ANIMAL AND HUMAN BIOLOGY (With emphasis on -commonly found on surfaces subject to

vertebrates and humans) abrasion (ex: outer skin, linings of the mouth,
anus, and vagina)
CHAPTER 40 – BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FORM AND
FUNCTION

CONCEPT 40.1

 As body dimensions increase, thicker skeletons are

required to maintain adequate support
 As bodies increase in size, the muscles required for
locomotion must represent an ever-larger fraction of the
total body mass
 At some point, mobility becomes limited

Exchange with the Environment

 Rate of exchange is proportional to membrane surface

area involved in exchange
 Amount of material that must be exchanged is
o Cuboidal Epithelium
proportional to the body volume
-specialized for secretion
 Simple organisms = amoeba, hydra, worms (flat
ex: kidney tubules, glands (salivary, thyroid)
morphology) -> high surface area for exchange
 More complex organisms: Rely on folds/branching that
increase surface area ex: lungs, small intestine
 Exchange between interstitial fluid and circulatory fluid
(ex: blood) enables cells to obtain nutrients and get rid of
waste
 Benefits of complex system: maintain homeostasis;
maintain a relatively stable internal environment while o Simple Columnar Epithelium
living in a changeable external environment -often found where secretion or active
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans absorption is important
Ex: lines intestines (secretes digestive juices,
absorbs nutrients)

o Simple Squamous Epithelium

Structure and Function of Animal Tissues -functions in the exchange of material by
diffusion
 Epithelial Tissue
-thin and leaky
-Cover the outside of the body and line organs and
Ex: lines blood vessels, air sacs of the lungs
cavities within the body
(where diffusion of nutrients and gases is
-closely packed, often with tight junctions -> function as
critical)
barriers against mechanical injury, pathogens, and fluid
loss
-also form active interfaces with the environment
o Stratified Squamous Epithelium
-multilayered and regenerates rapidly
o Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
-new cells formed by division near the basal
surface and pushed outward
 -in vertebrates: ciliated cells form a mucous
membrane that lines portions of the respiratory
tract
-beating cilia sweep the film of mucus along the
surface

 Connective Tissue
-consists of a sparse population of cells scattered through
an extracellular matrix
-matrix: generally consists of a web of fibers embedded
in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation
-among the matrix are fibroblasts (secrete fiber proteins)
and macrophages (engulf foreign particles and any cell
debris by phagocytosis)
-connective tissue fibers:
-Collagenous fibers – provide strength and flexibility
-Reticular fibers – join connective tissue to adjacent
tissues
-Elastic fibers – make tissues elastic
o Loose Connective Tissue
-most widespread connective tissue in the
vertebrate body
-binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds
organs in place
-includes all three connective tissue fibers
-found in the skin and throughout the body
o Bone
-mineralized connective tissue
-osteoblasts: bone-forming cells; deposit a
matrix of collagen
-calcium + magnesium + phosphate = hard
mineral within the matrix
-bone consists of repeating units called osteons
-has concentric layers of the mineralized
matrix, deposited around a central canal
containing blood vessels and nerves
o Blood
-has a liquid extracellular matrix called plasma
(consists of water, salts, and dissolved proteins)
-suspended in plasma are erythrocytes (carry
oxygen), leukocytes (function in defense), and
platelets (cell fragments; aid in blood clotting)

o Fibrous Connective Tissue

-dense with collagenous fibers
-found in tendons (attach muscles to bones) and
in ligaments (connect bones at joints)
o Adipose Tissue
-specialized loose connective tissue
-stores fat in adipose cells distributed
throughout its matrix
-pads and insulates the body and stores fuel as
fat molecules
 o Cartilage
-contains collagenous fibers embedded in a
rubbery protein-carbohydrate complex called o Cardiac Muscle
chondroitin sulfate
-forms the contractile wall of the heart
-chondrocytes: secrete collagen and chondroitin
-striated
sulfate
-has fibers that interconnect via intercalated
disks (relay signals from cell to cell and help
synchronize heart contraction)

