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1.1 Introduction
In Telecom network conventionally each user is connected to the Telephone exchange
individually. This dedicated pair starts from MDF, where it is connected to the appropriate
Equipment point and ends at the customer premises Telephone. (With flexibility at cabinet/pillar/
distribution points DPs)
Duplexing Methodology:
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Duplexing is the technique by which the send and receive paths are separated over the
medium, since transmission entities (modulator, amplifiers, demodulators) are involved.
There are two types of duplexing.
Frequency Division Duplexing FDD
Time Division Duplexing TDD
FDMA Analogy
It may be easier to visualize FDMA by imagining a cocktail party where two people wish
to converse with each other. Then everyone in the room must be silent except for the speaker.
The speaker may talk as long as they wish, and when they finish someone else may start
speaking, but again only one at a time. New speakers must wait (or find another party) for the
current speaker to finish before starting. Everyone in the room can hear and understand the
speaker, unless they are too far away or the speaker's voice is too soft. If the intended listener is
close enough, the speaker may decide to whisper. Conversely, if the listener is too far away, the
speaker may have to shout. Since no one else should be talking, this presents no problem. If
someone talks out of turn, the listener will probably be confused and not be able to understand
either speaker.
Features Of Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
No Precise coordination in time domain is necessary in FDMA System.
It is well suited for narrow band analog systems.
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TDMA Analogy
In TDMA, everyone in the room agrees to watch a clock on the wall, and speak only
during a particular time. Each person wishing to talk is given a set period of time, and each
person listening must know what that time period will be. For example, everyone may agree on
time slots with duration of ten seconds. Speaker number one may talk for ten seconds starting
from the top of the minute. The listener who wishes to hear this speaker must also be made aware
of the schedule, and be ready to listen at the top of the minute. Speaker number two may speak
only from ten seconds after the minute until twenty seconds after. As with FDMA, only one
person at a time may speak, but each speaker's time is now limited and many persons may take
their turn. If someone in the room cannot see the clock, they will not be able to speak and will
have great difficulty understanding the speakers.
Features of TDMA
There can be only one carrier in the medium at any time, if a simple TDMA scheme is
followed.
The pseudo-noise code (PN code) is a series of binary "chips" that are much shorter in
duration than the data bits. Since the chips appear to be in a random pattern, and there are many
chips per data bit (in IS-95 there are 128 chips for each data bit), the modulated result appears to
normal (FDMA) receivers as background noise.
A spread spectrum receiver with a different PN code will not be able to recover that
signal, and if the PN codes were chosen incorrectly, will hear nothing but noise. This relative
CDMA Analogy
In CDMA, the speaker and the listener have agreed beforehand to use a language that no
one else at the party understands. Many speakers may talk at a CDMA party, each using a
different language, and it is relatively easy for the listener to hear and understand the speaker as
long as there aren't too many speakers talking at the same time. As more and more speakers start
talking, the noise level in the room goes up and it becomes harder and harder for the listener to
make out what their speaker is saying. If a speaker begins to shout, in order for their listener to
hear better, it raises the noise level even more
Coverage Offered by CDMA System is more compared to TDMA and FDMA systems.
Capacity of CDMA System is more compared to TDMA and FDMA systems.
Cellular Concepts:
Even though multiple access techniques allowed multiple users to share the medium
simultaneously, due to constraints in providing resources, an amount of blocking will exist. The
amount of blocking is called “Grade Of Services”(GOS). Based on GOS and resource
availability (no. of carriers/no. of timeslots/both) the traffic handling capacity of the system is
calculated. If this total traffic is divided by traffic per subscriber, we get number of subscribers
supported by the system. For these purposes Erlang B table (Blocking calls cleared) is useful
particularly in FDMA-TDMA.
Why Cellular?
Assuming 30mE traffic per subscriber, sub density of 30 per sq.km, and GOS 1%
Mobile Environment:
BTS is connected to Mobile or Fixed Wireless Terminal by air Interface. This
connectivity differs from our earlier UHF/Microwave which is purely Line of Sight (LOS)
system. In mobile communication due to the mobility of the user from the BTS LOS to BTS may
exist or may not exist. The radio wave is subject to attenuation, reflection, Doppler shift and
interference from other transmitter. These effects cause loss of signal strength and distortion
which will impact the quality of voice or data. To cope with the harsh conditions, any mobile
technology makes use of an efficient and protective signal processing. Proper cellular design
must ensure that sufficient radio coverage is provided in the area.
