Name: ……………………………………………..

Date: ………………………………………………..

Written mark: ……………………………………

Oral mark: ………………………………………..

Fonética y fonología inglesa III

Alumnos libres

A) Analyze the elements of these tone units. (20p)

1)

2)
3)

4)
5)

B) Consider the following dialogues. (40p)

Explain the meaning and attitude which each tone conveyed.

1)
 C) DICTATION (40p)
1) A: ……………………………………………………………………………………
B: ……………………………………………………………………………………

2) A: ……………………………………………………………………………………
B: ……………………………………………………………………………………

3) A: ……………………………………………………………………………………
B: ……………………………………………………………………………………

4) A: ……………………………………………………………………………………
B: ……………………………………………………………………………………

5) A: ……………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………

Name: ……………………………………………..
Date: ………………………………………………..

Oral mark: ………………………………………..

Fonética y fonología inglesa III

Alumnos regulares

Oral exam:
A) READ THE TEXT.
B) GIVE A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF WHAT THE TEXT IS ABOUT.
C) PLACE STRESSES AND TONES. THEN CHOOSE THREE SENTENCES AND EXPLAIN
THE TONES. BARE IN MIND THE MEANING AND ATTITUDE THAT CONVEY.
D) GIVE A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF REFERING AND PROCLAIMING TONES
Ambrose Bierce
Revenge
An Insurance Agent was trying to induce a Hard Man to Deal
With to take out a policy on his house. After listening to him
for an hour, while he painted in vivid colours the extreme
danger of fire consuming the house, the Hard Man to Deal
With said:
     "Do you really think it likely that my house will burn
down inside the time that policy will run?"
     "Certainly," replied the Insurance Agent; "have I not
been trying all this time to convince you that I do?"
     "Then," said the Hard Man to Deal With, "why are you so
anxious to have your Company bet me money that it will
not?"
     The Agent was silent and thoughtful for a moment; then
he drew the other apart into an unfrequented place and
whispered in his ear:
     "My friend, I will impart to you a dark secret. Years ago
the Company betrayed my sweetheart by promise of
marriage. Under an assumed name I have wormed myself
into its service for revenge; and as there is a heaven above
us, I will have its heart's blood!"

Name: ……………………………………………..
Date: ………………………………………………..

Oral mark: ………………………………………..

Fonética y fonología inglesa III

Alumnos regulares

Oral exam:
A) READ THE TEXT.
B) GIVE A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF WHAT THE TEXT IS ABOUT.
C) PLACE STRESSES AND TONES. THEN CHOOSE THREE SENTENCES AND EXPLAIN
THE TONES. BARE IN MIND THE MEANING AND ATTITUDE THAT CONVEY.
D) GIVE A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF REFERING AND PROCLAIMING TONES

Ambrose Bierce
The Hare and The Tortoise
A Hare having ridiculed the slow movements of a Tortoise,
was challenged by the latter to run a race, a Fox to go to the
goal and be the judge. They got off well together, the hare at
the top of her speed, the Tortoise, who had no other intention
than making his antagonist exert herself, going very leisurely.
After sauntering along for some time he discovered the Hare
by the wayside, apparently asleep, and seeing a chance to
win pushed on as fast as he could, arriving at the goal hours
afterward, suffering from extreme fatigue and claiming the
victory.

     "Not so," said the Fox; "the Hare was here long ago, and
went back to cheer you on your way."
Name: ……………………………………………..

Date: ………………………………………………..

Oral mark: ………………………………………..

Fonética y fonología inglesa III

Alumnos regulares

Oral exam:
A) READ THE TEXT.
B) GIVE A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF WHAT THE TEXT IS ABOUT.
C) PLACE STRESSES AND TONES. THEN CHOOSE THREE SENTENCES AND EXPLAIN
THE TONES. BARE IN MIND THE MEANING AND ATTITUDE THAT CONVEY.
D) GIVE A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF REFERING AND PROCLAIMING TONES

The School
from
Sixty Stories
by Donald Barthelme

Well, we had all these children out planting trees, see, because we figured that ... that was part of
their education, to see how, you know, the root systems ... and also the sense of responsibility,
taking care of things, being individually responsible. You know what I mean. And the trees all died.
They were orange trees. I don’t know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil
possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn’t the best. We complained about it. So
we’ve got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we’ve got these thirty
dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing.