 Muscle Tissue
-consist of filaments containing the proteins actin and
myosin -> enable muscle to contract  Nervous Tissue
o Skeletal Muscle -function in the receipt, processing, and transmission of
-also called striated muscle; responsible for information
voluntary movements -contains neurons (transmit nerve impulses) and glial
-consists of bundles of long cells called muscle cells (support cells)
fibers o Neurons
-skeletal muscle fibers form by the fusion of -basic units of the nervous system
many cells = multiple nuclei in each muscle fiber
-sarcomeres = contractile units
*building muscle increases the size, not the
number, of muscle fibers

o Glia
o Smooth Muscle -various types of glia help nourish, insulate, and
-lacks striations replenish neurons; in some cases, modulate
-found in the walls of the digestive tract, urinary neuron function
bladder, arteries, and other internal organs
-cells are spindle-shaped
-responsible for involuntary activities (ex:
churning of the stomach, constriction of
arteries)

Coordination and Control
-Endocrine and nervous system: two major systems for
coordinating and controlling responses to stimuli
 Endocrine system – signaling molecules released in the
bloodstream are carried to all locations in the body;
adapted for coordinating gradual changes that affects the
entire body (such as growth, development, reproduction,
etc.)
 Nervous system – neurons transmit signals along
dedicated routes connecting specific locations in the
body; adapted for directing immediate and rapid
responses to the environment, such as reflexes
 Hormones – signaling molecules broadcast throughout
the body by the endocrine system
 Nerve impulses – travel to specific target cells along
communication lines consisting mainly of axons
CONCEPT 40.2
Regulating and Conforming
 Regulator – if it uses internal mechanisms to control
internal change in the face of external fluctuation
 Conformer – if it allows its internal condition to change in
accordance with external changes in the variable
Homeostasis
-maintenance of internal balance
-animals maintain a relatively constant internal environment
even when the external environment changes significantly
Ex: in humans, maintain:
-body temp of about 37 deg C
-blood pH within 0.1 pH unit of 7.4
-blood glucose conc. predominantly within 70-110
mg glucose per 100 mL blood
 Mechanisms of Homeostasis
-an animal achieves homeostasis by maintaining a
variable (ex: body temp) at or near a particular value (set
point)
-fluctuation in the variable above or below the set point =
stimulus, which is detected by a sensor, which then sends
a signal
-a control center generates an output that triggers a
response – a physiological activity that returns the
variable to the set point
 Feedback Control in Homeostasis
-negative feedback – a control mechanism that reduces,
or damps, the stimulus
-positive feedback – a control mechanism that amplifies
rather than reduces the stimulus; help drive processes to
completion
 Alterations in Homeostasis
-regulated changes in the internal environment are
essential to normal body functions (ex: shift in hormone
balance during puberty; cyclic = variation in hormone
levels during menstrual cycle)
-certain cyclic alterations in metabolism reflect a
circadian rhythm (a set of physiological changes that
occur roughly every 24 hours)

-a biological clock maintains this rhythm even when
variations in human activity, room temp, and light levels
are minimized
-a circadian rhythm is intrinsic to the body, although the
biological clock is normally coordinated with the cycle of
light and darkness in the environment
*suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) – a pair of structures in
the mammalian brain that control circadian rhythms
-acclimatization – one way in which homeostasis may be
altered; the gradual process by which an animal adjusts
to changes in its external environment; temporary
change
CONCEPT 40.3
-Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain
their body temp within a normal range
Endothermy and Ectothermy
 Endothermic – warmed mostly by heat generated by
metabolism
-can maintain a stable body temperature even in the
face of large fluctuations in the environmental
temperature
 Ectothermic – gain most of their heat from external
sources
-do not generate enough heat for thermoregulation
-many adjust their body temperature by behavioral
means
-generally need to consume less food than
endotherms of equivalent size (heat is from
environment, not metabolism)
-also usually tolerate larger fluctuations in their
internal temperature
Variation in Body Temperature
 Poikilotherm – an animal whose body temperature
varies with its environment
 Homeotherm – has a relatively constant body
temperature
*terms “warm-blooded” and “cold-blooded” are misleading,
and is therefore avoided
Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
-thermoregulation maintains a rate of heat gain that equals
the rate of heat loss
 Insulation
-major thermoregulatory adaptation in mammals and
birds
-reduces the flow of heat between an animal’s body and
its environment
-many animals also adjust their insulating layers (ex:
reacting to cold by raising fur or feathers – traps a thicker
layer of air, secrete oil to repel water, etc.)
-particularly important in marine mammals; blubber –
very thick layer of insulating fat
 Circulatory Adaptations
-animals alter the amount of blood flowing between their
body core and their skin
-vasodilation – blood flow in the skin increases -> warms
the skin and increases the transfer of body heat to the
environment
-vasoconstriction – reduces blood flow and heat transfer
o Countercurrent Exchange
-transfer of heat between fluids that are flowing
in opposite directions
-arteries and veins are located adjacent to each
other
-as warm blood moves from the body core, it
transfers heat to the colder blood returning
from the extremities in the veins
 -“brown” because there is more mitochondria
than white adipose tissue