Macroscopic Variations Due to the terrain contour between BTS and MS The fading
effect is caused by shadowing and diffraction (bending) of radio waves.
Microscopic variations. Due to multipath, Short-term or Rayleigh fading. As the MS
moves, radio waves from many different paths will be received.
Macroscopic Variations
Macroscopic Variations can be modeled as the addition of two components that
make up the path loss between mobile and base station. The first component is the deterministic
component (L) that adds loss to the signal strength as the distance(R) increases between base and
mobile. This component can be written as
L=1/Rn
Where n = typically 4.
The other macroscopic component is a Log normal random variable which takes into
account the effects of shadow fading caused by variations in terrain and other obstructions in the
radio path.
Local mean value of path loss=deterministic component +log normal random variable
Microscopic Variations
Microscopic Variations or Rayleigh Fading occur as the mobile moves over short
distances compared to the distance between mobile and base. These short term variations are
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caused by signal scattering in the vicinity of the mobile unit e.g. by hill, building or traffic. The
result is that not one but many different paths are followed between transmitter and receiver
(Multipath Propagation). The reflected wave will be altered in both phase and amplitude. The
signal may effectively disappear if the reflected wave is 180 degree out of phase with the direct
path signal. The partial out of phase relationships among multiple received signal produce
smaller reduction in received signal strength.
1.Coding:
Coding includes
Speech coding,
Convolutional coding or Forward Error Correction coding
Interleaving
Speech Coding:
Human speech is band limited between 300Hz to 3400Hz and undergoes Frequency
Modulation in analog systems. In digital fixed PSTN systems band limited speech is sampled at
the rate of 8 KHz and each sampled is encoded into 8 bits leading to 64Kbps (PCM A-Law of
encoding).Digital cellular radio cannot handle the high bit rate used for PSTN systems. Smart
techniques for signal analysis and processing have been developed for reduction of the bit rate
Different mobile communication systems use different bit rates for voice encoding. The
following table gives a glimpse.
N Technology Bit rate per Voice coding
o. voice chl technique
1 GSM 13Kbps RPE-LTP
2 CDMA IS95A 9.6Kbps/14. QCELP/EV
4 Kbps RC
3 Cor-DECT 32Kbps ADPCM
Interleaving:
Interleaving is a simple, but powerful, method of reducing the effects of burst errors and
recovering bits when burst errors occur. The symbols (output of Forward Error Correction
Coder) from each group are interleaved in a pattern that the receiver knows. The interleaver is
located at the BTS and in the phone.
2. Diversity Techniques:
To cope up with the mobile environment Diversity techniques are employed .This
can be Space Diversity, Polarisation Diversity, Frequency Diversity and Time Diversity.
Space and Polarisation Diversity:
It is implemented in the BTS by deploying two antennas, one for Transmitting and
receiving, the other for only receiving. Both antennas should be kept with minimal separation (10
times wave length). Space Diversity can be combined with Polarisation Diversity by making the
Diversity antenna in an opposite polarization. In modern times the same antenna with dual
polarized elements are available so that with single antenna, at least polarisation diversity can be
achieved. Space Diversity can be implemented only when sufficient space is available in the
tower for mounting the antennas.
Frequency Diversity:
Signal degradation can be averted by changing the present frequency to another in
case of narrow band systems. This avoids frequency selective fading. In a narrow band system
like GSM this is achieved by slowly hopping the frequency of transmission of BTS in a
predetermined manner.
3. Adaptive Equalisation:
The transmitter trains the receiver to adapt to the air environment by sending a
known sequence along with the data. Corrections as applied to the known sequence are applied
to the data to retrieve it error free. This is used in GSM.
4. Rake Receiver:
The rake receiver is multiple receivers in one. There is a rake receiver at both the mobile
and BTS. It turns what is a problem in other technologies into an advantage for CDMA. Signals
sent over the air can take multi-paths resulting in degradation of signal. The rake receiver
identifies the three strongest multi-path signals and combines them to produce one very strong
signal. The rake receiver therefore uses multipath to reduce the power the transmitter must send.
Conclusion:
Wireless means convenience. However to achieve this certain precautionary
measures are taken to overcome the bandwidth scarcity, multipath problems, etc., There are
multiple access techniques to share the bandwidth amongst several users.