CE 307 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Course Topics
1 Design Speed

2 Stopping Distances
Stopping and passing distances, perception and reaction times, breaking distances

3 Vertical alignment
sags and summits

4 Horizontal alignment
circular and transition
superelevation

5 Laboratory Practicals
Water Absorption Test
Aggregate Crushing Value
Los Angeles Abrasion Value Test
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Test
LEVEL OF SERVICE

Level of Service A
This is the highest quality of service a highway can provide. It is a condition of free-flow in which there is
very little or no restriction on speed or the freedom of interaction between vehicles.

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Since speed is so high, there is a high tendency for accidents rates to increase. The input costs for such a
road is very high. The design standard is very high and therefore the grades are very low and the
excavations high.

Level of Service B
It is a zone of stable although the operating speed is beginning to be restricted by other vehicles. Under this
level of service, freedom of interaction between vehicles is still below that of level A. This level of service
provides the guidelines for the typical design of a rural highway.

Level of Service C
It is still a zone of stable flow but at this level, volume and density are beginning to restrict drivers in the
freedom to select speed or changing lanes. Operating speeds are still in the range of 2/3 to ¾ of the
maximum. This level is frequently as being an approximate criterion for design proposes for urban roads
where the cost of providing the level of service A is very high.

Level of Service D
It approaches the zone of unstable flow. Tolerable average operating speeds are maintained but are subject
to considerable variation. Freedom to manuvaure during comfort are low because lane density is as high as
28 – 31 veh/km. Drivers consider this level of service as undesirable.

Level of Service E
The upper element of this level is service is the capacity of the facility. Operating at this level of service is
undesirable and speeds are frequently interrupted and can be as low as 48km/hr. This level of service has
little dependency in speed selection and freedom of interaction between vehicles.

Level of Service F
It describes the forced flow operations. Speed at rate of flow are below what can be attained in level E.
Density will continue to a point represented by jam concentration (around 93veh/km). The vehicle volume
will approach 1500veh/hr per lane and this will result in the formation of long queues.
VERTICAL CURVES

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For any point on the vertical curve, the distance from the origin is given by;

DQ = y = (G1 + G2)x2/200L (parabolic vertical curve)

PQ = x = G1x/100

A = G1 + G2 (algebraic difference in grades)

Distance DP = G1x/100 – (G1 + G2)x2/200L

The distance DP is the difference in levels between point A and point P.

Level of Point D = z = Level of Point A + G1x/100 + (G1 + G2)x2/200L

At the highest point dz/dx = 0 but z = Level of Point A + G1x/100 + (G1 + G2)x2/200L

dz/dx = 0 + G1/100 + 2(G1 + G2)x/100L =

x = [G1/(G1 + G2)]L

Example
If G1 = 2%, G2 = 3% and x = 80m then

x = [G1/(G1 + G2)]L
80 = (2/5)L or L = 200m

The acceptable L (from Ministry of Transport is L = AK and K = 50 for a 100km/hr design speed)

L = AK = 50 x 5 = 250m

Since the sight distance over the vertical curve is shorter than the MOT requirements;
- allow for signage to prevent overtaking
- provide an a climbing lane so that faster vehicles can overtake.
Guidelines for designing vertical curves
- Grades must conform to Ministry of Transport specifications

- Avoid short sag vertical curves at the end of long downward grades

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- There is a critical length for every grade, which must not be exceeded

- Attempts must be made to balance cut and fill (by using excavation for embankment formation)

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1. There must be good co-relation between vertical and horizontal alignment. Avoid mis-phasing

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2. Aim at providing suitable sight distances

3. Do not provide very short sag curves at the end of long down grades

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4. Do not put any two curves too near

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5. For the main highway use a grade of 0.5 – 5%

SIGHT DISTANCE

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d1 and d2 are measured from the centre of the curve and have heights h1 and h2.

Since the vertical curve is parabolic

y = (G1 + G2)x2/200L c.f. y = kx2 where k = (G1 + G2)/200L = A/200L

Taking O as the origin, then h1 and d1 are related as

h1 = kd12
or d1 = (kh1)

Sight distance S is given by S = d1 + d2

S = (kh1) + (kh2)
S = k[h1 + h2] but k = (G1 + G2)/200L or 1/k = 200L/(G1+G2)
S = [200L/(G1+G2)][h1 + h2]

S/[h1 + h2] = [200L/(G1+G2)]

S2/[h1 + h2] = [200L/(G1+G2)]
(G1+G2)S2/[h1 + h2] = 200L
L = (G1+G2)S2/[200L(h1 + h2)]

Ministry Guideslines on Object Height

The Ministry recommends that the stopping distances must be measured along the line of travel, from a
point 1.15m above the road (representing the driver’s eye height) to a point 150mm high (representing a
stationary object on a road surface.

