Earth Pressure and

Earth-retaining Structures

Sccond Edition

by

C. R.I. CLA YTON

Profc sor in Geotechnical Engineering
University of Surrcy
J. MILITITS K Y
Professor of Ci vii Engineering
UFRGS
Porto Alegre
Brazil
and
R.I. WOODS
Lecturer in Civil Engineering
University of Surrey

BLACKIE ACADEMIC & PROFESSIONAL

Ato lmpt"'t ol Chai)<Nn & Hall

London · Weinheim · New York · Tokyo · Melbourne · Madras

C ontents

PART 1: MECHANISMS

Soil behaviour 3
1. 1 lntrod uction 3
1.2 Soil strcngth a nd corn prcssi bilit y- thc importance of dTccti vc stress 4
1.3 Co nscq ucnccs for engineering design 12

2 Wall placement, construction and movement 13

3 The development of earth-pressure theory 21

3. 1 Classica) solutions and ciTcctive stress 37

4 Graphical techniques 40
4. 1 Graphicalteehn iques for the acii ve case 44
4.2 Determination of linc of thrust for complex geomctries 48
4.3 Graphical techniques for the passive case 49

5 Latera! pressures due to external loads 56

5. 1 Elastic solutions for horizontal stress increase 58
5.2 Calculation based on venical ehtstic stress distributions 60
5.3 Empirica! approaches 60

6 Compaction pressures 63
6.1 Compaction of granular fili 63
6.2 Compaclion pressurcs from cohesive soil 71

7 From theory to practice 81

7. 1 lnadeq uacies of classica) solu tions 81
7.2 Strain softcning and progressive failurc 85
7.3 Accc ptable wall deform ations 87
7.4 Wall nexibility 88
7.5 ln-situ carth pressures and inswllatio n ciTccts 91

PART Il : DESIGN

8 lntroduction to design 99
!!. l Limit states for ea rth-retaining structurcs 99
8.2 Factors to conside r in choosing a retaining structurc 10 1
VI (OSTI::". TS

!U Typc~
or ~ t ructun: 102
!U. I
Gravity and rcinrorccd concrete cu ntilcvcr walls 103
8.3.2
Shcct-pilc wulls 108
8.3.3Dmphragm and bon:d-pile walb Il -l
8.3.4M uhiplc-anchorcd and braced w ali~ 120
8.3.5 Soil reinrorccmcnt and anchoring 123
X.4 Sclccti on and acquisition or soil paramctcrs 132
!1.4.1 lnt roduction 132
8.4.2 Scl<:cting relc vant ~oil parameters ror dcs1gn 133
8.4.3 Mcthods or invc~ug:Hion 13-1
8.4.4 Rcquired soil paramcter:. 139
8.5 Typcs or analysis 148
8.5.1 Limi! cquilibrium analysis 141!
8.5.2 Computer ana lysis 153

9 Backfilled walls 155

9.1 Extcrnal stability 156
9.1.1 Preliminary cstimates of backfill rorccs 156
9. 1.2 Ea nh -prcssurc calculati ons 159
9.1.3 Ovcrlurning 166
9. 1.4 Sliding 171
9. 1.5 Bcaring capacity 175
9.1.6 Overall stability 180
9. 1.7 Sculcmcnt and ti lt 181
9.2 Internai SHibility 181
9.2.1 Masonry. gravity block and gabion walls 181
9.2.2 Crib walls 183
9.2.3 Reinrorced-concrete cantilcvcr walls 185
9.2.4 Design or bridge abutmcnts ror carth pressure 187

IO Sheet-pilc walls 191

10.1 Groundwatcr conditi ons 19 1
10.2 Definitions or factor or sa rct y 194
10.3 Cantilcvcr shcct-pilc walls 199
10.3.1 Prcliminary dcs1gn 199
10.3.2 Dctcrmination of dcpth of cmbcdmcnt and maximum bcnding
moment 202
10.4 Design of unchorcd shcct-pilc walls 212
10.4.1 Free carlh support mcthod 213
10.4.2 Fixcd earth support method 225
10.4.3 Design of anchor systcms 238

Il Excavation support 243

11.1 lnnucncc or construction mcth ods 245
l 1.2 Mcthods of supporting cxcavations 246
11.3 Requircd analysis 249
11.3. 1 Groundwatcr considcrations 249
l 1.3.2 Stresses applied to thc wall 25 1
l 1.3.3 Base stabil ity 253
l 1.3.4 Bcnding momcnt and shcar force distribution 258
11.3.5 Strut. prop and anchor loads 260
11.3.6 Displaccmcnts around and bclow cxcavations 263
l 1.3.7 Ovcrall stability 272
11.4 umcrical modclling of cxca vation support systems 272
 <0 ' Il 'lS \Il

11.4. l "'uc, 1n modcllmg ~74

11.4.2 ;\ nulysis with Wmk lcr ;prìng modcls 276
1 1 .4. ~ l· in ite clcmcnt ana l y~i' 278
11.4.4 Finite diffcrcrH:c analy\i~ 2H2
11.4.5 Bnundary d~ment anal)'b ::!1!3
11 .4.6 Some a' ailablc computer packagc> 2!!5

