QUARDRILATERALS

Angle Sum Property of a Quadrilateral

The sum of the four angles of a quadrilateral is 360°

Theorem : If each pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is equal, then it is a parallelogram.

Theorem : If in a quadrilateral, each pair of opposite angles is equal, then it is a parallelogram.

Theorem : If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is a parallelogram.

MID POINT THEOREM

Statement 1:
The line segment joining the mid-points of any two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side

Statement 2:
The line drawn through the mid-point of one side of a triangle, parallel to another side bisects the third side.
 TRIANGLES

Criteria for Congruence of Triangles

S.No. Rule Meaning Figure

If the two sides and the including angle of one

SAS (Side-Angle-Side)
1. triangle is equal to another triangle then they
Congruence rule
are called congruent triangles.

ASA (Angle-Side- If the two angles and the including side of one
2. Angle) Congruence triangle is equal to another triangle then they
rule are called congruent triangles.

If any two pairs of angles and a pair of the

AAS (Angle-Angle-
3. corresponding side is equal in two triangles
Side) Congruence rule
then these are called congruent triangles.

If all the three sides of a triangle are equal

SSS (Side-Side-Side) with the three corresponding sides of another
4.
Congruence rule triangle then these are called congruent
triangles.

RHS (Right angle- If there are two right-angled triangles then

5. Hypotenuse-Side) they will be congruent if their hypotenuse and
Congruence rule any one side are equal. 

Remark
1. SSA and ASS do not show the congruency of triangles.

2. AAA is also not the right condition to prove that the triangles are congruent.
Inequalities in a Triangle

Theorem 1: In a given triangle if two sides are unequal then the angle opposite to the longer side will be
larger. a > b, if and only if ∠A > ∠B
Longer sides correspond to larger angles.

Theorem 2: In the given triangle, the side opposite to the larger angle will always be longer. This is the
converse of above theorem.

Theorem 3: The sum of any two sides of a triangle will always be greater than the third side.

 If we produce any side of a triangle, then the exterior angle formed is equal to the sum of the two
interior opposite angles.

∠BCD = ∠BAC + ∠ABC

Area of parallelogram and Triangles

Figures on the Same Base and Between the Same Parallels

If the two figures have the same base and the vertices opposite to the base is also on the line parallel to
the base then the two figures are said to be on the same base and between the same parallels.

∆ABC and ∆BDC have the same base and the opposite vertex is on the parallel line.

Parallelograms on the same Base and between the same Parallels

If the two parallelograms have the same base and are between the same parallel lines then
these two parallelograms must have equal area.

Here, ABCD and ABGH are the two parallelograms having common base i.e. AB and between the two parallel lines i.e. AB
and HC.

ar (ABCD) = ar (ABGH)
Remark: The parallelograms having the same base and equal area than these two
parallelograms must lie between the same parallels.

Area of Parallelogram
Area of parallelogram = base × height

Height is the perpendicular on the base.

If the Area is given and one of the height or base is missing then we can find it as

Remark: The formula of area of the parallelogram is base × height that's why the two parallelograms having the same base
and between the same parallel lines have equal area.

Triangles on the same Base and between the same Parallels

If the two triangles are on the same base and their opposite vertex is on the parallel line then their area must be equal.

Here, ABC and DBC are the two triangles having common base i.e. BC and between the two parallel lines i.e. XY and BC.

ar (ABC) = ar (DBC)
Remark: If the triangles have the same base and equal area then these two triangles must lie between the same parallels.
Area of Triangle

Median of a Triangle
The line segment from any vertex of the triangle to the midpoint of the opposite side is the Median.
There are three medians of a triangle and the intersection of all the three medians is known as the Centroid.
The median divides the triangle into two equal parts( divides into triangles of equal area)
In ∆ABC AE, CD and BF are the three medians and the centroid is the point O.

AE divides the triangle into two equal parts i.e. ∆ACE and ∆AEB,

CD divides the triangle into two equal parts i.e. ∆CBD and ∆CDA

BF divides the triangle into two equal parts i.e. ∆BFA and ∆BFC.

