UNIT 2

I. VOCABULARY

1. Fill in with the correct derivative or root word:

Clinical Case Study
A 46-year-old inebriated male is brought to the emergency room by paramedics after his
girlfriend called 911 reporting that he was experiencing a seizure. Over the next hour, the
patient becomes ......................... (INCREASE) somnolent (sleepy). While the emergency
room staff initiates gastric lavage for ........................(PRESUMPTION) drug ingestion, you
seek more medical history from the man’s girlfriend. She reports that she found him amidst
several empty bottles of antifreeze. Upon hearing this, you immediately order a 10% ethanol
solution to be given to the man .................... (VENOUS). How do enzymes promote
metabolism of ..................... (CHEMISTRY)? What is meant by “competitive .................
(INHIBIT)” and how does this relate to therapy for ethylene glycol poisoning? As you read
this chapter, pay attention to other enzyme .................... (REACT) and recognize that these are
important targets for ....................... (THERAPY) medications.
Cells as Functional Units
Human anatomy is concerned with the structure of the human body and the relationship of its
parts. The body is a masterpiece of .................... (ORGANISE) for which the cell .................
(PROVISION) the basis. For this reason, the cell is called the functional unit. Cellular
organization forms tissues, whose organization in turn forms the organs, which in turn form
systems. If the organs and systems are to function properly, cells must function properly.
Cellular function is referred to as metabolism. In order for cells to remain alive and
metabolize, certain .................... (REQUIRE) must be met. Each cell must have access to
nutrients and oxygen and be able to eliminate wastes. In .............. (ADD), a constant,
.................... (PROTECTION) environment must be maintained. All of these requirements are
achieved through organization. Cells were first ................. (OBSERVATION) more than 300
years ago by the English .................. (SCIENCE) Robert Hooke. Using his crude microscope
to examine a thin slice of cork, he saw a network of cell walls and boxlike cavities. He called
them “little boxes or cells,” after the barren cubicles of a monastery. As better microscopes
were ......................... (DEVELOPMENT), the .................. (INTRIGUE) architectural details of
cellular structure were gradually .................... (REVELATION). The improved lenses resulted
in a series of developments that culminated in the .................. (FORMULATE) of the cell
theory in 1838 and 1839 by two German ........................ (BIOLOGY), Matthias Schleiden
and Theodor Schwann. This theory states that all living organisms are composed of one or
more cells and that the cell is the basic unit of structure for all organisms. The work of
Schleiden and Schwann laid the groundwork for a new science called cytology, which is
concerned with the structure and function of cells. .................... (KNOW) of the cellular level
of organization is important for ..................... (UNDERSTAND) the basic body processes of
cellular respiration, protein synthesis, mitosis, and meiosis. An understanding of cellular
structure gives .................. (MEAN) to the concept of tissue, organ, and system levels of
functional body organization. Furthermore, many ...................... (FUNCTION) and diseases of
the body ................... (ORIGIN) in the cells. Although cellular structure and function have
been investigated for many years, we still have much to learn about cells. The etiologies, or
causes, of a number of complex diseases.
Cellular Diversity
It is amazing that from a single cell, the ................. (FERTILE) egg, hundreds of kinds of cells
arise, ................... (PRODUCTION) the estimated 60 trillion to 100 trillion cells that make up
an adult human. Cells vary greatly in size and shape. The smallest cells are .........................

1
(VISIBILITY) only through a high-powered microscope. Even the largest, an egg cell (ovum),
is barely visible to the ................ (AID) eye. The sizes of cells are measured in micrometers
(μm)—one micrometer equals 1/1,000th of a millimeter. Using this basis of
............................. (COMPARE), an ovum is about 140 μm in diameter and a red blood cell is
about 7.5 μm in diameter. The most common type of white blood cell varies in size from 10
to 12 μm in diameter. Although still microscopic, some cells can be extremely long. A nerve
cell (neuron), for example, may ................ (EXTENTION) the entire ................ (LONG) of a
limb and be over a meter long.
Although a .............. (TYPE) diagram of a cell depicts it as round or cube-shaped, the shapes
of cells are actually highly ............ (VARY). They can be flat, oval, elongate, stellate,
.................... (COLUMN), and so on (see fig.1 below). The shape of a cell is ...................
(FREQUENCY) an ..................... (INDICATE) of its function. A disc-shaped red blood cell is
adapted to transport oxygen. Thin, flattened cells may be bound together to form selectively
....................... (PERMEATE) membranes. An ................... (REGULAR) shaped cell, such as a
neuron, has a tremendous ratio of surface area to volume, which is ideal for receiving and
transmitting stimuli.
The surfaces of some cells are smooth, so that substances pass over them easily. Other cells
have distinct depressions and ...................... (ELEVATE) on their cell membranes to facilitate
........................ (ABSORB). Some cell surfaces support such structures as cilia, flagella, and
......................... (GELATINE) coats, which assist ...................... (MOVE) and provide
.................. (ADHERE). Regardless of the sizes and shapes of cells, they all have structural
.............................. (MODIFY) that serve functional purposes.

