JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2015, 48, 602–612 NUMBER 3 (FALL)

CLASSROOM-BASED INTERDEPENDENT GROUP CONTINGENCIES

INCREASE CHILDREN’S PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
SARAH KUHL, ERIC H. RUDRUD,
BENJAMIN N. WITTS, AND KIMBERLY A. SCHULZE
ST. CLOUD STATE UNIVERSITY

This study investigated the effects of 2 interdependent group contingencies (individual vs.
cumulative classroom goal setting) on the number of pedometer-recorded steps taken per day.
Thirty third-grade students in 2 classrooms participated. An ABACX design was conducted in
which the X phase referred to a replication of the most successful phase (i.e., B or C). Results
indicated that individual goal setting, rather than cumulative classroom goal setting, was more
effective in increasing the number of steps taken per day on average. Results suggest that individual
feedback may be an important factor in attaining desired results.
Key words: physical activity, pedometer, interdependent group contingency

Exercise is an important aspect of a child’s life,
influencing learning, physiological health, and
symptoms correlated with diagnoses such as
anxiety and depression, among other things
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
[CDC], 2010; U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services [DHHS], 2008). In the United
States, school-aged children often fail to meet
minimum recommended physical activity levels,
both in and out of school (National Physical
Activity Plan Alliance, 2014). Behavior analysts
have effectively addressed physical activity
concerns with children and have done so across
a variety of activities, populations, and inter-
ventions (e.g., De Luca & Holborn, 1992; Fogel,
Miltenberger, Graves, & Koehler, 2010). Walk-
ing, jogging, and running are types of physical
activity that are relatively inexpensive and can be
monitored with easy-to-obtain equipment.
Walking can have such a profound impact on
overall health that in 2013 the U.S. Surgeon
General Regina Benjamin started the Everybody
Walk! initiative, which aimed to get citizens to
Sarah Kuhl is now at The Spectrum Center for Autism.
This article served as the first author’s master’s thesis in
the Applied Behavior Analysis program at St. Cloud State
University.
Correspondence concerning this article should be
addressed to Eric H. Rudrud, ECC 154, St. Cloud State
University, 720 4th Avenue, St. Cloud, Minnesota 56301
(e-mail: ehrudrud@stcloudstate.edu).
doi: 10.1002/jaba.219
commit to 30 min of walking at least 5 days each
week (DHHS, 2013). If only 10% of the
adult U.S. population follow Benjamin’s advice,
it could result in as much as $5.6 billion in
savings annually just on costs related to heart
disease alone (CDS, 2003). It seems, then, that
efforts geared to younger individuals might have
a preventive effect with respect to low physical
activity in adulthood. Although empirically
based recommendations are difficult to find,
healthy boys aged 6 to 11 years tend to take
13,000 to 15,000 steps per day, and healthy girls
of the same age take 11,000 to 12,000 steps, with
decreasing trends in steps taken as one ages (see
Tudor-Locke et al., 2011, for a review).
Pedometers have been shown to be reliable
sources of data (McNamara, Hudson, & Taylor,
2010) and have been used as a measure of
physical activity in various studies to increase
physical activity for adults (e.g., Andrade, Barry,
Litt, & Petry, 2014; Van Camp & Hayes, 2012)
and adolescents (e.g., Lubans, Morgan, Callister,
& Collins, 2009; Lubans, Morgan, & Tudor-
Locke, 2009). For example, Kurti and Dallery
(2013) saw improvements in the number of daily
steps taken by sedentary (i.e.,
6,000 steps per
day) adults (50 years of age and older) through
the use of an Internet-based contingency-
management program. Specifically, Kurti and
Dallery recorded daily step counts (as measured
by the Fitbit, an accelerometer) both by the