A Parallelogram and a Triangle on the same base and also between same parallel
If a triangle is on the base which is same with a parallelogram and between the same parallel line then the area of the
triangle is half of the area of the parallelogram.

Here ∆ ABC and parallelogram ABCE are on the same base and between same parallel lines i.e. XY and BC so 
 CIRCLES

Terms related to circle

 Chord: Any straight line segment that’s both endpoints falls on the boundary of the circle is known as
Chord. In Latin, it means ‘bowstring’.
 Diameter: Any straight line segment or Chord which passes through the centre of the Circle and its
endpoints connects on the boundary of the Circle is known as the Diameter of Circle. So in a circle Diameter
is the longest chord possible in a circle.
 Arc: Any smooth curve joining two points is known as Arc. So in Circle, we can have two possible Arcs,
the bigger one is known as Major Arc and the smaller one is known as Minor Arc.
 Circumference: It is the length of the circle if we open and straightened out to make a line segment.

Segment and Sector of the Circle

A segment of the circle is the region between either of its arcs and a chord. It could be a major or minor segment.
Sector of the circle is the area covered by an arc and two radii joining the centre of the circle. It could be the major or minor
sector.
Angle Subtended by a Chord at a Point
If in a circle AB is the chord and is making ∠ACB at any point of the circle then this is the angle
subtended by the chord AB at a point C.

 Likewise, ∠AOB is the angle subtended by chord AB at point O i.e. at the centre and ∠ADB is also the
angle subtended by AB at point D on the circle.

Theorem 1: Any two equal chords of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre.

Here in the circle, the two chords are given and PQ = RS with centre O.

So OP = OS = OQ = OR (all are radii of the circle)

∆POQ ≅ ∆SOR SO ∠POQ = ∠SOR  

This shows that the angles subtended by equal chords to the centre are also equal.

Theorem 2: If the angles made by the chords of a circle at the centre are equal, then the
chords must be equal.
This theorem is the reverse of the above Theorem 1.
Perpendicular from the Centre to a Chord

Theorem 3: If we draw a perpendicular from the centre of a circle to any chord then it
bisects the chord.

If we draw a perpendicular from the centre to the chord of the circle then it will bisect the chord. And the bisector
will make 90° angle to the chord.

Theorem 4: The line which is drawn from the centre of a circle to bisect a chord must be
perpendicular to the chord.
If we draw a line OB from the centre of the circle O to the midpoint of the chord AC i.e. B, then OB is the
perpendicular to the chord AB.

If we join OA and OC, then

In ∆OBA and ∆OBC, AB = BC (B is the midpoint of AC)

OA = OC (Both are the radii of the same circle) ; OB = OB (same side)

Hence, ΔOBA ≅ ΔOBC (both are congruent by SSS congruence rule)

⇒ ∠OBA = ∠OBC (respective angles of congruent triangles)

∠OBA + ∠OBC = ∠ABC = 180° [Linear pair]

∠OBC + ∠OBC = 180° [Since ∠OBA = ∠OBC]

2 x ∠OBC = 180°

∠OBC = 90o
∠OBC = ∠OBA = 90°

∴ OB ⊥ AC

Circle through Three Points

Theorem 5: There is one and only one circle passing through three given non-collinear
points.

In this figure, we have three non-collinear points A, B and C. Let us join AB and BC and then make the
perpendicular bisector of both so that RS and PQ the perpendicular bisector of AB and BC respectively
meet each other at Point O.
Now take the O as centre and OA as the radius draw the circle which passes through the three points A,
B and C.
This circle is known as Circumcircle. Its centre and radius are known as
the Circumcenter and Circumradius.

Equal Chords and Their Distances from the Centre

Theorem 6: Two equal chords of a circle are at equal distance from the centre.
AB and CD are the two equal chords in the circle. If we draw the perpendicular bisector of these chords then the
line segment from the centre to the chord is the distance of the chord from the centre.
If the chords are of equal size then their distance from the centre will also be equal.