Knowledge Check
1.Why is the cell considered the basic structural and functional unit of the body?
2.What conditions are necessary for metabolism to occur?
3.Give some examples of structural modifications that allow cells to perform specific
functions?

2
Examples of the various shapes of cells within the body. (The cells are not drawn to scale.) (a) A
neuron (nerve cell) showing the cell body surrounded by numerous dendritic ................ (EXTEND)
and a portion of the axon extending below, (b) a squamous epithelial cell from the lining of a blood
vessel, (c) a smooth muscle cell from the............. (INTESTINE) wall, (d) a skeletal muscle cell, (e) a
leukocyte (white blood cell), (f) an erythrocyte (red blood cell), (g) an osteocyte (bone cell), and (h) a
spermatozoon (sperm cell).

2. Fill in the blanks with one suitable word:

Elements, Molecules, and Compounds

Elements are the simplest chemical .................. Four elements compose ...................... 95%
of the body’s mass. These elements and their percentages of body weight are oxygen (O)
65%, carbon (C) 18%, hydrogen (H) 10%, and nitrogen (N) 3%. Additional common
elements found ................... the body ................. calcium (Ca), potassium (K), sodium (Na),
phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S). A few elements exist separately in the
body, but .................... are chemically bound ............ others to form molecules. Some
molecules are composed .................... like elements—an oxygen molecule (O2), for example.
Others, ................ as water (H2O), are composed of different kinds of elements. Compounds
are molecules composed of two ...... more different elements. Thus, the chemical structure of
water may be referred to as ........... a molecule and a compound.
Organic compounds are those ........... are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They
include ................... body substances such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Inorganic
compounds generally ............ carbon and include common body substances such as water
and electrolytes (acids, bases, and salts).
Water
Water is by ............. the most abundant compound found ............... cells and in the
extracellular environment. Water generally occurs within the body ................. a homogeneous
mixture of two or .............. compounds called a solution. ............ this condition, the water is
the solvent, or the liquid portion ........... the solution, and the solutes are substances
................... in the solution. Water is an almost ................... solvent, meaning that almost
.............. chemical compounds dissolve in it. In addition, it is also .....................to transport
many solutes .................... the cell membrane of a cell or from one part of the cell to
.....................Water is also important ............... maintaining a ................. cellular temperature,
and thus a constant body temperature, because it absorbs and .................. heat slowly.
Evaporative cooling (sweating) .................the skin also involves water. Another .....................
of water is as a reactant in the breakdown (hydrolysis) of food material ........... digestion.
Dehydration is a condition in ............... fluid loss exceeds fluid intake, ........... a resultant
decrease in the volume of intracellular and extracellular fluids. Rapid dehydration .............
vomiting, diarrhea, or ................ sweating can lead ............. serious medical problems
................ impairing cellular function. Infants are ............... vulnerable because their fluid
volume is so small. They can die ............ dehydration resulting from diarrhea ............... a
matter of hours.
Electrolytes
Electrolytes are inorganic compounds ................. break down into ions when dissolved
............... water, forming a solution capable ............. conducting electricity. An electrolyte is
classified according ........... the ions it yields ............ dissolved in water. The three classes of
electrolytes are acids, bases, and salts, all of ............. are important for normal cellular
function. The functions of ions .............. the control of water movement through cells and the
maintenance ........ normal acid-base (pH) balance. Ions are ............. essential for nerve and
muscle function, and some ions serve .............. cofactors that are needed .............. optimal