602
 INCREASING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
device automatically uploading data accessible
only to the researchers whenever the unit was
connected to its charger and by participants
submitting nightly videos of self-reported step
counts. All participants were paid to record
nightly videos, but only half of the participants
received additional monetary compensation for
meeting a predetermined step goal on three of
five consecutive 5-day periods, at which point
the goal increased (the other participants also had
step goals assessed similarly, but without the
benefit of monetary compensation). Results
showed that those who received monetary
compensation made slightly greater gains, but
that effects were obtained even in their absence.
Although no follow-up data were reported, other
research suggests that schedule thinning might
be capable of maintaining larger daily step totals
after the removal of additional incentives
(Andrade et al., 2014).
Research has also shown Internet-based con-
tingency-management programs to be effective
with active (i.e., 6,000 steps per day, see Kurti
& Dallery, 2013), healthy adults. In an example
that employed goal criteria based on percentile
schedules determined by daily step counts from
Fitbits, Washington, Banna, and Gibson (2014)
increased average daily step count for 8 of 10
healthy (i.e., nonobese) college students through
prize-based incentives. In their study, Washing-
ton et al. made prizes exchangeable for raffle
tickets contingent on either wearing the Fitbit
(Baselines 1 and 2) or meeting daily step-count
goals (intervention). During baselines, prizes
were either praise or a small gift worth
approximately $5. The intervention involved
the opportunity to earn larger prizes through the
raffle, although the more expensive the prize was,
the less likely one was to win it. There was a
significant effect of goal-based contingency
management on daily steps taken, but these
improvements were lost when participants
returned to baseline conditions.
In their meta-analysis of pedometer-based
interventions, Bravata et al. (2007) found evidence
603
of increased numbers of steps taken across adult
participants, noting that significant improvements
in step counts rested on three factors: use of step-
count goals, use of a diary to record step counts,
and having the intervention take place outside the
work environment. However, relatively little
attention has been paid to the effects of
pedometer-based interventions on the physical
activity of preadolescents. In one study, however,
Hustyi, Normand, and Larson (2011) outfitted
two obese preschool children with pedometers
during 20 min of unstructured outdoor free time.
Participants’ step counts and activity levels were
assessed during baseline and a package intervention
that consisted of goal setting, feedback, and
putative reinforcement in an ABAB design. Hustyi
et al. determined the intervention to be of
moderate success for one, but not both, partic-
ipants in terms of both measures.
In another example of using pedometers for
behavior-change interventions in preadolescents,
Hardman, Horne, and Lowe (2011) increased
the number of daily steps taken by children aged
7 to 11 years. Children who were provided a
symbolic peer model (i.e., “Fit n’ Fun Dudes”)
took significantly more steps per day than a
control group (without a symbolic peer model).
The increase in steps was maintained at 13 and
14 weeks postintervention but only if the
intervention did not also include daily tangible
rewards for meeting personal goals.
One area of potential interest to help increase
daily steps taken by preadolescents is in after-
school programs aimed at providing students
with opportunities to engage in physical activity.
However, Huberty, Beets, and Beighle (2013)
found inconsistent effects of afterschool pro-
grams based on physical activity across 12
participating Nebraska schools. Less structured
approaches to increasing daily step counts might
involve the use of group contingencies to increase
daily step counts outside of school. Group
contingencies have been used to increase
academic performance and prosocial behavior
and to decrease disruptive behavior (e.g., Bear &
604 SARAH KUHL et al.
Richards, 1980; Fabiano et al., 2008; Gresham &
Gresham, 1982; Popkin & Skinner, 2003).
Dependent group contingencies are those in
which reinforcement for the group is based on
the performance of selected members. Inde-
pendent group contingencies allow a type of
reinforcement to be granted to those members
who meet the criteria, and those who do not
meet the criteria are denied access. Interdepend-
ent group contingencies provide reinforcement
to all members when some predetermined
criterion is met, either with group-based or
individual-based goals.
As an example of interdependent group
contingencies related to physical activity, Jung,
Suroto, Fukugasako, and Takahashi (2005)
compared two sixth-grade physical education
courses across three target behaviors (i.e., waiting,