Theorem 7: Chords at equal distance from the centre of a circle are also equal in length.
 This is the reverse of the above theorem which says that if the distance between the centre and the chords are
equal then they must be of equal length.

Angle Subtended by an Arc of a Circle

The angle made by two different equal arcs to the centre of the circle will also be equal.

There are two arcs in the circle AB and CD which are equal in length.

So ∠AOB = ∠COD.

Theorem 8: The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is twice the angle subtended by
the same arc at some other point on the remaining part of the circle.

In the above figure ∠POQ = 2∠PRQ.

Theorem 9: Angles from a common chord which are on the same segment of a circle are
always equal.

If there are two angles subtended from a chord to any point on the circle which are on the same segment of the circle then
they will be equal.

∠a = (1/2) ∠c (By theorem 8)

∠b = (1/2) ∠c

∠a = ∠b

Cyclic Quadrilaterals
If all the vertex of the quadrilateral comes on a circle then it is said to be a cyclic quadrilateral.

Theorem 10: Any pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral has the sum of 180º.
∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360º (angle sum property of a quadrilateral)

∠A + ∠C = 180°

∠B + ∠D = 180º

Theorem 11: If the pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral has sum of 180º, then the
quadrilateral will be cyclic.
This is the reverse of the above theorem
 Surface Areas and Volumes

Plane figure
The figures which we can draw on a piece of paper or which lie on a plane are called  Plane Figures. Example - Circle,
Square, Rectangle etc.
Solid figures
The 3D shapes which occupy some space are called Solid Figures. Example - Cube, Cuboid, Sphere etc.
Volume
Space occupied by any solid shape is the capacity or volume of that figure. The unit of volume is a cubic unit.

Surface Area
The area of all the faces of the solid shape is the total surface area of that figure. The unit of surface area is a square unit.

Lateral or Curved Surface Area

The surface area of the solid shape after leaving the top and bottom face of the figure is called the lateral surface of the
shape. The unit of lateral surface area is a square unit.

Surface Area and Volume of a Cube

Cube is a solid shape having 6 equal square faces.

Lateral surface area of a cube 4l2

Total surface area of a cube 6l2
The volume of a cube l3
Diagonal √3 l,  l = edge of the cube
Surface Area and volume of a Cuboid
Cuboid is a solid shape having 6 rectangular faces at a right angle.

Lateral surface area of a cuboid 2h(l + b)

Total surface area of a cuboid 2(lb + bh + lh)
Volume of a cuboid lbh

Diagonal
l = length, b = breadth, h = height

Surface Area and Volume of a Right Circular Cylinder

If we fold a rectangular sheet with one side as its axis then it forms a cylinder. It is the curved surface of the cylinder. And if
this curved surface is covered by two parallel circular bases then it forms a right circular cylinder.

Curved surface area of a Right circular cylinder 2πrh

Total surface area of a Right circular cylinder 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2πr(r + h)
The volume of a Right circular cylinder πr2
  r = radius, h = height
Surface Area and Volume of a Hollow Right Circular Cylinder
If a right circular cylinder is hollow from inside then it has different curved surface and volume.

Curved surface area of a Right circular cylinder 2πh (R + r)

Total surface area of a Right circular cylinder 2πh (R + r) + 2π(R2 - r2)
  R = outer radius, r = inner radius

Surface Area and Volume of a Right Circular Cone

If we revolve a right-angled triangle about one of its sides by taking other as its axis then the solid shape formed is known
as a Right Circular Cone.

Curved surface area of a Right Circular Cone

Total surface area of a Right Circular Cone πr2 + πrl = πr(r + l)

The volume of Right Circular Cone (1/3) πr2h
  r = radius, h = height, l = slant height
Surface Area and Volume of a Sphere
A sphere is a solid shape which is completely round like a ball. It has the same curved and total surface area.