It wouldn’t have been so bad except that just a couple of weeks before the thing with the trees, the
snakes all died. But I think that the snakes – well, the reason that the snakes kicked off was that ...
you remember, the boiler was shut off for four days because of the strike, and that was explicable. It
was something you could explain to the kids because of the strike. I mean, none of their parents
would let them cross the picket line and they knew there was a strike going on and what it meant.
So when things got started up again and we found the snakes they weren’t too disturbed.

With the herb gardens it was probably a case of overwatering, and at least now they know not to
overwater. The children were very conscientious with the herb gardens and some of them
probably ... you know, slipped them a little extra water when we weren’t looking. Or maybe ... well,
I don’t like to think about sabotage, although it did occur to us. I mean, it was something that
crossed our minds. We were thinking that way probably because before that the gerbils had died,
and the white mice had died, and the salamander ... well, now they know not to carry them around
in plastic bags.
Of course we expected the tropical fish to die, that was no surprise. Those numbers, you look at
them crooked and they’re belly-up on the surface. But the lesson plan called for a tropical fish input
at that point, there was nothing we could do, it happens every year, you just have to hurry past it.

We weren’t even supposed to have a puppy.

We weren’t even supposed to have one, it was just a puppy the Murdoch girl found under a
Gristede’s truck one day and she was afraid the truck would run over it when the driver had finished
making his delivery, so she stuck it in her knapsack and brought it to the school with her. So we had
this puppy. As soon as I saw the puppy I thought, Oh Christ, I bet it will live for about two weeks
and then... And that’s what it did. It wasn’t supposed to be in the classroom at all, there’s some kind
of regulation about it, but you can’t tell them they can’t have a puppy when the puppy is already
there, right in front of them, running around on the floor and yap yap yapping. They named it Edgar
– that is, they named it after me. They had a lot of fun running after it and yelling, “Here, Edgar!
Nice Edgar!” Then they’d laugh like hell. They enjoyed the ambiguity. I enjoyed it myself. I don’t
mind being kidded. They made a little house for it in the supply closet and all that. I don’t know
what it died of. Distemper, I guess. It probably hadn’t had any shots. I got it out of there before the
kids got to school. I checked the supply closet each morning, routinely, because I knew what was
going to happen. I gave it to the custodian.

And then there was this Korean orphan that the class adopted through the Help the Children
program, all the kids brought in a quarter a month, that was the idea. It was an unfortunate thing, the
kid’s name was Kim and maybe we adopted him too late or something. The cause of death was not
stated in the letter we got, they suggested we adopt another child instead and sent us some
interesting case histories, but we didn’t have the heart. The class took it pretty hard, they began (I
think, nobody ever said anything to me directly) to feel that maybe there was something wrong with
the school. But I don’t think there’s anything wrong with the school, particularly, I’ve seen better
and I’ve seen worse. It was just a run of bad luck. We had an extraordinary number of parents
passing away, for instance. There were I think two heart attacks and two suicides, one drowning,
and four killed together in a car accident. One stroke. And we had the usual heavy mortality rate
among the grandparents, or maybe it was heavier this year, it seemed so. And finally the tragedy.

The tragedy occurred when Matthew Wein and Tony Mavrogordo were playing over where they’re
excavating for the new federal office building. There were all these big wooden beams stacked, you
know, at the edge of the excavation. There’s a court case coming out of that, the parents are
claiming that the beams were poorly stacked. I don’t know what’s true and what’s not. It’s been a
strange year.

Name: ……………………………………………..

Date: ………………………………………………..
Oral mark: ………………………………………..

Fonética y fonología inglesa III

Alumnos regulares

Oral exam:
A) READ THE TEXT.
B) GIVE A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF WHAT THE TEXT IS ABOUT.
C) PLACE STRESSES AND TONES. THEN CHOOSE THREE SENTENCES AND EXPLAIN
THE TONES. BARE IN MIND THE MEANING AND ATTITUDE THAT CONVEY.
D) GIVE A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF REFERING AND PROCLAIMING TONES
SYMBOLS AND SIGNS
BY VLADIMIR NABOKOV

For the fourth time in as many years, they were confronted with the problem of what birthday
present to take to a young man who was incurably deranged in his mind. Desires he had none. Man-
made objects were to him either hives of evil, vibrant with a malignant activity that he alone could
perceive, or gross comforts for which no use could be found in his abstract world. After eliminating
a number of articles that might offend him or frighten him (anything in the gadget line, for instance,
was taboo), his parents chose a dainty and innocent trifle—a basket with ten different fruit jellies in
ten little jars.