off task, and motor activity) in a multiple baseline
design with a postintervention withdrawal. In the
experimental class, a good behavior game was
introduced in which the class was divided into
four groups of 10 students who did not compete
against each other, but rather worked together to
adhere to the stated rules. The control class
proceeded as usual without any intervention.
Baseline data yielded no differences between the
two classes, whereas the intervention and with-
drawal phases saw the experimental class spending
less time in distracting behavior (i.e., waiting and
off task) and more time engaged in motor activity.
However, data were limited to the classroom
setting, and thus did not demonstrate more
prevalent behavior change in students’ lives.
The aim of the present study was to provide an
extension of previous research to investigate the
use of two interdependent group contingencies
on children’s physical activity as measured by
daily steps taken. Consistent with Bravata et al.’s
(2007) recommendations for pedometer inter-
ventions with adults, our preadolescent inter-
vention made use of goals, diaries, and nonwork
(i.e., nonschool) settings. In addition, we used
incentive-based procedures that have been used
with adult populations (e.g., Kurti & Dallery,
2013; Washington et al., 2014), and we reduced
the frequency of monitoring (see Andrade et al.,
2014).
METHOD
Participants and Setting
Thirty third-grade students served as partic-
ipants. Students were enrolled in two general
education classrooms in a Midwestern school
system. The school granted administrative
approval prior to the study. Classroom 1
consisted of 24 students, and 12 participated
in the study (seven girls, five boys). Classroom 2
consisted of 25 students, and 18 participated in
the study (nine girls, nine boys). Only those
students who returned the informed consent
document signed by his or her parent or guardian
were included. Participants ranged from 8 to
9 years of age. Nonparticipating classmates
benefited by being granted access to any earned
reward achieved through the participants’ efforts.
Data were collected in the hallway outside each
classroom. The local institutional review board
approved all study procedures.
Materials
Walk4Life Classic single-function pedometers
were used to measure the number of daily steps
taken. Before the beginning of the study, the
accuracy of all pedometers was verified via a
50-step walk test in which pedometers were set to
0 and tested for accuracy against 50 counted
steps (see also McNamara et al., 2010). Daily
steps were recorded in an activity diary that
consisted of three sheets of paper (cover page,
individual goal data sheet, and cumulative total
data sheet) enclosed in a clear cover.
A large piece of poster board with a cartoon
ladder displayed the cumulative number of steps
completed during the classroom cumulative total
condition. This poster board was placed in the
front of the classroom. A “Steppin’ It Up” icon
(i.e., a stick figure) was moved up each rung of a
six-step ladder in 5,000-step increments as
 INCREASING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
progress was made towards the class goal. The
stick figure featured a cartoon speech bubble
with current classroom totals. For example, if the
class had collectively taken 16,432 steps, the
speech bubble would reflect that number while
the stick figure remained on the third rung.
Response Measurement and Reliability
Physical activity was defined as the number of
steps recorded on a pedometer during a 24-hr
period, beginning each weekday (excluding
Friday) at 8:00 a.m. Data were recorded 4 days
each week (Tuesday through Friday) at 8:00 a.m.
(Ozdoba, Corbin, & Le Masurier, 2004,
reported that, for preadolescent youth, 4 days
of monitoring produced relatively stable patterns
of daily step counts.) The researcher collected the
pedometers each Friday morning after recording
the data and distributed them again each
Monday morning.
Because participants recorded their step totals
in an activity diary, the accuracy of these self-
monitoring data was determined by having an
observer compare the number of steps recorded by
the participant to the number of steps displayed
on the pedometer at the time of recording. These
self-monitoring integrity data were calculated
using an exact agreement analysis in which we
divided the total number of agreements by the
number of agreements plus disagreements and
converted the result to a percentage. Integrity for
both classrooms averaged 99%.
Interobserver agreement was assessed during
50% of data-reporting sessions. A school para-
professional recorded each participant’s number
of steps completed on each Wednesday and
Friday throughout the study. Interobserver
agreement was calculated in the same manner
described for self-monitoring integrity. Average
agreement for both classrooms was 99%.
Procedure
Each teacher was given a list of 20 classroom
activities that could be used as potential
reinforcers. The teacher selected five activities