Curved or Lateral surface area of a Sphere 4πr2

Total surface area of a Sphere 4πr2
Volume of a Sphere (4/3) πr3
  R = radius

Surface Area and Volume of a Hemisphere

If we cut the sphere in two parts then is said to be a hemisphere.

Curved or Lateral surface area of a Sphere 2πr2

Total surface area of a Sphere 3πr2
Volume of a Sphere (2/3) πr3
  r = radius
 Number Systems
Introduction to Natural Numbers
Non-negative counting numbers excluding zero are called Natural Numbers.
N = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……….

Whole Numbers
All natural numbers including zero are called Whole Numbers.
W = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …………….

Integers
All natural numbers, negative numbers and 0, together are called Integers.
Z = – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …………..

Rational Numbers
The number ‘a’ is called Rational if it can be written in the form of r/s where ‘r’ and ‘s’ are integers and s ≠ 0,
Q = 2/3, 3/5, etc. all are rational numbers.

How to find a rational number between two given numbers?

To find the rational number between two given numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’.

Remark: There could be unlimited rational numbers between any two rational numbers.

Irrational Numbers
The number ‘a’ which cannot be written in the form of p/q is called irrational, where p and q are integers
and q ≠ 0 or you can say that the numbers which are not rational are called Irrational Numbers.
Example - √7, √11 etc.

Real Numbers
All numbers including both rational and irrational numbers are called Real Numbers.
R = – 2, – (2/3), 0, 3 and √2

Real Numbers and their Decimal Expansions

1. Rational Numbers
If the rational number is in the form of a/b then by dividing a by b we can get two situations.

a. If the remainder becomes zero

While dividing if we get zero as the remainder after some steps then the decimal expansion of
such number is called terminating.
Example:
7/8 = 0.875

b. If the remainder does not become zero

While dividing if the decimal expansion continues and not becomes zero then it is called non-
terminating or repeating expansion.
Example:
1/3 = 0.3333….

Hence, the decimal expansion of rational numbers could be terminating or non-terminating recurring and vice-versa.

2. Irrational Numbers
If we do the decimal expansion of an irrational number then it would be non –terminating non-
recurring and vice-versa. i. e. the remainder does not become zero and also not repeated.
Example:
π = 3.141592653589793238……

Representing Real Numbers on the Number Line

To represent the real numbers on the number line we use the process of successive magnification in which we visualize the
numbers through a magnifying glass on the number line.

Example:

Step 1: The number lies between 4 and 5, so we divide it into 10 equal parts. Now for the first decimal place, we will mark
the number between 4.2 and 4.3.
Step 2: Now we will divide it into 10 equal parts again. The second decimal place will be between 4.26 and 4.27.
Step 3: Now we will again divide it into 10 equal parts. The third decimal place will be between 4.262 and 4.263.
Step 4: By doing the same process again we will mark the point at 4.2626.
Operations on Real Numbers
1. The sum, difference, product and quotient of two rational numbers will be rational.

2. If we add or subtract a rational number with an irrational number then the outcome will be irrational.

Example:
If 5 is a rational number and √7 is an irrational number then 5 + √7 and 5 - √7 are irrational numbers.

3. If we multiply or divide a non-zero rational number with an irrational number then also the outcome will be irrational.

Example:
If 7 is a rational number and √5 is an irrational number then 7√7 and 7/√5 are irrational numbers.

4. The sum, difference, product and quotient of two irrational numbers could be rational or irrational.

Example:

Finding Roots of a Positive Real Number ‘x’ geometrically and mark it on the Number
Line
To find √x geometrically

1. First of all, mark the distance x unit from point A on the line so that AB = x unit.
2. From B mark a point C with the distance of 1 unit, so that BC = 1 unit.

3. Take the midpoint of AC and mark it as O. Then take OC as the radius and draw a semicircle.

4. From the point B draw a perpendicular BD which intersects the semicircle at point D.

The length of BD = √x.