At the time of his birth, they had already been married for a long time; a score of years had elapsed,
and now they were quite old. Her drab gray hair was pinned up carelessly. She wore cheap black
dresses. Unlike other women of her age (such as Mrs. Sol, their next-door neighbor, whose face was
all pink and mauve with paint and whose hat was a cluster of brookside flowers), she presented a
naked white countenance to the faultfinding light of spring. Her husband, who in the old country
had been a fairly successful businessman, was now, in New York, wholly dependent on his brother
Isaac, a real American of almost forty years’ standing. They seldom saw Isaac and had nicknamed
him the Prince.

That Friday, their son’s birthday, everything went wrong. The subway train lost its life current
between two stations and for a quarter of an hour they could hear nothing but the dutiful beating of
their hearts and the rustling of newspapers. The bus they had to take next was late and kept them
waiting a long time on a street corner, and when it did come, it was crammed with garrulous high-
school children. It began to rain as they walked up the brown path leading to the sanitarium. There
they waited again, and instead of their boy, shuffling into the room, as he usually did (his poor face
sullen, confused, ill-shaven, and blotched with acne), a nurse they knew and did not care for
appeared at last and brightly explained that he had again attempted to take his life. He was all right,
she said, but a visit from his parents might disturb him. The place was so miserably understaffed,
and things got mislaid or mixed up so easily, that they decided not to leave their present in the
office but to bring it to him next time they came.

Outside the building, she waited for her husband to open his umbrella and then took his arm. He
kept clearing his throat, as he always did when he was upset. They reached the bus-stop shelter on
the other side of the street and he closed his umbrella. A few feet away, under a swaying and
dripping tree, a tiny unfledged bird was helplessly twitching in a puddle.

During the long ride to the subway station, she and her husband did not exchange a word, and every
time she glanced at his old hands, clasped and twitching upon the handle of his umbrella, and saw
their swollen veins and brown-spotted skin, she felt the mounting pressure of tears. As she looked
around, trying to hook her mind onto something, it gave her a kind of soft shock, a mixture of
compassion and wonder, to notice that one of the passengers—a girl with dark hair and grubby red
toenails—was weeping on the shoulder of an older woman. Whom did that woman resemble? She
resembled Rebecca Borisovna, whose daughter had married one of the Soloveichiks—in Minsk,
years ago.

The last time the boy had tried to do it, his method had been, in the doctor’s words, a masterpiece of
inventiveness; he would have succeeded had not an envious fellow-patient thought he was learning
to fly and stopped him just in time. What he had really wanted to do was to tear a hole in his world
and escape.

The system of his delusions had been the subject of an elaborate paper in a scientific monthly,
which the doctor at the sanitarium had given to them to read. But long before that, she and her
husband had puzzled it out for themselves. “Referential mania,” the article had called it. In these
very rare cases, the patient imagines that everything happening around him is a veiled reference to
his personality and existence. He excludes real people from the conspiracy, because he considers
himself to be so much more intelligent than other men. Phenomenal nature shadows him wherever
he goes. Clouds in the staring sky transmit to each other, by means of slow signs, incredibly
detailed information regarding him. His in- most thoughts are discussed at nightfall, in manual
alphabet, by darkly gesticulating trees. Pebbles or stains or sun flecks form patterns representing, in
some awful way, messages that he must intercept. Everything is a cipher and of everything he is the
theme. All around him, there are spies. Some of them are detached observers, like glass surfaces
and still pools; others, such as coats in store windows, are prejudiced witnesses, lynchers at heart;
others, again (running water, storms), are hysterical to the point of insanity, have a distorted opinion
of him, and grotesquely misinterpret his actions. He must be always on his guard and devote every
minute and module of life to the decoding of the undulation of things. The very air he exhales is
indexed and filed away. If only the interest he provokes were limited to his immediate
surroundings, but, alas, it is not! With distance, the torrents of wild scandal increase in volume and
volubility. The silhouettes of his blood corpuscles, magnified a million times, flit over vast plains;
and still farther away, great mountains of unbearable solidity and height sum up, in terms of granite
and groaning firs, the ultimate truth of his being.