Acclimatization in Thermoregulation
-in birds and mammals, acclimatization to seasonal
temperature changes often includes adjusting insulation
-in ectotherms, often include adjustments at the cellular
level:
-cells may produce variants of an enzyme – same
function but different optimal temp
 Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss -proportion of saturated and unsaturated lipids in
-bathing or sweating cools the skin; sweat glands membranes may change (unsaturated keep
-panting membranes fluid at lower temp)
-production of “antifreeze” proteins that prevent ice
 Behavioral Responses
formation in cells
- (ectotherms) when cold, they seek warm places, orient
themselves toward heat sources, and expand portion of their
Physiological Thermostats and Fever
body surface exposed to heat source
-in hypothalamus – sensors for thermoregulation; also
-social behavior ex: honeybees – huddling in cold weather;
controls the circadian clock
fanning with their wings (promotes evaporation and
-contain a group of nerve cells that function as a
convection) in hot weather
thermostat
 Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production
*the same blood vessel supplies the hypothalamus and the
Thermogenesis – heat production
ears
-endotherms can vary heat production to match changing
-at body temp below normal range: thermostat inhibits heat
rates of heat loss
loss mechanisms while activating mechanisms that save heat
-thermogenesis is increased by muscle activity such as moving
(vasoconstriction) or generate heat (shivering)
or shivering
-in elevated body temp: thermostat shuts down heat
-small endotherms such as insects – capacity to elevate body
retention mechanisms and promotes cooling of the body
temperature depends on flight muscles, which generate heat
(vasodilation, sweating, panting)
when contracting

o Fever
-an elevated body temperature
-occurs only in endotherms

o Nonshivering Thermogenesis
-in mammals; when certain hormones cause the
mitochondria to increase metabolic activity and
produce heat instead of ATP
o Brown Fat CONCEPT 40.4
-in neck and between shoulders that is Bioenergetics – overall flow and transformation of energy in
specialized for rapid heat production an animal
-determines nutritional needs and is related to the animal’s
size, activity, and environment
Energy Allocation and Use
-autotrophs – harness light energy to build energy-rich
organic molecules
-heterotrophs – obtain chemical energy from food
Quantifying Energy Use
-metabolic rate – sum of all the energy an animal uses in a
given time interval
*1 kcal = 1000 calories = 4184 joules
-metabolic rate can be calculated using various methods:
-by monitoring an animal’s rate of heat loss using a
calorimeter
-amount of oxygen consumed
-amount of carbon dioxide produced by an animal’s
cellular respiration
-over longer periods: rate of food consumption,
energy content of food, and chemical energy lost in
waste products
Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
-Basal metabolic rate (BMR) – minimum metabolic rate of a
nongrowing endotherm that is at rest, has an empty
stomach, and is not experiencing stress
-Standard metabolic rate (SMR) – metabolic rate of a fasting,
nonstressed ectotherm at rest at a particular temperature
-ectotherms generally have a lower energetic requirement
Influences on Metabolic Rate
 Size and Metabolic Rate
-metabolic rate remains roughly proportional to body
mass to the three-quarter power (m 3/4)
-energy required to maintain each gram of body mass is
inversely related to body size (the smaller the animal, the
higher its metabolic rate per gram)
-requires a higher rate of oxygen delivery = higher
breathing rate, blood volume, and heart rate
 Activity and Metabolic Rate
-maximum metabolic rate an animal can sustain is
inversely related to the duration of activity
Torpor and Energy Conservation
 Torpor – a physiological state of decreased activity and
metabolism; enables animals to save energy
-many small mammals and birds exhibit a daily
torpor (ex: bats feed at night and go into torpor in
daylight)
 Hibernation – long-term torpor that is an adaptation to
winter cold and food scarcity
-an animal’s body temp declines as its thermostat is
turned down
-slow metabolism and inactivity of estivation
(summer torpor) enables animals to survive long periods
of high temp and scarce water
-regarding circadian rhythm and biological clock:
molecular components of the clock stopped oscillating
during hibernation (in European hamster)
[p. 939 – Chapter 40 Chapter Review]
 -vitamin A: incorporated into visual pigments of
the eye
-vitamin D: aids in calcium absorption and bone
formation