To mark the position of √x on the number line, we will take AC as the number line, with B as zero. So C is point 1 on the
number line.

Now we will take B as the centre and BD as the radius, and draw the arc on the number line at point E.

Now E is √x on the number line.

Identities Related to Square Roots

If p and q are two positive real numbers

Examples:

1. Simplify

We will use the identity

2. Simplify

We will use the identity

Rationalizing the Denominator

Rationalize the denominator means to convert the denominator containing square root term into a
rational number by finding the equivalent fraction of the given fraction.
For which we can use the identities of the real numbers.
Example:
Rationalize the denominator of 7/(7- √3).

Solution:

We will use the identity here.

Laws of Exponents for Real Numbers

If we have a and b as the base and m and n as the exponents, then

1. am × an =am+n
 
2. (am)n = amn

4. am bm = (ab)m
5. a0 = 1
6. a1 = a
7. 1/an = a-n
 Let a > 0 be a real number and n a positive integer. 

 Let a > 0 be a real number. Let m and n be integers such that m and n have no common factors other than 1, and n
> 0. Then,
 Polynomials
Polynomial
Polynomial is an algebraic expression which includes constants, variables and exponents. It is the expression in which the
variables have only positive integral powers.

Example
1. 4x3 + 3x2 + x +3 is a polynomial in variable x.
2. 4x2 + 3x-1 - 4 is not a polynomial as it has negative power.
3. 3x3/2 + 2x – 3 is not a polynomial.

 Polynomials are denoted by p(x), q(x) etc.

 In the above polynomial 2x2, 3y and 2 are the terms of the polynomial.
 2 and 3 are the coefficient of the x2 and y respectively.
 x and y are the variables.
 2 is the constant term which has no variable.

Polynomials in One Variable

If there is only one variable in the expression then this is called the polynomial in one variable.

Example
 x3 + x – 4 is polynomial in variable x and is denoted by p(x).
 r2 + 2 is polynomial in variable r and is denoted by p(r).

Types of polynomials on the basis of the number of degrees

The highest value of the power of the variable in the polynomial is the degree of the polynomial.
Zeroes of a Polynomial
If p(x) is a polynomial then the number ‘a’ will be the zero of the polynomial with p(a) = 0. We can find the zero of the
polynomial by equating it to zero.
Example: 1
Given polynomial is p(x) = x - 4

To find the zero of the polynomial we will equate it to zero.

x-4=0

x=4

p(4) = x – 4 = 4 – 4 = 0

This shows that if we place 4 in place of x, we got the value of the polynomial as zero. So 4 is the zero of this polynomial.
And also we are getting the value 4 by equating the polynomial by 0.

So 4 is the zero of the polynomial or root of the polynomial.

The root of the polynomial is basically the x-intercept of the polynomial.

If the polynomial has one root, it will intersect the x-axis at one point only and if it has two roots then it will intersect at two
points and so on.
Example: 2
Find p (1) for the polynomial p (t) = t2 – t + 1
p (1) = (1)2 – 1 + 1
=1–1+1

=1

Remainder Theorem
We know the property of division which follows in the basic division, i.e.

Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder

This same follows the division of polynomial.

If p(x) and g(x) are two polynomials in which the degree of p(x) ≥ degree of g(x) and g(x) ≠ 0 are given then we can get the
q(x) and r(x) so that:

P(x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x),

where r(x) = 0 or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).

It says that p(x) divided by g(x), gives q(x) as quotient and r(x) as remainder.

Let’s understand it with an example

Division of a Polynomial with a Monomial

We can see that ‘x’ is common in the above polynomial, so we can write it as

Hence 3x2 + x + 1 and x the factors of 3x3 + x2 + x.

Steps of the Division of a Polynomial with a Non –Zero Polynomial

Divide x2 - 3x -10 by 2 + x
Step 1:  Write the dividend and divisor in the descending order i.e. in the standard form. x 2 - 3x -10 and x + 2
Divide the first term of the dividend with the first term of the divisor.
x2/x = x this will be the first term of the quotient.
Step 2: Now multiply the divisor with this term of the quotient and subtract it from the dividend.