  General Examples of Wordiness Better Phrases or Wordsessential

per
absolutely essential all (or each)
according to relate to
all of thus
are connected with if
as a result always
as long as now (or currently)
at all times proximity
at this time consensus
close proximity even though
consensus of opinion since (or because)
despite the fact that few
due to the fact that first
few in number to produce
first and foremost for (or to)
for the production of since (or because)
for the purpose of must (or should)
for the reason that if…, …
has (or needs) to each
if…, then … according to
in a given to
in accordance with about
in an attempt (effort) to for
in connection with to
in order for in fact
in order to about
 in point of fact regarding (or about)
in reference to if
in (or with) regard to since (or because)
in the event that since (or because)
in view of the fact thatinasmuch as can
is allowed (able or entitled) to is in
is located in must (or should)
is required to OMIT
it should be noted that consider
look into determining (deciding)
making a determination (decision) often must (or should)
more often than not  must (or should)
needs (or has) to prevent (or preclude)
not allow similar
not different omit
not include based on (or since)
on the basis of since (or because)
owing to the fact that history
past history paid to
payment made to before limits
prior to the limitation on small
small in size (number) after usinglimiting (i.e., the
subsequent to the use of verb’s ing form)creating (i.e., the
that limits (or other verb after “that”) noun’s ing form)
the creation of (or other “-tion” noun) CONSIDER OMITTING
there are (or there is) whether
whether or not can
will be able to depends on
will depend upon must (or should)
will have to regarding
with reference to regarding (or about)
with regard to except
with the exception of

Defined broadly, wordiness also might include using words with multiple syllables
where simpler words would suffice. Some common examples are listed below.

  Words with Multiple Simpler Words

Syllablesalthough though
altogether together
anticipate expect
because since
commence begin (or start)
consequently thus
into in
 oftentimes often
therefore thus
upon on
utilize use
whenever when
within in

Tax-related terms and phrases often can be expressed more concisely or

abbreviated. Citations to tax authority, in particular, should be shortened to avoid
unnecessary clutter, especially in technical research memos. For example, Internal
Revenue Code section 101 can be clearly stated as §101. In tax practice, a statutory
reference is assumed to be to Title 26 (i.e., the Internal Revenue Code) unless
otherwise noted. Thus, explicit references to the Code are usually unnecessary.
(Caveat: Tax-related wordiness might be appropriate in some forms of written
communications, such as client letters). Common examples of tax-related wordiness
and recommended substitutions are listed below.

  Tax-Related WordinessCode section Better Expressions

61 §61 (or Sec. 61 at beginning of
      sentence)
Commissioner of Internal Revenue Comm. or CIR
credit against tax liability credit
deduction from gross income deduction (unless distinguishing between
      for and from AGI deductions)
exempt from gross income (or exempt
taxation) Smith v. U.S. held
in Smith v. U.S.,the court held in Smith v. U.S.
in the case of Smith v. U.S. gross income
included in gross income gross income
income which is subject to taxation Code (or omit if part of specific cite)
Internal Revenue Code IRS
Internal Revenue Service Reg. §1.101-1
Regulation §1.101-1 Rev. Rul. 83-24
Revenue Ruling 83-24 credit
take (or claim) a credit for deduct
take (or claim) a deduction for deductible
tax deductible exempt
tax exempt Smith v. U.S.Reg. §1.101-1
the Smith v. U.S. decision U.S.
Treasury Regulation §1.101-1
United States

Consider the following example containing wordiness.

 

  Wordy Example: In the case of Mais (TC, 1968), the taxpayer was able to
exclude from gross income embezzled funds that were
repaid during the year the funds were embezzled but the
taxpayer was not allowed to exclude embezzled funds to be
repaid in a subsequent year.

  Edited Example: In the case of Mais (TC, 1968) allowed the taxpayer was

able to to exclude from gross income embezzled funds that
were repaid during the same year the funds were
embezzled but the taxpayer was not allowed to exclude
embezzled funds to be those repaid in
a subsequent lateryear.

  Better Wording: Mais (TC, 1968) allowed the taxpayer to exclude embezzled

funds repaid during the same year but not those repaid in a
later year.