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Passing sight distance is measured along the line of travel between a point 1.15m above the road to a point
1.35 high above the road surface.
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT & SUPERELEVATION

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The forces acting on a vehicle traversing a horizontal circular curve are as shown above.
The centrifugal force acting on the vehicle is;

P = mv2/R so P  1/R

where P = centrifugal force

m = mass of vehicle
v = velocity of vehicle
R = radius of curve
g = acceleration due to gravity

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At a point A very close to T, P =0 since R = . At another point C very close to T, P will increase suddenly
to a finite value. This sudden change can cause discomfort to motorists hence the introduction of transition
curves.

Superelevation is introduced so that the component of vehicle weight acting down the superelevation can
contribute to opposing the centrifugal force.
Resolving the forces parallel to the road surface
P cos  = N + mg sin  note F = N and P = mv2/R
mv2/R cos  = N + mg sin 

Resolving the forces perpendicular to the road surface

N = mg cos  + P sin 
N = mg cos  + (mv2/R) sin 

mv2/R cos  = N + mg sin  but N = mg cos  + (mv2/R) sin 

mv /R cos  = {mg cos  + (mv /R) sin } + mg sin 
2 2

v2/R = g +  (v2/R) tan  + g tan 

v2/R –  (v2/R) tan  = g + g tan 
v2/R (1 –  tan ) = g( + tan )
v2 =Rg( + tan )/(1 –  tan ) let  = f and tan  = e

v2 =Rg(e + f)/(1 – ef) but v m/s = 0.278V km/hr and ef  0

v2 =Rg(e + f)

V =[127 Rg(e + f)]

Note:
- Superelvation rotation is done about the centre line of the road

- If the radius is less than the value specified by the MOT manual then use a transition curve.

- If the radius is larger than the specisifed one there will be no need for a transition curve

- Superelevation must always be applied whenever a horizontal curve is introduced.

- Wholly circular curves are acceptable for rural roads where large radii may be freely used.

- Do not put very long straights (driver boredom and headlights)

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

Highway Pavement (14/05/96)

It is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and processed material placed on top of a
subgrade. The pavement can be flexible or rigid.

Rigid Pavement
This is a concrete slab transmitting load to the subgrade by beam and slab action. It offers bridges or
localised failures in the subgrade. The design depends on the strength of the concrete block. The concrete
carries all the load.

Flexible Pavement
It maintains intimate contact with, and distributes loads to the subgrade by aggregate interlock, particle
friction and cohesion. The load is distributed laterally with depth and the design depends on the strength of
the subgrade. The subgrade carries all the load.

Selected Subgrade
Where the subgrade is expansive soil it must be excavated to at least 150mm depth and made up with
selected subgrade of CBR > 5.

Surfacing
Surfacing may be a premix (bituminous binder mixed with mineral material to form Hot Rolled asphalt ) or
asphaltic concrete. Hot Rolled asphalt is usually used in UK and is based on BS594. Asphaltic concrete is
used in the USA and other developing countries. Surface dressing may be used for rural roads.

Flexible Pavement Design Procedure

1 Traffic Survey
The traffic that will use the road/ highway during the design period must be determined. An axle load
survey will give the required Average Annual Daily Traffic (ADT) for design.

The success of pavement design depends on reliable and accurate traffic flow data. The following traffic
survey procedure may be followed;
- traffic survey must continue for a 24hr period preferably on a week day and one on a weekend
- the survey must continue if possible for a whole week, and in this case a 16hr survey will be acceptable
- the survey must not take place where there is abnormal traffic flow (during holidays, stayaways etc)
- if possible traffic survey must be continued for several weeks in a year.

2. Equivalent Factor
Determine the equivalent factor (E) for each class of vehicle from the load survey as;

E = [X/Ws]x

where E = equivalent factor for the measured axle load

X = measured axle load
Ws = standard axle load = 8160kg
x = factor (take x = 4 as default)

3. Design Life
The design life for a flexible pavement is 10 – 20 years. In developed countries where concrete pavements
are used, the design life is about 40 years.
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4. Traffic Growth Rate
The annual traffic growth rate must be determined from available records. These can be obtained from the
Ministry of Transport. The value is usually 5 – 10% per annum. It is very rare to have values greater than
10%.

The overall growth factor is given as;

R = [(1 + r)n – 1]/r

where R = overall growth factor

r = annual growth rate
n = design life in years

5. Design Equivalent Standard Pavement

With the information found from the above steps, we can find the design Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA).

ESA = ADT x 365 x E x R

Roads are classified in terms of equivalent standard axles as shown below;

Standard axles in design life (106) Traffic design group

0.1 0.1M
0.3 0.3M
1.0 1.0M
3.0 3.0M

Route Survey
The alignment of the proposed road must be checked and route adequately defined. A soil survey must be
conducted along the centre line of the proposed alignment and the Carlifonia Bearing Ratio (CBR)
determined. The dynamic cone penetrometer DCP is needed for this purpose. The subgrade CBR is then
used for design.