3
activity of enzymes. Symptoms of electrolyte imbalances range ............. muscle cramps and
brittle bones ............. coma and cardiac arrest.
Proteins
Proteins are nitrogen-containing organic compounds, composed ............... amino acid
subunits. An amino acid is an organic compound ........... contains an amino group (—NH2)
and a carboxyl ............ (—COOH). There are 20 different types of amino acids that
.................. contribute to a given protein. This variety allows each type of protein to .............
constructed to function ............... very specific ways. Proteins are the most abundant
............... the organic compounds. They may exist .............. themselves or be conjugated
(joined) ............... other compounds; for example, with nucleic acids (RNA or DNA) ............
form nucleoproteins, with carbohydrates to form glycoproteins, or with lipids to form
lipoproteins. Proteins may be categorized ............. to their role in the body ........ structural or
functional.
Structural proteins contribute significantly ............. the structure of different tissues.
Examples include collagen ......... connective tissue and keratin in the epidermis of the skin.
Functional proteins assume a more active ............... in the body, exerting some form ..........
control of metabolism. Examples include enzymes and antibodies. Many hormones belong
......... a specialized group of messenger and regulator proteins produced ........ endocrine
glands. Cellular growth, repair, and division depend ............ the availability of functional
proteins. Proteins, ............. certain conditions, may even be metabolized ......... supply cellular
energy.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that ............ carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a 2:1
ratio .......... hydrogen to oxygen. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, or simple .............,
disaccharides, or double sugars, and polysaccharides, or long chained sugars. Carbohydrates
are the body’s most readily ................ energy source and ......... may be used as a fuel reserve.
Excessive carbohydrate .................... is converted to glycogen (animal starch) or to fat
............. storage in adipose tissue. If a person is deprived ................ food, the body uses the
glycogen and fat ..................... first and then metabolizes the protein ........................ the cells.
Lipids
Lipids are a third group of important organic .................... found in cells. They are insoluble
............. water and include ............... fats and fat related substances, such as phospholipids
and cholesterol. Fats are important in ..................... cell parts and supplying metabolic energy.
They also protect and insulate various parts of the ................ Phospholipids and protein
molecules ................ up the cell membrane and .............. an important role in ................
which substances enter or leave a cell.
Lipids, like carbohydrates, are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Lipids, ..............,
contain a smaller proportion of ................... than do carbohydrates.

Knowledge Check
4.List the four most abundant elements in the body and state their relative percentages of
body weight.
5.Define molecule and compound. What are the two kinds of compounds that exist in the
body? On what basis are they distinguished?
6.List some of the functions of water relative to cells and define solvent and solute.
7.Discuss the importance of electrolytes in maintaining homeostasis within cells.
8.Define protein and describe how proteins function within cells. Explain how proteins differ
from carbohydrates and lipids.

4
II. GRAMMAR

Present perfect
Recent events Present perfect simple
The present perfect simple is used to describe recent events.
I've left my shopping bag behind.
The event happened in the past, but there is a result in the
present.
I've broken my arm, as you can see.
No definite time is given for the event, but to emphasise the idea of
recentness we can use just.
I've just broken my watch.
We can also describe events that have not
happened.
I haven't found her phone number yet.
Indefinite events • Present perfect simple
No definite time is given for the events. They are a series of actions
in our life up to now.
I've been to France three times.
After It's/This is the first/second time we use the present perfect. It
also refers to our life up to now.
This is the first time I have eaten Japanese food.
• Compared with past simple
Events described using the past simple have definite times.
I went to France last year.
I ate at a Japanese restaurant on Saturday.
If we think of a definite place for an event, this may suggest a definite
time.
I left my shopping bag on the train.
Extended or • Present perfect simple
repeated events The present perfect simple describes a state which lasts up to the
present. I've lived in this house for five years.
The present perfect simple can describe a habitual action in a period
of time up to the present.
I've never worn a tie to work, and I refuse to start now!
• Present perfect continuous
The present perfect continuous can also describe a state which lasts
up to the present moment.
I've been living in this house for five years.
There is little difference in meaning between simple and continuous
in this case, or with How long questions.
How long have you lived/been living in this house?
The verbs wait, sit, lie, stay prefer the present perfect
continuous.
I've been waiting for ages.
Present perfect • Completed action
simple or The present perfect simple can show that an action is complete.
continuous? I've finished my homework!
If we say how many or how much we use the simple form. A certain
amount has been completed.