The original sentence contained 45 words. The corrected sentence contains only 23
words, a 49% decrease. The corrected sentence contains just as much information
as the original; shortening the sentence creates no ambiguity. However, the shorter
sentence is easier to read and understand.
Another form of wordiness is the unnecessary use of legalese. Using legalese can
make your writing appear archaic, too formal, or stilted. Examples of legalese
include the following words: aforementioned, aforesaid, hereto, heretofore, herewith,
said (when used as an adjective), thereby, therein, thereof, thereto, therefor (as
opposed to the conjunction, therefore), therewith, whereby, wherefore, wherein, and
whereto. Often, legalese can be omitted without changing a sentence’s meaning or
creating ambiguity. In other cases, simpler words can be substituted.Using several
consecutive prepositional phrases (i.e., prepositional strings) is wordy and creates
poor sentence rhythm. More importantly, prepositional strings make sentences
difficult to follow since prepositional phrases are modifying the objects of preceding
prepositional phrases. Readers may need to reread the sentence to comprehend its
meaning. Generally, use no more than three consecutive prepositional phrases;
however, even three may be too many in some cases. One method to improve a
sentence plagued with prepositional strings is to convert one of the prepositional
phrases’ objects to an adjective. Consider the following example, which contains four
consecutive prepositional phrases (prepositions are italicized in the initial sentence).

  Prepositional Strings: Ringo can deduct the $23,000 for the cost of the

pool atthe new home as a medical expense.

       
Ringo can deduct the $23,000 for the cost of the new
home’s pool at the new home as a medical expense.
  Edited Version:

  Better Sentence: Ringo can deduct the $23,000 cost of the new home’s pool
 as a medical expense.

The sentence reads better after “new home” is converted into a modifier for “pool.”
The word search capabilities in your word processing software can help you find
wordiness in your writing (e.g., searching for the phrase “in order”). Consistent use
of this technique can greatly reduce wordiness and, eventually, can help you
recognize wordiness without using your word processor’s search function. In other
words, conscientious and consistent practice can lead to a stronger writing style and
reduce the need for later searching and editing.

What Is a Comma Splice, and How Do I Fix It?

         Before I start explaining what a comma splice is and how to correct one, I want to make it
clear that not all comma splices are errors.*  Unfortunately, few American English teachers are
aware that there is a type of comma splice that is perfectly acceptable, and so they
mark all comma splices as errors.

           If you have read some of my other articles on grammar and usage, you know that there
are certain 'rules' that need not be slavishly obeyed. I don't recommend gratuitously splitting an
infinitive or ending a sentence with a preposition, simply because so many people are likely to
jump on you when you do. However, when the occasion clearly calls for either a split infinitive or
a preposition at the end of the sentence, I say go for it. But even when a properly handled
comma splice would produce just the rhetorical effect I am after, I won't use it.

         No doubt you are disappointed in me. The fact is, though, that in the U.S. a lot of people
who are sure they understand the 'rules' of English firmly believe that all comma splices are not
just errors, but really big errors, and that any one who commits a comma splice is
demonstrating a fundamental inability to control a sentence. If I were to use a perfectly
acceptable comma splice, I can be sure that an awful lot of people would assume that I have no
mastery of sentence boundaries. They would be wrong, but I would never get the chance to
argue the point, so their judgment would stand.

          Sometimes it seems that the rule against comma splices is the only rule that many
people--English teachers especially!--have managed to master, and so they are always on the
hunt for an opportunity to wield it against someone. While it is true that in American usage most
comma splices are errors, it is also true that some are worse errors than others, and some are
not errors at all.

          I am not even sure it is considered a matter of concern in British usage, and if any of my
readers are from the U.K., I would like to know whether current usage there abhors the comma
splice as does American usage.

     Now to business.

WHAT IS A COMMA SPLICE?

          Quite simply, a comma splice is the attempt to join two independent clauses with a
comma, but without a coordinator.

          Let's back up for a moment. First of all, according to the definition most of you learned in
grade school, an independent clause is one that can stand alone as a sentence. (This is not
the most precise or useful way to define an independent clause, but it will do for now.) When
two independent clauses are next to each other, you have only two choices: you can
either join them, or you can separatethem.

          (1) To join two independent clauses, you must use a 

coordinator. The coordinators are the correlatives and the 

coordinating conjunctions. (Correlatives don't figure into comma splices, so we will not worry
about them.) The coordinating conjunctions are  and, but, or, nor, yet, and so. You can
remember them by combining their first letters into the pseudoword 'anboys.' Your English
teachers and your usage handbooks also listed 'for' as a coordinating conjunction. Forget that.
As a conjunction 'for' translates as 'because,' and serves as a subordinating conjunction, just as
'because' does.