CHAPTER 41 – ANIMAL NUTRITION

CONCEPT 41.1
-an animal’s diet must supply chemical energy (used to
produce ATP), organic molecules (organic carbon from sugar,
organic nitrogen from protein -> macromolecules), and
essential nutrients

Essential Nutrients
-preassembled organic molecules and minerals; cannot be
assembled by the animal from precursor materials
 Minerals
-inorganic nutrients (such as iron and sulfur) that are
usually required in small amounts
-have diverse functions in animal physiology
-iron: incorporated into hemoglobin and some
enzymes
-sodium, potassium, and chloride: important in
functioning of nerves and muscles; maintaining
osmotic balance between cells and the surrounding
body fluid
-iodine: in vertebrates, incorporated into thyroid
*blue = four classes of essential nutrients hormone, which regulates metabolic rate
 Essential Amino Acids -calcium and phosphorus: for vertebrates, build and
-must be obtained from food in prefabricated form maintain bone
-for most animals, including adult humans; need eight:
-isoleucine -phenylalanine
-leucine -threonine
-lysine -tryptophan
-methionine -valine
-*histidine (human infants only)
-proteins in animal products are “complete”; most plant
proteins are “incomplete”
 Essential Fatty Acids
-some animals lack the enzymes to form the double
bonds found in certain fatty acids
-in mammals, example is linoleic acid Dietary Deficiencies
 Vitamins -malnutrition – failure to obtain adequate nutrition
-from Albert Szent-Gyorgyi <3: “a substance that makes  Deficiencies in Essential Nutrients
you ill if you don’t eat it” -can cause deformities, disease, and even death
-organic molecules that are required in the diet in very -animals obtain missing nutrients by consuming other
small amounts food sources (ex: certain tortoises ingest stones;
-13 vitamins for humans herbivores lick salt from exposed rock)
o Water-soluble -example of sickness: protein deficiency due to diet that
-B vitamins: generally act as coenzymes lacks essential amino acids
-vitamin C: required for the production of  Undernutrition
connective tissue -diet that fails to provide adequate sources of chemical
o Fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) energy
 -results: body uses up stored carbohydrates and fat, then -alimentary canal – digestive tube extending between
begins breaking down proteins; muscles decrease in size; two openings (mouth and anus); complete digestive tract
brain may become protein-deficient

Assessing Nutritional Needs

-epidemiology – the study of human health and disease at
the population level

CONCEPT 41.2
-stages of food processing: ingestion, digestion, absorption,
and elimination

Digestive Compartments
-digestive enzymes hydrolyze the same biological materials
that make up the animals; processing of food within
specialized intra/extracellular components prevent self-
digestion
*p. 947 – four main feeding mechanisms (filter feeding,
substrate feeding, fluid feeding, bulk feeding)
 Intracellular Digestion
-food vacuoles – cellular organelles in which hydrolytic
enzymes break down food
-intracellular digestion – hydrolysis of food inside
vacuoles after phagocytosis (cell engulfs solid food) or
pinocytosis (liquid food)
-food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes (organelles
containing hydrolytic enzymes)
 Extracellular Digestion
-breakdown of food in compartments that are
continuous with the outside of the animal’s body
-gastrovascular cavity – commonly found in animals with
relatively simple body plans; digestive compartment with
a single opening CONCEPT 41.3
-functions in digestion as well as the distribution of -in mammals: digestive system consists of the alimentary
nutrients throughout the body canal and various accessory glands (three pairs of salivary
-ex: hydras (*gastrodermis – tissue layer that lines glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder) that secrete digestive
the cavity); undigested materials that remain in its juices
gastrovascular cavity are eliminated through its mouth -peristalsis: pushes food along the alimentary canal using
alternating waves of contraction and relaxation in the smooth
muscles
-sphincters: ringlike valves found at some junctions between
specialized compartments; regulate the passage of material
*Human digestive system as model
The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
 Oral Cavity – ingestion and initial steps of digestion
-mechanical digestion by teeth
-salivary glands release saliva, which initiates
chemical digestion while also protecting the oral
cavity
-Chief cells – release pepsin into the lumen in an inactive
form called pepsinogen
-HCl converts pepsinogen to active pepsin
-> Both HCl and pepsin are formed only in the lumen, not
within the cells of the gastric glands