5
 I've written ten pages of my homework!
• Not completed
The present perfect continuous can show that an action is not
completed, or that it has finished recently.
We've been walking for hours! Let's have a rest.
I've been digging the garden. That's why I'm so dirty!
• Present result or action in progress
We use the present perfect simple if our attention is on the present
result.
I've written my homework. Now I can watch the television.
We use the present perfect continuous if our attention is on the
action in progress.
I've been writing my homework all evening! I didn't know it
would take so long.
Practice
1. Underline the most suitable verb form in each sentence.
a) Did you see/Have you seen my bag anywhere? I can't find it.
b) Larry is writing/has been writing/has written his novel for the last two years.
c) From the minute he got up this morning Gary asked/has asked/has been asking silly
questions!
d) Have you given/Did you give Helen my message when you have seen/saw her?
e) Sorry, could you say that again? I didn't listen/haven't listened/haven't been
listening to you.
f) The police think that they found/have found your wallet, so call this number.
g) Did you two meet/Have you two met before? Eric, this is Amanda
h) Did you meet/Have you met anyone interesting at the reception?

2. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable verb form.

a) I'm sorry about not coming last week. I (have) had a cold and so I (stay) at home.
b) Wait a minute! I (have)....................................... an idea. Let's go and see Roger. We
last (see)......................................... him a long time ago.
c) It's nice to be back here in London. This is the second time I (come)
.............................................here.
d) I'm phoning about your bicycle for sale, which I (see)..................................... in the
local paper. (you sell)........................................... it? Or is it still available?
e) This place is in a terrible mess! What on earth (you do)................................................?
f) And now for an item of local news. Hampshire police (find).................................. the
dangerous snake which (go).................................................... missing earlier in the week.
g) This tooth (kill).....................................me lately! So I (make)....................................
an appointment with the dentist for next Tuesday.
h) I can't give you the report I (promise)................................ for today because I (not
finish) ...............................................it.

3. Underline the most suitable time expression.

a) I haven't seen Gerry for/since a long time. How is he?
b) It's ages ago/since I last went to a football match.
c) I've written to Deborah last week/recently.
d) What have you been doing today/yesterday?
e) Have you eaten Italian food before/already?
f) I've been living here in/since the end of last year.

6
 g) Actually I had dinner with Sue last night/lately.
h) I've been trying to get in touch with David for ages/for the last time.
i) Terry hasn't been to Edinburgh since/when we went there together.
j) I can't remember how long/when I've had this watch.

4. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence,
using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between two and five
words, including the word given.
a) Steve started learning the violin a month ago. learning
Steve has been learning the violin for a month.
b) I haven't been to an Indian restaurant for ages. since
It's ages........................................................................................... an Indian restaurant.
c) When she heard the results, Mary began to feel more confident. become
Since hearing the results........................................................................ more confident.
d) The last time Nancy came here was in 1986. since
Nancy hasn't ..........................................................................................................1986.
e) This is my first visit to Japan. time
This is the first................................................................................................... to Japan.
f) How long have Helen and Robert been married? get
When................................................................................................................. married?
g) Jack bought those trousers last month, and has been wearing them ever since.
for
Jack has............................................................................................................. a month.
h) It's a long time since our last conversation.
spoken
We ...................................................................................................................long time.
i) Thanks, but I had something to eat earlier.
already
Thanks, but I've.......................................................................................................... eat.
j) This is my first game of water-polo.
played
I............................................................................................................................. before.

5. Put each verb in brackets into either the past simple, the present perfect simple, or
the present perfect continuous.
It was announced in London this morning that the British Oil Corporation (1) ...has
discovered (discover) oil under the sea near the Welsh coast. The company, which (2)
...................................(drill) for oil in the area since 2001, (3)................................... (find)
small amounts of oil near Swansea last month, and since then (4)....................................
(discover) larger amounts under the seabed nearby. Last year the government
(5).................................. (lend) over £50,000,000 to BOC, and (6)..............................
(give) permission for the company to build an oil refinery and other facilities in South
Wales. The reaction of local people to today's news (7)............................................ (be)
mixed so far. Local MPs (8)................................................. (already welcome) the news,
pointing out that the oil industry will bring badly needed jobs to the area. But local
residents are worried about the danger of pollution. 'Nobody (9)................................
(ask) us yet what we want,' said Ann Griffiths, leader of the Keep Out The Oil
Campaign. 'Look what (10)...................................... (happen) when they