          (2) To separate two independent clauses, you must use some form of end-stop
punctuation. Here are all of your possible choices: the period [.], the exclamation point [!], the
question mark [?], and the semicolon [;]. (Remember, a semicolon is a weak period,not a
strong comma. The semicolon fragment is a common error, one I deal with in 'Colons, and
Semicolons, and Bears!')

          What this means is that if you have two independent clauses with nothing between them
but a comma, you have failed either to join them with a coordinator or to separate them with
end-stop punctuation. (You will notice that the comma is not on either of those two lists.) Thus,
you have a comma splice, which is a form of run-on sentence.

           Here is an example of a comma splice, followed by several different ways of correcting it:

COMMA SPLICE:   I got up late this morning, I didn't have time for breakfast.

 CORRECTIONS:

          I got up late this morning. I didn't have time for breakfast.

or
          I got up late this morning; I didn't have time for breakfast.

or

          I got up late this morning, so I didn't have time for breakfast.

or

          I got up late this morning, and I didn't have time for breakfast.

          Notice that in the latter two corrections, the coordinating conjunction joining the two
independent clauses is preceded (notfollowed) by a comma. (That's about a 90-95% rule. See 
'Commas with Compound Sentences' for information about when that comma can be
omitted.) What causes a comma splice is not the comma between the two clauses, but rather
the absence of the coordinator in the attempt to join the clauses.

  A DIFFERENT STRATEGY:    If you choose to turn one of the clauses into
a subordinate (dependent) clause, then you can use just the comma between the two
clauses:

           Because I got up late this morning, I didn't have time for breakfast.

Dangling Modifiers and How To Correct Them

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.
A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.

Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.

'Having finished' states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English
sentences, the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is
Jill. She seems logically to be the one doing the action ('having finished'), and this sentence
therefore does not have a dangling modifier.

The following sentence has an incorrect usage:

Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.

'Having finished' is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of
the main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the
participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.
Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:
1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:

Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.

Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who
actually arrived late. The possible revision might look like this:

Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.

The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase
(arrived late).

2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the
action in that clause:

Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that 'it' didn't know his name. To revise, decide
who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this:

Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of the
sentence, so is not considered 'dangling.'

3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:

To improve his results, the experiment was done again.

Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve
its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence. The
revision might look something like this:

He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

More examples of dangling modifiers and their revisions:

Incorrect: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.

Revised: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.

Incorrect: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.

Revised: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.

Incorrect: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

Revised: They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

 
 Sentence Fragments
Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have
become disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to
remove the period between the fragment and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may
be needed for the newly combined sentence.

Below are some examples with the fragments shown in red. Punctuation and/or words added to
make corrections are highlighted in blue. Notice that the fragment is frequently a dependent
clause or long phrase that follows the main clause.

 Fragment:Purdue offers many majors in engineering. Such as electrical, chemical, and

industrial engineering.
Possible Revision: Purdue offers many majors in engineering, such as electrical, chemical, and
industrial engineering.
 Fragment: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle
of a game. Leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
Possible Revision: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle
of a game, leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
 Fragment: I need to find a new roommate. Because the one I have now isn't working
out too well.
Possible Revision: I need to find a new roommate because the one I have now isn't working
out too well.
 Fragment: The current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands. Which is why
we believe the proposed amendments should be passed.
Possible Revision: Because the current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands, we
believe the proposed ammendments should be passed.

You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a dependent clause as
a separate sentence when it follows clearly from the preceding main clause, as in the last
example above. This is a conventionaljournalistic practice, often used for emphasis.
For academic writing and other more formal writing situations, however, you should avoid such
journalistic fragment sentences.
Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left unattached to the main
clause; they are written as main clauses but lack a subject or main verb.

No main verb

 Fragment: A story with deep thoughts and emotions.

Possible Revisions:
o Direct object: She told a story with deep thoughts and emotions.
o Appositive: Gilman's 'The Yellow Wallpaper,' a story with deep thoughts and
emotions, has impressed critics for decades.
 Fragment: Toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
Possible Revisions:
o Complete verb: Toys of all kinds were thrown everywhere.
o Direct object: They found toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
 Fragment: A record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired.
Possible Revisions:
o Direct object: I've noticed a record of accomplishment beginning when you were
first hired
o Main verb: A record of accomplishment began when you were first hired.

No Subject

 Fragment: With the ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.

