitations. The non-invasive nature of using 3D data
collection eliminates the need for palpation of the subject’s
face. Palpation is needed to identify the bony understructure
that indicates some facial landmarks. These landmarks could
be erroneously identified if only scanning techniques are used.
In addition, there is a lack of information regarding tissue,
both soft and bony, interaction under pressure that could be
important in relation to how the facepiece will interact with
the face. However, future advances in computer modeling can
potentially overcome these issues.
Anthropometric measurements using laser scanning have
been recently utilized for various applications involving human
facial parameters. A Cyberware 3030RGB scanner was used
to investigate the effects of environmental conditions (room
lighting and climate control parameters), positioning, and head
orientation on the reconstructed 3D image.(5) In this study the
scanning head was moving 360◦ around the subject, digitizing
512 vertical profiles in 17 sec. Six subjects and a mannequin
were used to collect six linear measurements of the face
both through scanning and through manual anatomic caliper.
Comparison of these data showed that the 3D digitization
through laser scanning offers excellent opportunity for human
face analysis.
In another study,(6) a similar experimental setup was used to
evaluate the reliability of interactive anthropometric landmark
localization based on digitized 3D facial images obtained from
a mannequin. The effect of head inclination and head position
on landmark location was examined. Three-dimensional sur-
face digitization presents great opportunities in the clinical
documentation and analysis of the human face, allowing most
surface anthropometric landmarks to be identified reliably
under optimal conditions. However, head stabilization, pro-
jection, and position must be standardized to achieve these
optimal conditions.
Kovacs et al. used a Konica Minolta Vivid 910 3D scanner
(Ramsey, N.J.) to capture images of a mannequin(7) and five
human subjects.(8) The goals of these studies were to evaluate
the precision, accuracy, and reliability and to identify error
sources. A single scanner, as well as multiple scanner method,
was used to recompose the 3D virtual images. The images
were recomposed from two or more single shots, and in one
series of experiments an automatic rotary table was used to
rotate the mannequin in front of a stationary scanner. Both
studies concluded that the Minolta Konica Vivid 910 scanner
provides precise and accurate images of the facial features,
and its performance can be optimized by following standard
examining conditions and operation of the scanner. They also
82 Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene
concluded that the rotary table setup was not appropriate for
recording the human face.
The purpose of the study presented here was to first de-
velop a method for collecting anthropometric measurements
using a single Konica-Minolta Vivid 9i laser scanner, then
to demonstrate its comparability to traditional caliper and
tape anthropometry methods. The Vivid 9i scanner allows for
greater surface details compared with the Cyberwere scanner.
However, because a laser scanner acquires data within line
of sight, it requires multiple surface scannings for the re-
creation of the entire 3D head geometry. The goal of this
work was to determine the feasibility of available resources to
collect anthropometric data in 3D, with this scanner, for future
respirator design research.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Subjects
This study was approved by the University of Alabama at
Birmingham (UAB) Institutional Review Board (IRB)
(X081230010) to include human subjects. The Vivid 9i surface
laser scanner in the study uses a Class I laser, which is safe
for use with human subjects. Nine subjects were recruited for
this study between August and October 2009, five males and
four females. One African-American male was included, and
the rest were Caucasian. Subjects’ ages ranged from 22 to 43
years, with a mean of 27.8 years. Subjects were selected to
provide a wide range of facial dimensions. All subjects signed
UAB IRB informed consent forms to participate in this study.
Measurements
Each subject included in the study had 14 facial land-
marks marked on their facial surface using a washable marker.
These landmarks were then used as end points for the collec-
tion of 10 facial measurements relevant to respirator design
(Figure 1). Measurements and their respective landmarks are
also described in Table I. After landmarks were located, facial
dimensions were collected on each subject by the same inves-
tigator using traditional caliper and steel tape methods. Prior
to this work, she was trained in collecting anthropometric data
by another investigator who has a well-established record of
performing this type of measurements. The investigator also
practices the techniques on a head manikin.
Biocular breadth and bizygomatic breadth lengths were col-
lected using spreading calipers, while for bitragion-subnasale
and bitragion-menton arcs the investigator used steel tape. All
remaining measurements were collected using sliding calipers.
Measurements were collected in triplicate and recorded by
subject to avoid observer bias. Bias was also avoided by
obtaining measurements as a complete set then repeating two
additional times.
3D Data Collection
Subjects were seated in a chair with the head slightly tilted
back and supported by an adjustable headrest. A Vivid9i sur-
face laser scanner was used to collect the facial characteristics
February 2012
 FIGURE 1. Landmarks and facial measurements relevant to respirator design.