12 -.oil rcinforccmcnt and anchoring 289

' l Mcchanic~ of reinforccd soil 289
l::!. 1.1 cnhanccmcnt of ,hcar >lrcngth 289
12. 1.2 Availablc rcinforccmcnt force 290
12. 1.3 Strcss- strain hchaviour 29 1
l~ 2 ("omponents of reinforccd-soil walls 292
12.2. 1 Rcinforccmcnt 292
12.2.2 F'acing 295
12.2.3 Backfill 296
l ::!.3 Principles of design 297
12.3.1 Generai 297
12.3.2 Prcliminary dimcnsions 297
12.3.3 Factors of safety 297
12.4 Extcrnnl stability 298
12.4. l Outward sliding 299
12.4.2 Ovcrturning 299
12.4.3 Bearing failu re 300
12.4.4 Dcep-seated failure 300
12.5 l nternal stability 300
12.5. 1 Tcnsion failurc 302
12.5.2 Pullout failurc 305
12.6 Pullout capacity or rcinforccmcn t 307
12.6. 1 Strip rcinforccmcnt 307
12.6.2 Bar reinforccmcnt (soil nails) 308
12.6.3 Shcct/fabric reinforccmcnt 309
12.6.4 Wire-mcsh reinforcemcnt 3 10
12.6.5 Polymer-grid reinforccment 310
12.6.6 Bar-anchor rcinforcemcnt 311
12.6.7 Hybrid-anchori ng systems 312
12.7 Ground anchors 317
12.7. l Types of ground anchor 317
12.7.2 Design of ground nnchors 3 19
12.7.3 Durability 319
1::!.8 Pullout capacit y of ground anchors 320
12.8. 1 Typc A anchors 320
12.8.2 Typc B anchors 320
12.8.3 Type C anchors 321
12.8.4 Typc D anchors 321
12.8.5 Other anchor typcs 323
12.8.6 Prcliminary estimate 323
12.8.7 Factors of safcty 323
1~.9 Stability of an chorcd walls 323
12.9. 1 Overall equilibrium 324
12.9.2 Local eq uilibrium 325

13 Slope-stability and seepage analysis 326

13.1 Slopc stability applied to earth-retaining structures 326
13. 1. 1 Method of sliccs 327
13. 1.2 Short-term stability analysis 328
 ,.:.'......,..
:..
,.
•i
\iii ( 'O'>:TI· '- l S

.:)•,,...
•J

~
I.U.J Long-1.:rrn \labllil) anal)"~ cm:ular ~~~P' 329
IJ.IA Long-tcrm s1abili1y ana lysis non-drcular '''P~ 333
13.1 5 Paramctcr~ ano rncc.:hanbm'
j l l:! Gmundwa1cr ano rc1ain111g ,truc1ure,
J38
339
...,.
·,~ IJ.:! l lmroduc.:uon
13.2.2 Hori10nl:ll \\alt:r·tablc \\llh no no,,
339
339
13.2.3 Grou nowa1cr now
ài 13.2.4 Sccpagc analysis
340
341
"l:,,
~,,
~,.
13.2.5 lnstabilil) of 1he bonom of CAc.:avalion
13.2.6 Wa1cr no" due IO hca\) rainfall
13.2.7 Eros10 n c.:on1rol
345
350
35 1
!,,
,.,,.,
r:.· Appcndix A: Sarma slope-stability analysis
.....
,., A. lData inpul program
354
35-l
.,,.,.,,..
....
A.2 S1nbili1y analysis prograrn
A.3 Typical outpul frorn Sarma >lopc s1abili1y program
356
359
c:.·
,.,
c:.·
.... Appendix B: Eartb pressure cocfficients 360
,.,
<:.
,,.......... References 387
,......... Index 395
(•
,../:,........
,.
.....
..... Publisher's note
,.
,c:.
.....
.....
,.,.,.
l'• 'Rcinrorccd Ea nh' is the 1rademark of 1he licensccs or 1he pa1cn1s or Henri Vidal and is 1hc
..... 1rading name of those companics. Use of thc term Rcinforced Eanh wi1hou1 reference 10 the
.....
,.
lradc-mark owners hip by lhe Reinforced Eanh Com panies constitutes an unauthorized usc of
.....
........,. the Rei nrorced Eanh tradcmark righ1s .
,.
,.....,..
.....
"'~
.....
.....
'!'
:,',.
.....
~~·
,,,,:....
~~ .
,,~.
r;~.
r;~.
r;~.
,,..,..
r;~.

t;~.
t;~.
...
,.,
....
,.,
. ....
t,.,
.....
,.,
t....
,,.,
m.
.....
:c:.,
,.,
,.......
.
,,,,,.,,,,.....
~:·

,,la•'•..
~ --..

....
f..... ~