Step 3: Now the remainder is our new dividend so we will repeat the process again by dividing the dividend with the divisor.
Step 4: – (5x/x) = – 5 
Step 5: 
 The remainder is zero.

Hence x2 - 3x – 10 = (x + 2)(x - 5) + 0

Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder

Remainder Theorem says that if p(x) is any polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one and let ‘t’ be any
real number and p (x) is divided by the linear polynomial x – t, then the remainder is p(t).
As we know that
P(x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x)
If p(x) is divided by (x-t) then
If x = t
P (t) = (t - t).q (t) + r = 0
To find the remainder or to check the multiple of the polynomial we can use the remainder theorem.
Example:
What is the remainder if a4 + a3 – 2a2 + a + 1 is divided by a – 1.
Solution:
P(x) = a4 + a3 – 2a2 + a + 1
To find the zero of the (a – 1) we need to equate it to zero.

a -1 = 0

a=1

p (1) = (1)4 + (1)3 – 2(1)2 + (1) + 1

=1+1–2+1+1

=2

So by using the remainder theorem, we can easily find the remainder after the division of polynomial.

Factor Theorem
Factor theorem says that if p(y) is a polynomial with degree n≥1 and t is a real number, then
I. (y - t) is a factor of p(y), if p(t) = 0, and
II. P (t) = 0 if (y – t) is a factor of p(y).
Example: 1
Check whether g(x) = x – 3 is the factor of p(x) = x3 - 4x2 + x + 6 using factor theorem.
Solution:
According to the factor theorem if x - 3 is the factor of p(x) then p(3) = 0, as the root of x – 3 is 3.

P (3) = (3)3 - 4(3)2 + (3) + 6

= 27 – 36 + 3 + 6 = 0

Hence, g(x) is the factor of p(x).

Example: 2
Find the value of k, if x – 1 is a factor of p(x) = kx2 – √2x + 1
Solution:
As x -1 is the factor so p(1) = 0

Factorization of Polynomials
Factorization can be done by three methods

1. By taking out the common factor

If we have to factorize x2 –x then we can do it by taking x common.
x(x – 1) so that x and x-1 are the factors of x2 – x.

2. By grouping
ab + bc + ax + cx = (ab + bc) + (ax + cx)
= b(a + c) + x(a + c)
= (a + c)(b + x)

3. By splitting the middle term

x2 + bx + c = x2 + (p + q) + pq
= (x + p)(x + q)
This shows that we have to split the middle term in such a way that the sum of the two terms is
equal to ‘b’ and the product is equal to ‘c’.
Example: 1
Factorize 6x2 + 17x + 5 by splitting the middle term.
Solution:
If we can find two numbers p and q such that p + q = 17 and pq = 6 × 5 = 30, then we can get the
factors.
Some of the factors of 30 are 1 and 30, 2 and 15, 3 and 10, 5 and 6, out of which 2 and 15 is the
pair which gives p + q = 17.
6x2 + 17x + 5 =6 x2 + (2 + 15) x + 5
= 6 x2 + 2x + 15x + 5
= 2 x (3x + 1) + 5(3x + 1)
= (3x + 1) (2x + 5)

Algebraic Identities

1. (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2

2. (x - y)2 = x2 - 2xy + y2
3. (x + y) (x - y) = x2 - y2
4. (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
5. (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx
6. (x + y)3 = x3 + y3 + 3xy(x + y) = x3+ y3 + 3x2y + 3xy2
7. (x - y)3 = x3- y3 - 3xy(x - y) = x3 - y3 - 3x2y + 3xy2
8. x3 + y3 = (x + y)(x2 – xy + y2)
9. x3 - y3 = (x - y)(x2 + xy + y2)
10. x3 + y3 + z3 - 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz - zx)
      x3 + y3 + z3 = 3xyz if x + y + z = 0