605
and presented them to the students in each
classroom. The students then voted on which
activities were most preferred, and the two
activities that received the most votes were used.
Fifteen minutes of extra recess time received the
most votes in both classrooms and was thus
selected for use in this study. The extra recess
time was added to the recess on Friday whenever
classrooms met their goals. Because recess
occurred on Friday, no step-count data were
recorded during recess.
Participants were instructed to wear the
pedometers on their hips (clipped to their
waistbands) at all times throughout the day,
except during swimming, bathing, and sleeping.
It should be noted that although participants
were given these instructions, no integrity
assessment was conducted to ensure accurate
follow-through. When the participants arrived at
school each morning, each reported to the
researcher (seated at a desk in the hallway) during
the morning homeroom period. During this
report, each participant set the pedometer on the
desk and recorded the accumulated step counts
in his or her activity diary. At the same time, the
researcher recorded the step count to assess self-
monitoring integrity. The pedometer was then
set to 0, the researcher observed each participant
reposition his or her pedometer correctly, said
“thank you,” and asked the participant to return
to the classroom, at which point the next
participant approached the desk. Because there
were two classes in this study, the researcher
alternated daily which class was recorded first.
A reversal design (ABACX), counterbalanced
for treatment order across classrooms, was used.
The X phase referred to the most successful phase
(i.e., B or C) with respect to increased steps.
Before each phase change, the classroom was
informed about the new rules regarding how to
earn reinforcement. These instructions were
provided on Monday of the week the new phase
began. The frequency of self-monitoring was
systematically reduced during the last 4 weeks of
the study to phase out treatment. The systematic
606 SARAH KUHL et al.
reduction was implemented due to a curricular
change in the classroom that necessitated an early
withdrawal of the intervention.
Baseline. During baseline, pedometers were
masked (i.e., sealed with a sticker) to prevent
feedback to the participant. The researcher
removed the sticker, recorded the step count
on the data sheet, reset the pedometer to 0, and
reapplied the sticker. There was never any
indication at the time of sticker removal that a
participant had previously removed the pedom-
eter’s sticker to check his or her step total. No
self-monitoring occurred during baseline.
Classroom cumulative total condition. Cumu-
lative total goals were calculated by averaging
step counts for each participant from the
previous baseline condition (i.e., Baseline 1 or
2) and adding 1,500 steps to this average.
Approximately 1,500 steps are the equivalent of
15 to 20 min of additional moderate-intensity
activity per day. For example, if the mean steps
per participant per day were 6,000, then the
classroom cumulative goal would be 30,000
steps (i.e., [6,000  4] þ [1,500  4]). The cri-
terion for reinforcement, then, was set based on
the cumulative steps taken by the entire class-
room over 4 days (Monday through Thursday).
Failure to meet this cumulative goal by Thursday
resulted in the loss of the opportunity for
reinforcement on Friday.
Participants wore their pedometers unmasked
(i.e., with the sticker removed) so they could see
their step totals. After each participant’s step
count was recorded, the researcher totaled the
number of steps taken by all participants and
posted the class progress toward the goal on the
chart displayed in the front of the classroom. The
stick figure’s position on the ladder, as well as the
written total step counts, were updated imme-
diately after data collection. The researcher then
announced the new totals to the class and
explained how close they were to reaching their
goal. Reinforcement was provided to all students
if the classroom reached the cumulative total step
count specified.
Individual goals condition. Participants wore
pedometers unmasked. On the first day of this
condition, pedometers were set to 0 and
distributed to each participant. At this time,
the researcher informed each participant of his or
her individual daily goal and placed a sticker
inside the pedometer that displayed this goal.
Individual goals were determined by adding
1,500 steps per day to their daily average step
count recorded during 4 days of the previous
baseline. Thus, a participant’s individual goal
could be higher or lower than the average
requirement for each participant in the cumu-
lative goals condition. Praise (e.g., “Nice job, you
met your goal!”) was provided daily to partic-
ipants who met or exceeded their individual
goals. A neutral statement of encouragement
(e.g., “keep trying”) was given daily to partic-
ipants who did not meet their goal. After all