7
 (11)..................................... (find) oil in Scotland in the 1960s. The oil companies
(12)......................................(get) rich, not the local people. BOC
(13).......................................... (not tell) us the truth about what this is going to mean for
our people.' A BOC spokesman later (14)............................................. (refuse) to
comment. Meanwhile local campaigners (15)............................................. (ask) the
government to hold an inquiry.

Key points
1. The present perfect simple describes events without a definite time. Either these events
take place in a period of time leading up to the present moment, or the result of the event is
still evident.
The choice between the present perfect simple and the past simple can depend on how the
speaker thinks. Compare:
A: What's the matter? A: What's the matter?
B: I've had an accident. B: / had an accident.
In the second example, the speaker thinks of the event as finished rather than still connected
with the present.
2. Events described with the present perfect simple may be recent, or not.
3. The present perfect continuous is used for an action in progress. It suggests that the action
is unfinished, or recently finished. Compare:
I've read this book. (completion of the action is emphasised)
I've been reading this book. (the action itself is emphasised - it may not be complete) The
present perfect continuous can also emphasise the length of time of the action.
4. For refers to a finished or unfinished period of time.
I waited for three hours.
He's been sitting there for ages. Since refers to the point at which an unfinished
period of time began.
He's been sitting there since two o'clock.
Ago refers to the time of a finished event.
Jill arrived a week ago.

8
III. READING COMPREHENSION

Explanatory mechanisms for placebo effects:

cognition, personality and social learning

Placebos work, yet we do not understand how they work (their mechanism of action), to what
degree they work (how much of the outcome variance they account for), and under what
circumstances they work (the ability to predict their effect and to use that prediction in
research and therapy). In the introduction to her edited book on the placebo effect, Harrington
aptly describes placebos as “the ghosts that haunt our house of biomedical objectivity, the
creatures that rise up from the dark and expose the paradoxes and fissures in our own self-
created definitions of the real and active factors in treatment”.
Placebo and placebo effects are difficult to define. Placebos are often narrowly
defined as biologically inert substances (i.e. the placebo pill) given within a health care
context. However, the term, placebo, has been generalized and applied to medical procedures
(for example, sham surgery), to psychological interventions (for example, attention-placebo
treatments), and to incidental components of treatments that may affect outcome (for
example, the patient-therapist relationship). A thorough commentary that dealt with the
multiple definitions of placebo and placebo effects in the literature led one author to declare
his failure in defining the placebo effect in an unambiguous, logically consistent, and testable
way. Nonetheless, an examination of the various definitions of the placebo effect over the
past three decades reveals an interesting process of evolution that is pertinent to the subject of
this paper. This evolution can be best illustrated by the following definitions.
In the early 1960s, Shapiro defined the placebo effect as “the psychological or
psychophysiological effect produced by placebos”. In 1980, Brody defined the placebo effect
as “a change in a patient’s illness attributable to the symbolic import of a treatment rather
than a specific pharmacologic or physiologic property”. In a 1997 NIH publication, the
placebo effect is defined as a “positive healing effect resulting from the use of any healing
intervention, and that is presumed to be mediated by the symbolic effect of the intervention
upon the patient.” Most recently, Brody defined it as “a change in the body (or the body-mind
unit) that occurs as a result of the symbolic significance which one attributes to an event or
object in the healing environment”. As one can note, the spirit and focus of these (and other)
definitions have shifted from the effects of interventions that are presumed to have no active
treatment properties to an inclusion of a plausible mechanism (i.e. symbolic effect or
significance) and context (i.e. the healing environment). The later definitions are somewhat
circular in that they presume a causal mechanism and context.
Recent research points to symbolic effect and context as important aspects of placebo
effects, but to include them as part of the definitions of placebo and placebo effects confuses
cause with effect. Research on placebo effects has followed the typical course of an artefact
described by McGuire. Placebo effects were first ignored, then treated as contaminants to be
controlled, and finally investigated as variables of interest in their own right. While much
research still focuses on controlling placebo effects as contaminants, there has been growing
interest in recent years in studying and exploiting the placebo effect as a variable of interest
in its own right.