Possible Revisions:
o Remove preposition: The ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.
 Fragment: By paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling
to propose innovative policies.
Possible Revisions:
o Remove preposition: Paying too much attention to polls can make a political
leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.
 Fragment: For doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.
Possible Revisions:
o Remove preposition: Doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.
o Rearrange: Phil got fired for doing freelance work for a competitor.

These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed constructions,
that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long
prepositional phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the object of the preposition
(often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so
removing the preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.
 

Parallel Structure

Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have
the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual
way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as 'and' or 'or.'

Words and Phrases

With the -ing form (gerund) of words:

Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.

With infinitive phrases:

Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.

OR
Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.

(Note: You can use 'to' before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)
Do not mix forms.
Example 1

Not Parallel:
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.

Parallel:
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.

Example 2

Not Parallel:
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurate ly, and in a detailed
manner.

Parallel:
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.

Example 3

Not Parallel:
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for
the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.

Parallel:
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for
the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.

Clauses
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another
pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the
parallelism.

Example 1

Not Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much,
and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much,
and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.

— or —

Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some
warm-up exercises before the game.

Example 2
 Not Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would
be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective
buyers. (passive)

Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would
be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him
questions.

Lists After a Colon

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.

Example 1

Not Parallel:
The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,pronunciations, correct
spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.

Parallel:
The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,pronunciations, correct
spellings, and irregular verbs.

Proofreading Strategies to Try:

 Skim your paper, pausing at the words 'and' and 'or.' Check on each side of these words
to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.
 If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.
 Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the
same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of '-ing' words beginning each item? Or do
your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound,
check to see if it needs to be made parallel.

A Brief Guide to Writing Argumentative Essays

The art of argumentation is not an easy skill to acquire. Many people might think that if one
simply has an opinion, one can argue it effectively, and these folks are always surprised when
others don't agree with them because their logic seems so correct. Additionally, writers of
argumentation often forget that their primary purpose in an argument is to 'win' it--to sway the
reader to accept their point of view. It is easy to name call, easy to ignore the point of view or
research of others, and extremely easy to accept one's own opinion as gospel, even if the writer
has not checked his or her premise in a couple of years, or, as is the case for many young
writers, never questioned the beliefs inherited from others.
Want to know what you think about something? Then write an argumentative essay. To be fair,
however, you'll find that one of the first things you must do is become an expert on the issue.
When you pick a topic, you should avoid writing about issues that cannot be won, no matter how
strongly you might feel about them. The five hottest topics of our time seem to be gun control,
abortion, capital punishment, freedom of speech, and probably the most recent, euthanasia, or
the right to die. If possible, avoid writing about these topics because they are either impossible
to 'win,' or because your instructor is probably sick of reading about them and knows all the pros
and cons by heart (this could put you at a serious disadvantage). The topics may be fine reading
material, however, because most people are somewhat aware of the problems and can then
concentrate on understanding the method of argument itself. But care should be taken that if
you read one side, you also read the other. Far too many individuals only read the side that they
already believe in. These issues cannot be won for good reason: each touches on matters of
faith and beliefs that for many people are unshakable and deeply private.

Features

1. So, what do you write about? Pick a well-defined, controversial issue. (Spend some time with
the latest copies of several news magazines, watch 60 Minutes, or listen to National Public Radio
to generate ideas.) Readers should understand what the issue is and what is at stake. The issue
must be arguable, as noted above. After stating your thesis, you will need to discuss the issue in
depth so that your reader will understand the problem fully.

2. A clear position taken by the writer. In your thesis sentence, state what your position is. You
do not need to say: 'I believe that we should financially support the space station.' Using the
first person weakens your argument. Say 'Funding for the space station is imperative to
maintain America's competitive edge in the global economy.' The thesis can be modified
elsewhere in the essay if you need to qualify your position, but avoid hedging in your thesis.

3. A convincing argument. An argumentative essay does not merely assert an opinion; it

presents an argument, and that argument must be backed up by data that persuades readers
that the opinion is valid. This data consists of facts, statistics, the testimony of others through
personal interviews and questionnaires or through articles and books, and examples. The writer
of an argumentative essay should seek to use educated sources that are nonbiased, and to use
them fairly. It is therefore best to avoid using hate groups as a source, although you can use
them briefly as an example of the seriousness of the problem. Talk shows fall into the same
category as they are frequently opinionated or untrue.