pedometer data had been recorded for the day,
the researcher calculated the percentage of
participants who met their individual goals.
The class earned the extra recess time on Fridays
if at least 80% of participants met their
individual goals on each of the 4 days (Monday
through Thursday). If fewer than 80% of the
children reached their individual goals, extra
recess was not provided.
Feedback schedule thinning. Data were col-
lected for 4 weeks after the intervention was
completed, and during these 4 weeks the
schedule of feedback was systematically thinned.
Because feedback occurred less frequently, goal
requirements were altered to reflect the new
schedule. During the first 2 weeks, each
participant received a 2-day individual goal.
Taking each participant’s individual goal from
the individual goals condition and multiplying
it by 2 calculated the 2-day individual goal.
Step-count data and each participant’s self-
recording of step counts took place twice a week
(i.e., Wednesday and Friday) rather than daily.
During the last 2 weeks, participants were given
a weekly (4-day) individual goal. Taking each
participant’s individual goal during the
 INCREASING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
individual goal condition and multiplying it
by 4 calculated the weekly individual goal.
Step-count data and each participant’s self-
recording of step counts took place on Friday.
Verbal reinforcement and weekly reinforce-
ment remained the same.
RESULTS
Individual classroom results are described
below, but two points common to both class-
rooms are mentioned here. First, reinforcement
(i.e., recess) was earned and delivered every week
during the intervention, regardless of the class-
room or intervention type. Second, absences or
missing data were not counted toward classroom
cumulative total goals (an average was reported),
but were counted in the individual goals
condition. At no point did missing data from
the individual goals condition adversely affect
chances of earning reinforcement, because there
were enough other participants who met their
individual goals.
Classroom 1. The mean step count per day
for Classroom 1 is shown in Figure 1. In
general, boys (M ¼ 13,545 steps, SD ¼ 2,686)
engaged in more steps taken through all phases
of the study than girls (M ¼ 9,843 steps,
SD ¼ 1,832). During the first baseline, the
mean daily step count for Classroom 1 was
8,464 steps (SD ¼ 2,042; range, 5,175 to
12,132). Responding was considered stable if
the number of steps recorded fell within  1
standard deviation of the participant’s previous
3-day step count. For Classroom 1, 7 of 12
participants’ baseline data fell within the
stability criterion. Mean step counts during
the classroom cumulative total increased to
10,929 steps (SD ¼ 2,564; range, 8,131 to
14,533). There was only 1 day in which the
goal was not met for the classroom cumulative
total, and recess was still earned that week.
During the second baseline, the mean step
count was 8,211 steps (SD ¼ 2,564; range,
5,984 to 13,025). During the individual goals
607
condition, mean step counts increased to
12,670 steps (SD ¼ 2,486; range, 9,060 to
16,328). Step counts remained at increased
levels during the reimplementation of the
individual goals condition, with a mean of
13,053 steps (SD ¼ 2,413; range, 10,147 to
16,478). Note that there was no actual phase
change at this point, although the data are
separated from preassessment and postassess-
ment to complement the data analyses in
Classroom 2. Successful goal attainment oc-
curred for all participants on all opportunities
in both individual goals conditions. During
2-day goals, mean step count decreased to
11,882 steps (SD ¼ 5,180; range, 8,885 to
17,591). During 4-day goals, the mean number
of steps taken each day was 12,255 steps
(SD ¼ 2,494; range, 9,676 to 14,764).
Data from two semirandomly (i.e., one boy
and one girl) selected participants in Classroom
1 were selected for additional inspection. These
participants’ data are shown in Figure 2 (top
two panels). Gray horizontal lines are the
minimum required number of individual daily
steps based on the preceding individual baseline
for the individual goals condition and the
preceding classroom average baseline for the
classroom cumulative total goal. In general,
both participants’ data reflect overall classroom
trends, although variability in data is perhaps
more apparent because the data are not
averaged.
Classroom 2. The mean step count per day for
Classroom 2 is shown in Figure 1. Boys tended to
take more steps (M ¼ 12,217; SD ¼ 3,684)
through all phases of the study than girls
(M ¼ 10,429; SD ¼ 3,594). During the first
baseline, the mean step count for Classroom 2
was 8,464 steps (SD ¼ 3,867; range, 3,570 to
15,481). For Classroom 2, 14 of the 17
participants’ baseline data met the stability
criterion during Baseline 1. Mean step counts
during the individual goals condition increased
to 13,034 steps (SD ¼ 3,581; range, 7,878 to
18,737). In this condition, 15 of the 18
608 SARAH KUHL et al.