-amylase found in saliva hydrolyzes starch

and glycogen
-protective effect of saliva due to mucus
(mixture of water, salts, cells, and
glycoproteins called mucins)
-also contain buffers (prevent tooth decay
by neutralizing acid) and antimicrobial
agents (lysozyme)
-tongue aids digestive processes by evaluating
ingested material
-tongue movements also manipulate the
mixture of saliva and food (shapes it into a
ball called bolus)
-tongue pushes the bolus towards the
pharynx
 Pharynx
-opens to two passageways: the trachea (windpipe; leads
to the lungs) and esophagus

Digestion in the Stomach

-Stomach – stores food and begins digestion of proteins;
secretes gastric juice
*chyme – mixture of ingested food and gastric juice
 Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
-carried out by HCl and pepsin
o Hydrochloric acid
-disrupts the extracellular matrix that binds cells
together
-high acidity denatures proteins in foods,
increasing exposure of peptide bonds
o Pepsin
-a protease (protein-digesting enzyme)
-works best in a very acidic environment
- gastric juice vs stomach cells: components of gastric
juice are kept inactive until they are released into the
lumen (cavity) of the stomach
-Parietal cells – use an ATP-driven pump to expel
hydrogen ions into the lumen
-at the same time, chloride ions diffuse into the
lumen through membrane channels of parietal cells
-> H and Cl ions combine only in the lumen to form HCl
-HCl converts pepsinogen to pepsin -> pepsin is produced
-> pepsin activates remaining pepsinogen -> generation of
more pepsin activates more pepsinogen = positive
feedback
 Stomach Dynamics
-chemical digestion by gastric juice is facilitated by the
churning action of the stomach
-most of the time, sphincters close off the stomach at
both ends
*acid reflux – backflow of chyme from the stomach into
the lower end of the esophagus
Digestion in the Small Intestine
-Duodenum – first 25 cm of the small intestine; where chyme
mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, and
gallbladder, as well as from gland cells of the intestinal wall
 Pancreatic Secretions
-Pancreas – produces an alkaline solution rich in
bicarbonate (+ several enzymes), which neutralizes the
acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer
 -pancreatic enzymes: trypsin and chymotrypsin –
proteases secreted into the duodenum in inactive forms
 Bile Production by the Liver
-bile – contains bile salts, which act as emulsifiers that
aid in digestion and absorption of lipids; stored and
concentrated in the gallbladder
-bile production is also important in the destruction of
red blood cells that are no longer fully functional
-the liver incorporates some pigments that are the
by-products of red blood cell disassembly, which are then
eliminated with feces
 Secretions of the Small Intestine
-the epithelial lining of the duodenum is the source of
several digestive enzymes
-most digestion is completed in the duodenum
-remaining sites (jejunum and ileum) are major sites for
absorption of nutrients
Absorption in the Small Intestine
-most of the absorption occurs at the highly folded surface of
the small intestine
-the intestine is lined with large folds, which have finger-like
projections called villi
-each epithelial cell of a villus has microscopic projections,
called microvilli, that are exposed to the intestinal lumen
(brush border)
-increased surface area of the folds, villi, and microvilli =
increased rate of nutrient absorption
 Transport Across Epithelial Cells
-may be passive or active
Ex: Fructose
-moves by facilitated diffusion down its concentration
gradient from the lumen of the small intestine into the
epithelial cells
-then exits the basal surface and is absorbed into
capillaries at the core of each villus
Ex: Amino acids, small peptides, vitamins, and most
glucose
-active transport
-pumped against concentration gradients into the
epithelial cells of the villus
*active transport allows more absorption of nutrients
 Hepatic Portal Vein
-leads directly to the liver; where capillaries and veins
that carry nutrient-rich blood converge
-from the liver, goes to the heart and other organs
-allows the liver to regulate the distribution of
nutrients to the rest of the body
-allows the liver to remove toxic substances before
the blood circulates
*liver = primary site of detoxification
 Fat digestion
-hydrolysis of fats by lipase in the small intestine
generates fatty acids and monoglycerides
-absorbed by epithelial cells and recombined into
triglycerides
-then coated with phospholipids, cholesterol, and
proteins -> chylomicrons – water soluble, can
dissolve in blood
-first transported from an epithelial cell into
a lacteal (vessel at the core of each villus
-part of the lymphatic system
-lymph containing the
chylomicrons passes into the larger
vessels of the lymphatic system
and eventually into large veins that
return the blood to the heart.
 *filling of the stomach triggers a reflex that increases
the rate of contractions in the colon