 4. A reasonable tone. Assume that your reader will disagree with you or be skeptical. It is
important, therefore, that your tone be reasonable, professional, and trustworthy.
By anticipating objections and making concessions, you inspire confidence and show your good
will. 

Steps of a Research Paper

1. Decide on a topic. Make sure it is one you are interested in and that it is not too broad or too
narrow to analyze adequately.

2. Begin your library research. Start with the card catalogue or computer subject headings. Use
the periodical index. Your best bet may be to find a few general books on the subject, and then
study the bibliographies in the back of the books. Oftentimes, the very best sources are found
this way. You may note, as you read, that one person may be quoted repeatedly in several
articles. This should tell you that this person may be an authority. (See if their name is in the
catalogue.) If you run across the mention of an article while reading another article or book, go
find it. Use encyclopedias, reference books, newspapers, microfilm, the librarians, the World
Wide Web, and other professors' advice. Research is a back-and-forth, in-and-out process,
rather like the strategy of a good card game.

As you scan possible sources, make a list of sources you won't use, sources you might use, and
sources you will definitely use. Make bibliography cards for the latter two right away. Photocopy
all material that you might or will use--even pamphlets and personal books. This will save you
time later, should you need to return to the library. If you conduct a good deal of research, the
first list will help you keep up with sources you've already checked (unless you enjoy checking
them three and four times).

3. After acquiring some knowledge of your subject matter, it is time to decide on your
personal interview and/or questionnaire, should you choose to use one. Write the interview
questions and prepare the survey. Be careful to word both objectively. Your research is only as
valuable as the interview or questionnaire.

4. Write the outline, rough draft, and the final paper. Then rewrite it to make it sound as
professional as possible.

To analyze something, divide it into parts. Since you are writing about a problem, the body of
your paper might look something like this:

Paragraph 1: General introduction of the problem. Thesis statement which states your
opinion.

 Paragraph 2-3: History of the problem (including, perhaps, past attempts at a

solution). Sources needed

 Paragraph 4-6: Extent of the problem (who is affected; how bad is it, etc.). Sources
needed

 Paragraphs 7-8: Repercussion of the problem if not solved. Sources needed.

 Paragraphs 9-10: You should have led up to a conclusion that your argument is sound.
Pull it all together by connecting your argument with the facts. Anticipate objections
and make concessions.

 Paragraph 11: Conclusion: Restatement of thesis and summary of main ideas.

You are writing a full explanation of the problem and arguing for your viewpoint to be accepted.
Work in your own interview and questionnaire in the body of the paper where they make the
most sense.

5. Once your paper has been written, check every quotation in it for accuracy. Your instructor
may require that every quotation should be photocopied and included with what you turn in. All
quoted matter should be clearly marked on the photocopy.

 
 Argumentative Essay
The function of an argumentative essay is to show that your assertion (opinion, theory,
hypothesis) about some phenomenon or phenomena is correct or more truthful than others'. The
art of argumentation is not an easy skill to acquire. Many people might think that if one simply
has an opinion, one can argue it successfully, and these folks are always surprised when others
don't agree with them because their logic seems so correct. Argumentative writing is the act of
forming reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the case in
discussion; the operation of inferring propositions, not known or admitted as true, from facts or
principles known, admitted, or proved to be true. It clearly explains the process of your
reasoning from the known or assumed to the unknown. Without doing this you do not have an
argument, you have only an assertion, an essay that is just your unsubstantiated opinion.
Notice that you do not have to completely prove your point; you only have to convince
reasonable readers that your argument or position has merit; i.e., that it is somehow more
accurate and complete than competing arguments.
Argumentative essays are often organized in the following manner:

1. They begin with a statement of your assertion, its timeliness, significance, and relevance
in relation to some phenomenon.
2. They review critically the literature about that phenomenon.
3. They illustrate how your assertion is 'better' (simpler or more explanatory) than others,
including improved (i.e., more reliable or valid) methods that you used to accumulate the data
(case) to be explained.

Finally revise and edit, and be sure to apply the critical process to your argument to be certain
you have not committed any errors in reasoning or integrated any fallacies for which you would
criticize some other writer.
Additionally, you will want to find out how your readers will object to your argument. Will they
say that you have used imprecise concepts? Have you erred in collecting data? Your argument is
only as strong as the objections to it. If you cannot refute or discount an objection, then you
need to rethink and revise your position.