18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
Classroom 1
Average Steps Taken per Condion

2,000
0

18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
Classroom 2
2,000
0

Figure 1. Average daily steps taken for Classroom 1 and Classroom 2 with classroom goals (cumulative goals), averaged
individual goals for each classroom (individual goals), and averaged daily goals for 2-day and 4-day goals. Error bars
represent one standard deviation from the mean.

participants reached their goals 100% of the time
each day, two participants were successful on
75% of opportunities, and one participant was
successful on 63% of opportunities. Step counts
returned to near-baseline levels during the
second baseline, with mean step count at
7,893 (SD ¼ 2,551; range, 3,077 to 13,797).
During the classroom cumulative total condi-
tion, mean step count increased to 10,734
(SD ¼ 3,180; range, 5,469 to 15,966). Step
count remained at increased levels during the
reimplementation of the individual goals con-
dition, with a mean of 13,131 steps (SD
¼ 3,400; range, 7,266 to 19,070). Fifteen of
the 18 participants reached their target goal every
day in the second individual goals condition, and
the remaining three participants succeeded on
75% of opportunities. During 2-day goals, mean
step count decreased to 11,764 (SD ¼2,551;
range, 6,954 to 17,908). During 4-day goals, the
mean number of steps taken each day was 12,042
(SD ¼ 3,410; range, 6,097 to 18,965).
As with Classroom 1, two participants were
semirandomly selected for further inspection,
and their data are displayed in Figure 2 (bottom
two panels).
Combined classroom averages. The mean step
count for both Classroom 1 and Classroom 2
during Baseline 1 was 8,498. During the
individual goals condition, mean step count
 INCREASING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 609

18,000 Cumulave
BL 1 Total BL 2 Individual Goals 2-Day Goal 4-Day Goal
16,000
14,000
12,000 Reassessment
for X Phase
10,000
Classroom 1
8,000 Student A (M)
6,000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43

12,000 Cumulave
BL 1 Total BL 2 Individual Goals 2-Day Goal 4-Day Goal
11,000
10,000 Absent

Absent
9,000
Reassessment
8,000 for X Phase
Average Number of Steps Taken

7,000
Classroom 1
6,000 Student B (F)
5,000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43
Ind.
Individual Cumulave
23,000
BL 1 Goals BL 2 Total 2-Day Goal 4-Day Goal
21,000
19,000
17,000
15,000
Classroom 2
13,000 Student C (M)
11,000
9,000
7,000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43
Individual Cumulave Ind.
12,000 BL 2 2-Day Goal 4-Day Goal
BL 1 Goals Total
11,000
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
Classroom 2
5,000 Student D (F)
4,000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43
School Days

Figure 2. Individual step data for four randomly selected students (one male [M], one female [F]) from each classroom.
Gray lines represent the minimum required number of daily steps. Individual goals were derived from individual baseline
data. Cumulative goals were derived from classroom average baseline data.