of subjects in 3D as triangulated surfaces with associated investigator conducted all the manual and 3D anthropometric
texture images (Figure 2). Using the scanning controls avail- data collection.
able in RapidForm XOR software, three scans were performed
on each subject to obtain data on the entire face. These scans Analysis
were performed with one scan for the subject directly facing
Means and standard deviations (SD) were calculated per
the scanner and two scans at approximately 45◦ to the left and
measurement in each subject, testing for accuracy and preci-
right (Figure 3).
sion. A paired t-test was performed on each type of anthro-
RapidForm XOR was also used to composite the three scans
pometric measurement using the subject means of the manual
of each subject into a complete representation of the face.
measurements and the means of the 3D measurements. This
The three raw scans of the subject are aligned both manually
comparison will also test accuracy of the 3D laser scanning
(“picked point”) and automatically (“global and fine”). Once
method to the traditional manual collection of facial measure-
aligned, the individual scans are trimmed to remove larger
ments.
polygons and areas of overlap between scans, while retaining
areas needed to fill gaps in individual scans (Figure 4). The
three trimmed scans were then decimated (smoothing and RESULTS
compressing data) prior to merging to form a single facial
surface (Figure 5a). Anthropometric measurements were col-
lected in triplicate from the merged data using distance and
3D spline functions in RapidForm to determine linear and arc
O ver the course of data collection, several observations
were made dealing with the sensitivity of the exper-
imental setup. Observations included changes in head and
measurements, respectively (Figures 5b and 5c). The same facial position affecting scan completeness, data processing

TABLE I. Measurements Collected and Their Landmarks

Measurement Point 1 Point 2 Point 3A
Menton-sellion length Menton Sellion
Subnasale-sellion length Subnasale Sellion
Subnasale-menton length Subnasale Menton
Nose protrusion Subnasale Pronasale
Nose breadth Right alare Left alare
Lip length Right chellion Left chellion
Biocular breadth Right ectocanthus Left ectocanthus
Bizygomatic breadth Right zygion Left zygion
Bitragion-subnasale arc Right tragion Subnasale Left tragion
Bitragion-menton arc Right tragion Menton Left tragion
AIf applicable.
Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene February 2012 83

FIGURE 2. Subject scanning setup.
methods affecting composite image quality, and ambient light-
ing distorting final texture appearance, as well as issues with
landmark indicator visualization in subject scans. Alterations
in head and facial positioning between scans can change the
surface areas of the face that the scanner can effectively per-
ceive, possibly altering the dimensions of facial features being
captured, causing additional scans to be needed. The initial
data processing methods employed involved a decimation step
to remove high-frequency distortions from the raw scan sur-
faces and decrease rendering time for the final composite. This
step also removed data points, which were needed in the final
composite to improve texture.
It was also observed that the overhead ambient lighting
could severely discolor the surface of the composited scan,
making landmark identification impossible, when processed
with the decimation step. Certain landmarks were difficult
to identify, even without discoloration due to ambient light
FIGURE 3. Three scans collected from a single subject (45◦ right, frontal, 45◦ left).
84 Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene
resulting from a low scanner-perceived contrast compared with
the subject’s facial surface and shadows caused by the contours
of the face. These observations led to modifications to provide
a higher contrast for the landmark indicators and to retain more
data points in the final composited image to improve surface
texture.
The paired t-test that was performed found that 5 of the
10 measurements had significant differences between those
collected by the laser scanning method (referred to as digital
method hereafter) and by the traditional manual method (re-
ferred to as manual method hereafter) (α = 0.05)
(Figure 6). Five measurements were found to have digital
method values that were significantly larger than the man-
ual method (Table II). Two of these—nose breadth and lip
length—are highly susceptible to variation in observed value
due to the changes in the subject’s facial posture between mea-
surements. The remaining measurements (bizygomatic breadth,
bitragion-subnasale arc, biocular breadth, and, in some cases,
lip length) exhibit differences that can likely be attributed to the
difficulty in consistently identifying their respective landmarks
in the digital method. These measurements have end points
that are located in shadows due to the contour of the face
(biocular breadth and lip length) or occur on the sides of the
face, where a shadow effect is introduced during digitization,
making identification difficult. The bitragion-subnasale arc
was also affected by earlier deviation from the expected path
of the spline due to spiking along the sides of the alares.
As shown in Table III, a two-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) of differences in facial dimensions by measure-
ment repetition and subject and their interaction produced
significant models for all dimensions except nose breadth,
bitragion-subnasale, and bitragion-menton. Differences be-
tween repeated manual and digital measurements for all di-
mensions except bizygomatic breadth were not significant,
indicating the digital method would produce the same results as
the manual method. Differences between subjects were not sig-
nificant for nose breadth, bitragion-subnasale, and bitragion-
menton. This was an unexpected result given the known wide
distribution of facial dimensions in populations.(9)
February 2012
 FIGURE 4. Trimmed scans of subject (45◦ right, frontal, 45◦ left).