9
 Surprising as it may be, the definition and use of the placebo effect are different for
clinical purposes than for outcome research purposes. This difference is rooted in the
disparity between the focus of interest of each setting and results in two paradoxes. The first
paradox is that there is a purposeful attempt to maximize the “placebo effect” in the clinic as
a means of enhancing the effectiveness of treatments while controlling it in randomized
clinical trials. In other words, whereas the placebo effect is a warmly welcomed ally in the
clinical setting, it is considered a nuisance to be controlled in most research settings. The
second paradox is that maximizing the placebo effect in the clinic requires individualization
of treatment that is the antithesis of the homogeneous, standardized intervention employed in
clinical trials. A better understanding of the psychological explanatory mechanisms that
underlie placebo effects requires a systematic approach that examines both domains, the
clinic and research settings.
Unfortunately, there is still confusion between research methodologies that test
efficacy versus ones that shed light on mechanisms of action. For some researchers, placebo
control conditions are a means of setting a minimum standard of effectiveness for treatments.
However, it is not the effectiveness of the treatment that is being evaluated but rather its
mechanism of action. In the evaluation of medications, the assumption of the model being
tested is that the effect of a medication consists of two components, a specific physiological
and a non-specific psychological component, whereas the effect of a placebo consists of only
one, the non-specific psychological component. Thus, it is not total effectiveness that is being
evaluated, but the extent to which the physiological component adds significantly to the
psychological component. In psychosocial intervention studies, placebo control groups are
often called “attention placebo controls” to indicate that the attention received from the
therapist is being controlled in addition to other non-specific or unspecified variables
associated with treatment. As in pharmacology studies, the attention placebo control groups
are used to identify why treatments are effective, not whether they are effective. Although a
partition into physiological and psychological components is not relevant, an attempt to
distinguish the specific effects derived from theory from the non-specific effects associated
with all therapy is relevant.

Personality and placebo: correlation or causation?

Very few concepts appeal more to the logic of the human mind than the assumption that there
must be an association between a placebo response and some underlying personality trait(s).
The rationale is clear, i.e. personality traits account for a significant portion of human
behaviour and the placebo effect is just one more example of this repertoire of behaviour.
Researchers attempted to identify the psychological profile of placebo responders using
primarily correlational studies. The capacity to elicit the placebo response is likely inherent in
us all. The placebo effect appears to be a contextual situational phenomenon more than an
enduring personality trait. Two factors contributed to the shift in psychological inquiry in the
science of placebo. They are (1) a failure of the placebo personality paradigm, and (2) a
major revolution in the milieu of health care. Language such as the one used in an influential
1945 article, advocating the use of placebo in “ignorant … disappointed and displeased …
hopeless, [and] incurable case[s]” has been replaced by concepts such as patient
empowerment that characterize modern therapeutic values. These two factors resulted in a

10
shift in the focus of research from personality traits to a more detailed analysis of the
interpersonal and situational context in which placebo effects occur.

Harry A. Guess (ed), The Science of Placebo.

Towards an Interdisciplinary Research Agenda
(London: BMJ Books, 2002) pp. 109-110.

Answer the following questions:

1. Why does Harrington consider that placebos expose the paradoxes and fissures in our own
self-created definitions of the real and active factors in treatment”?
2. To what medical domains has the term “placebo” been applied?
3. Consider the short historical perspective on the definitions of the placebo effect in the third
paragraph. How would you explain the recent shift in emphasis? What are its possible
implications?
4. Why do you think placebo is considered “a nuisance” in most research settings”?
5. What aspects are evaluated in medication tests? What’s the place of placebo in them?
6. Why does the author consider that a connection between a placebo response and some
underlying personality trait(s) is appealing to the human mind?
7. Why do you thing the “placebo personality paradigm” failed in explaining the placebo
effect?
8. Do you agree that, when it comes to the placebo effect, the interpersonal and situational
context is more important than personality traits?
9. Given the difficulties in studying and understanding the placebo effect, do you agree with
the choice of words in the title, i.e. The Science of Placebo?
10. How would you define the term “placebo”? What is your opinion on this topic? Can you
give examples from your personal experiences of “placebo effects”?

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18