for both classrooms increased to 12,852. During The mean step counts across classrooms during
Baseline 2, step count decreased below initial the 2-day and 4-day goal-fading procedure were
baseline levels to 8,052. During classroom 11,823 steps and 12,149 steps, respectively.
cumulative total conditions, the mean step count Results indicated that the individual goals
was 10,832. The mean step count during the condition resulted in the most steps taken across
second individual goals condition was 13,092. classrooms.
610 SARAH KUHL et al.
DISCUSSION
Two interdependent group contingencies
were compared in which participants earned
reinforcement based on each individual’s per-
formance. Both contingencies, classroom cumu-
lative total and individual goals, increased step
counts above baseline levels. However, the
individual goals condition resulted in the largest
increase in step counts regardless of order of
presentation. Specifically, mean step counts
increased during the individual goals condition
by more than 4,800 and 5,000 steps above
baseline for Classroom 1 and Classroom 2,
respectively. This corresponds to approximately
60 additional minutes of moderate-intensity
physical activity per day, exceeding the antici-
pated increase of 1,500 steps per day.
Anecdotal data from school personnel indi-
cated that classmates gave peers encouragement
and support regarding step-count progress to
earn the selected reinforcement. Participants
were reported to have walked around the gym
before the start of school instead of sitting by
lockers, invited peers home after school to play
Wii Fit, and requested that their parents park
further away from school and stores in the
community to increase daily step counts.
One factor that might have influenced the
success of the individual goals condition was
the method of individual feedback. Each
participant received feedback or praise individ-
ually. However, during the classroom cumu-
lative total condition, participants did not
receive individual feedback because group
feedback was provided each day via the posted
step totals on the progress-monitoring chart.
Furthermore, when feedback was reduced from
daily to every 2 or 4 days, the number of steps
taken each day declined in the more effective
contingency. Although step counts did not
maintain at the daily feedback level when
individual goals were extended, an increasing
trend was observed during fading that may have
continued had the condition been extended.
Thus, the current data suggest that frequent
personalized feedback may be an important
component of the intervention.
An additional concern regarding performance
feedback is related to the changes that occurred
between the baseline and the subsequent con-
ditions. Pedometers were masked during base-
lines, thus removing the opportunity for step
counts to serve as an indication of performance.
After baseline, participants were able to observe
their daily step counts, which could have served
as a type of feedback. In addition, contingencies
not in place during baseline were presented
during the interventions (e.g., praise and
reinforcement). Therefore, the change from
baseline to intervention always produced at least
four simultaneous changes: (a) a change from no
performance requirement to one in which a
performance requirement was present, (b) a
change from no automatically produced per-
formance feedback (i.e., pedometer-based step
count) to one with such information available,
(c) researcher-based responses such as praise, and
(d) the opportunity to access additional recess.
Although differences were found between the
classroom cumulative total and the individual
goals conditions, it is unclear how much of the
total difference from baseline is attributable to
the other variables noted here. Because several
factors are seemingly involved, future research
may benefit from component analyses to identify
what factors in isolation or combination are
needed to effect the most behavior change.
One limitation to the study was the time
constraints imposed by an upcoming pilot
physical education curriculum in which stu-
dents’ physical activity would be monitored. The
study and the pilot program conflicted with each
other, serving as reciprocal confounding effects,
and thus the study was terminated before the
collection of any follow-up data. These time
constraints further restricted the opportunity for
the individual goals condition to be reimple-
mented after the decrease in step counts during
the 2-day goal-fading procedure. The decrease in
 INCREASING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
step counts during fading might have been due to
participants needing more immediate feedback.
Future research should explore the parameters
involved in fading individual self-monitoring
feedback.
Future research also could address the
influence that larger work requirements might
have on responding. The current study used the
goal of 60 min of moderate exercise per week, but
it is not known if favorable results would be
obtained with greater work requirements (e.g.,
60 min of moderate exercise per day), or if the
work requirements would produce greater
change if increased systematically over time.
However, a ceiling effect might exist, in that
some pedometer-based interventions with chil-
dren seem to be unable to produce step counts
beyond 13,000 to 15,000 per day (Lubans,
Morgan, & Tudor-Locke, 2009).
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Received May 6, 2014
Final acceptance March 2, 2015
Action Editor, Matt Normand