FIGURE 5. Final merged image of subject and examples of measurements collected.

DISCUSSION to data collection and processing. First were the issues dealing
with the alignment and capture of the three individual subject

A s previously mentioned, a number of observations were

made during data collection that required modifications
scans. In many cases, several attempts were needed to obtain
a complete set of scans on a particular subject, as the subjects

FIGURE 6. Paired t-test results.

Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene February 2012 85

TABLE II. Summary of Measurements and Their Differences
Mean (cm) (SD) Manual Digital Mean DifferenceA Significance
Menton-sellion 11.83 (0.89) 11.97 (0.77) 0.14
Subnasale-sellion 5.11 (0.36) 5.18 (0.34) 0.07
Bizygomatic breadth 13.94 (1.22) 14.34 (1.28) 0.4 <0.0001
Nose protrusion 2.08 (0.25) 2.02 (0.19) 0.06
Nose breadth 3.31 (0.52) 3.59 (0.49) 0.28 <0.0001
Lip length 5.00 (0.38) 5.20 (0.35) 0.2 <0.025
Subnasale-menton 6.73 (0.72) 6.90 (0.64) 0.17
Bitragion-subnasale 27.14 (2.31) 27.60 (2.49) 0.46 <0.025
Bitragion-menton 30.77 (3.03) 30.72 (3.02) 0.05
Biocular breadth 9.38 (0.61) 9.76 (0.59) 0.38 <0.001
ADigital method.

would move their heads, resulting in incomplete image cap-
tures. Subjects could also change their facial positioning, in
between individual scans, altering certain dimensions of the
face. An additional issue with alignment resulted from the
rotation of the subject between individual scans. Often, the
angle of the scanner relative to the subject in the initial frontal
view scan would not be suitable for the 45◦ angled view scans,
leading to the exclusion of the upper portion of the face.
Another issue dealt with the ambient lighting in the area.
The laboratory space used in the study employed overhead
fluorescent lighting, which was at an angle to the experimental
setup. While the individual scans would appear to be fine, this
angling of light relative to the subject being scanned caused
significant discolorations to the texture of the compressed and
merged scan (Figure 7). These changes to the color of the
facial surface made it impossible to detect facial landmarks
identified in these areas.
In an effort to deal with these observed issues, amendments
were made to the scanning protocol that was initially employed
to improve the quality of the data collected. First, several meth-
ods were tested to improve landmark identification. Certain
landmarks were more difficult than others to identify due to
shadows occurring on the sides of the face and changes to the
color of the subject’s skin during digitization. The initial study
design used washable black marker to place dots at landmark
locations. These marker dots were often difficult to locate after
scanning due to insufficient contrast to the scanner’s percep-
tion of the subject’s skin color. A second method was tested
using bright white, triangle-shaped stickers. While providing
sufficient contrast, it was difficult to determine the true location
of the landmark, as the scanner’s perception of the sticker’s
color and thickness would not occur in the same location
(Figure 8). Two types of white theatrical makeup were also
tested for use in identifying landmarks. A white cream makeup,
applied with a cotton swab, presented the same issues with
contrast as the black marker method. A white grease makeup,
also applied with a cotton swab, proved the best method of
those tested.
The second amendment to the scanning protocol dealt with
the method of compositing the individual trimmed scans. Ini-
tially, the individual scans were decimated to smooth and
compress the data in order to reduce the time needed to render