CONCEPT 41.4
-there are adaptations associated with the animal’s diet
Dental Adaptations
-Dentition – an animal’s assortment of teeth; nonmammalian
vertebrates generally have less specialized dentition
Ex:
[in sea otters]
-sharp canine teeth to tear apart prey (ex: crabs)
-slightly rounded molars crush their shells
[venomous snakes]
-fangs, which are modified teeth that inject venom into the
prey

Processing in the Large Intestine

Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
-where the alimentary canal ends
-variations in the dimensions of digestive organs
-includes the colon, cecum, and rectum
Ex:
 Junction with the Small Intestine
-Large, expendable stomachs in carnivorous vertebrates
-T-shaped junction
-they may wait a long time between meals, thus they
need to eat as much as they can in one instant
-Length of the digestive system
-in general, herbivores and omnivores have longer
alimentary canals relative to their body size than do
carnivores
-plant matter is more difficult to digest than meat
(because it contains cell walls)
-longer digestive tract allows more time for digestion
and more surface area for the absorption of
nutrients

-Colon – 1.5 m long leading to the rectum and anus

-completes the reabsorption of water that began in
the small intestine; remaining = feces
-feces = includes cellulose fiber (helps food
move along the alimentary canal
-Cecum – important for fermenting ingested material
-appendix – finger-like extension of the cecum
-Rectum – terminal portion of the large intestine; where
feces is stored until it can be eliminated
-Between the rectum and the anus are two sphincters:
inner is involuntary, outer is voluntary
-strong contractions of the colon create an urge to
defecate
Mutualistic Adaptations
Ex: in humans, humans and intestinal bacteria, which produce
vitamins such as vitamin K, biotin, and folic acid; intestinal
bacteria also regulate the development of the intestinal
epithelium and the function of the innate immune system
-microbiome – collection of bacteria
*H. pylori infection led to a near complete
elimination
from the stomach of all other bacterial species
 Mutualistic Adaptations in Herbivores
-animals do not produce enzymes that hydrolyze
cellulose (in plant cell walls)
-many vertebrates (+ termites) host large populations of
mutualistic bacteria and protists in fermentation
chambers
-have enzymes that can digest cellulose to simple
sugars and other compounds the animal can absorb
-in horses, koalas, and elephants: microorganisms
are stored in a large cecum
-in hoatzin (herbivorous bird): in large, muscular
crop (esophageal pouch)
-in rabbits and some rodents: in large intestine and
cecum
-nourishing by-products of fermentation by
bacteria in the large intestine are lost with the feces
-> these nutrients are recovered by coprophagy
(dung eating); rabbit “pellets” are not reingested – it
is the feces eliminated after passing the alimentary
canal twice
-cud-chewing animals that include deer, sheep, and
cattle = ruminants; most elaborate adaptations

CONCEPT 41.5

[p 957]
KARDONG COMPARATIVE VERTEBRATE ANATOMY

Chapter 1 – Introduction
 Tail Shapes
o Homocercal tail – both lobes are equal in size;
symmetrical
- Found in teleost fishes, which have a
swim bladder (an air-filled sac that
provides buoyancy)
- Need not struggle to keep their vertical
position in the water
o Heterocercal tail – upper lobe is elongated;
commonly found in sharks
- Sharks do not have swim bladders ->
extended lobe of the heterocercal tail
provides lift during swimming to
counteract sinking tendencies