Soils for road design are classified as follows;

Soil CBR
0.1 0.1M
0.3 0.3M
1.0 1.0M
3.0 3.0M
Example
Calculate the design axle load from the given information, and given that n = 20yrs and r = 5%

Axle load No. of vehicle in each direction per day

4540 30
5440 20
6350 20
7260 30
8160 60
9070 40
9980 15
10890 10

Solution

Axle load Equivalent factor No. of vehicle in Equivalent axles per

each direction per day
day
4540 0.09 30 2.7
5440 0.19 20 3.8
6350 0.37 20 7.4
7260 0.63 30 18.9
8160 1.00 60 60
9070 1.53 40 61.2
9980 2.24 15 33.6
10890 3.17 10 31.7
TOTAL 219.3

R = [(1 + r)n – 1]/r

R = [(1.05)20 – 1]/0.05 = 33.066

ESA = ADT x 365 x E x R

ESA = 219.3 x 365 x 33.066 = 2.65 x 106 (classified 3M)
CHANNELISATION

Grade Separated Interchanges (25/06/96)

Where the capacity of an intersection or roundabout has reached saturation value, the need for a separated
interchange arises. A grade separated interchange can be referred to as an intersection where one branch of
the road goes over the other.

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Types of interchanges
Interchanges can be classified into the following groups;
- Diamond
- Cloverleaf
- Partial Cloverleaf (parclo)
- Trumpet
- Roundabout

Channelization
It refers to the situation where directional islands and kerbs are used to divert traffic into definite travel path
so that safe movement of traffic is facilitated and vehicle conflict reduced.

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EARTHWORKS

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Earthmoving Operations
In the course of highway construction, material has to be moved from the cut area and transported to either
the fill area or to waste (dump area). Earthmoving operations involve the use of very expensive heavy
equipment and therefore there is need for proper control. Typical earthmoving plant are;

- Scapers
Used for excavating and transporting material to fill area. Some scapers with two engines can excavate on
their own, although most scrapers have to be pushed by D8 or D9 bulldozers.

- Bulldozers
Used for excavating, levelling, tree felling and grubbing. The smaller ones are D4 and the larger ones D9.

- Motor Graders
They give the final level. All undulations will be removed.

- Rollers
They are used for compaction.
Smooth wheeled roller uses dead weight for compaction
Vibrating roller compacts while vibrating and is therefore ideal for granular material.
Pneumatic roller runs on rubber types and is therefore good for smooth rolling

- Water Bowsers
Water is required for adjusting the moisture content of the soil.

Some common plant manufacturers are;

- Catapillar (USA)
- Komatsu (JAPAN)
- Avelling Barford (Rollers)
- Terex (GERMANY)

Soil Identification
Problem soils exhibit excessive shrinkage or expansion. The activity of a soil A is given as;

A = Plasticity Index (PI)/% Clay Particles

A soil is considered potentially expansive if it exhibits all the following properties;

- PI for the whole sample > 32
- Clay Fraction (% less than 2m) > 20%
- Free Swell is > 60%

Earthworks Terms

Backrolling
It the additional rolling carried out to increase the relative compaction of a layer which has been previously
compacted. A light water spray may be needed before backrolling.

Benching
Stepped platforms in sloping ground to prevent soil erosion or sliding of cut/ embankment to provide a
stable foundation is called benching.

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Cladding
The lining of excavations with timber planks, metal sheets or similar material to prevent the sides of the
excavation from giving in is called cladding.

Gabions
They are large rectangular steel meshes filled with rocks and used for protection of sides of retaining walls.

Fill
Fill is classified as;
- Low < 5m
- Medium 5 – 10m
- High > 10m

It is difficult but necessary to minimise differential settlement of fills against structures such as bridges and
culverts. Under certain conditions the fill may be placed before the culvert/ bridge, but this is not always
possible.

In normal circumstances settlement of fill is due to;

- settlement of foundation soil
- settlement within the fill

The first type of settlement can be reduced by excavating to waste the collapsing insitu material and
replacing it with fill material. Differential settlement is minimised by placing a wedge at a slope 1:2. The
normal fill can then placed and compacted against the wedge.

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Specification Limit
The value of the density below which 10% of the population of all measured/ determined density results are
expected.

Acceptance Limit
Limiting value of a sample mean below which the lot will be acceptable.

Conditional Acceptance
If the sample mean falls between the acceptance and rejection limits, then the work may be conditionally
accepted subject to the imposition of specified conditions such that the work may be resubmitted with or
without reworking the lot.

Stage Construction
Stage construction consists essentially in the planning of pavement construction or design strategy such that
certain elements of the pavement may be added at pre-determined intervals. A typical example is the
original design and construction of a gravel road as a feeder road.

When the traffic volume increases to a certain level, then the gravel road is surfaced in order to improve its
capacity to take heavier load loads. Stage construction can only be successfully implemented if the
required additional pavement elements are provided when they become due, otherwise the pavement may
be completely destroyed by the increased traffic volume.

Therefore if there are any chances that funds may not be available then stage construction must not be
planned / used.