TABLE III. Results of Two-Way ANOVA Test

p-value
Dimension Model Repetition Subject
Menton-sellion 0.002∗ 0.493 0.001∗
Subnasale-sellion 0.024∗ 0.365 0.016∗
Bizygomatic breadth <0.001∗ 0.032∗ <0.001∗
Nose protrusion 0.004∗ 0.952 0.002∗
Nose breadth 0.090 0.721 0.054
Lip length 0.001∗ 0.363 <0.001∗
Subnasale-menton <0.001∗ 0.293 <0.001∗
Bitragion-subnasale 0.075 0.392 0.547
Bitragion-menton 0.146 0.786 0.090
FIGURE 7. Abnormalities of surface coloration due to angle of
Biocular breadth <0.001∗ 0.331 <0.001∗ ambient lighting.
∗α = 0.05.

86 Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene February 2012


FIGURE 8. Errors in sticker resolution.
the final composite. This method would improve the texture
of the individual scans but also degraded the composited
facial surface and affected the accuracy of the measurements
collected, particularly the arc measurements.
Another method was then employed that could composite
the scans while retaining the remaining data. Subjects that were
processed prior to the change in compositing method were re-
run using original raw data. In addition, it was observed that
after the final merger of the individual scans, distortions to the
surface texture could be observed at points of overlap. Careful
trimming of individual layers to minimize the extent of the
overlap was used in the later subjects.
Accuracy of the 3D digital method was evaluated when
compared with the traditional manual method. Seven of the
ten measurements collected were found to be accurate, with
mean differences falling within the acceptable margin of er-
ror (1–3 mm).(3) The three measurements that exceeded a
mean difference of 3 mm were bizygomatic breadth, bitragion-
subnasale arc, and biocular breadth. These three were also
found to be significantly different between the methods. Their
differences could be attributed to the difficulty in identifying
their respective landmarks consistently in the digital method
and to deviations from expected spline paths.
The digital method proved to be as precise, if not more
so, than the traditional caliper and steel tape method of mea-
surement. It is also a more consistent data acquisition process
compared with the traditional manual methods. Eight of the ten
measurements collected exhibited lower standard deviations
for the digital method than the traditional manual method. The
two measures with digital standard deviations that exceeded
the manual method were bizygomatic breadth and bitragion-
subnasale arc. Both have end points that can be difficult to
locate after digitization due to shadows induced on the sides
of the face. In addition to the effect of the shadows, bitragion-
subnasale arcs often followed the facial surface so tightly that
there were deviations from the expected path at the laugh lines
near the alares.
An interesting observation regarding this limited data set
is that although not necessary statistically significant, the 3D
digital measurements except nose protrusion and bitragion-
nenton are consistently larger compared with the manual mea-
Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene
surements. This observation is consistent with the findings
obtained by Zhuang et al.(10)
Another possible cause for the differences between the
methods of collection was the use of a single complete 3D
scan of each subject. Time constraints allowed for only one
full scan to be collected per subject. This limitation can remove
variations due to changes in facial expression, and potentially
instill bias when compared to the possibility of changes in
facial expression during manual collection. In addition, under
the current three individual scan methods, facial expression
can change between scans, altering dimensions observed in
the final composite.
It is important to remember, when considering the evalua-
tion of anthropometric methods, some variation due to the use
of human subjects is to be expected. Intrasubject variation due
to facial movements during data collection and the possible
compression of soft tissues during manual measurement are
probable. While these variations can lead to statistical differ-
ences, it is important to consider these differences practically.
In an international anthropometric survey, Farkas et al.(11)
found that while statistically significant, measurements with p
> 0.009 exhibit little practical significant difference as they are
not visually distinguishable. Thus, when applied to the results
of this study, only two measurements, bizygomatic breadth
and nose breadth, could be considered practically significant;
the difficulty of their collection has been described previously.
CONCLUSIONS
W While the Konica-Minolta Vivid 9i laser scanner has
been shown to create highly accurate and precise rep-
resentations of inanimate objects, this study was designed
to test this system’s ability to perform with living subjects.
Based on results, the 3D anthropometric data collection and
handling methods developed are capable of providing accu-
rate and precise measurements. With further modifications
to scanning protocol, particularly landmark indication and
drawing of splines, the single Vivid 9i surface laser scanner
would be capable of collecting accurate and precise facial
anthropometric measurements pertinent to respirator fitting
and design.
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