Genetics (Question Types)

1. Deduction using Mendel’s first law (Law of segregation)

e.g. 1 1990 HKCE I (1cii)

With respect to grain colour, deduce the genotype and phenotypes of the parent plants.

 The purple and yellow grains occur in a ratio of 3:1.

 According to Mendel’s Law of Segregation, both parents must be heterozygous.
 Purple grain colour is the dominant trait.
 Hence the phenotype of both parents must be purple grain colour.

e.g. 2 2002 HKAL IB (13a)

Eye colour and wing morphology of a certain species of fly are controlled by two different genes. A
student made a cross using flies he collected from the field. The cross and its F1 progeny are shown
below:

Deduce the recessive trait for eye colour and wing morphology. Explain your deduction.

 In the F1 progeny, there are 108 (35+20+37+16) red-eyed and 34 (16+18) yellow-eyed flies.
This shows a 3:1 ratio.
 In the F1 progeny, there are 106 (35+16+37+18) normal-winged and 36 (20+16) vestigial-
winged flies. This shows a 3:1 ratio.
 Therefore, according to Mendel’s Law of Segregation, both parents are heterozygous for eye
colour and wing morphology.
 Under heterozygous condition, only the dominant alleles will be expressed while the
recessive alleles will be masked. Hence, yellow eye and vestigial wing are recessive traits.
Genetics (Question Types)

2. Deduce whether a trait is dominant or recessive

2a) Autosomal (type i)

- Look for parents with same phenotype, but with children of another phenotype

Formula of case 1:

 Both parents are normal so they must have at least one normal allele.
 The son / daughter is affected so he / she must have at least one allele for the trait.
 His / her allele of the trait must have been inherited from either one of the parents.
 Hence, either one of the parents must be heterozygous.
 In heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the recessive
allele will be masked. Since the both parents are normal, normal allele is dominant while
allele for the trait must be recessive.

Formula of case 2:

 Both parents have the trait so they must have at least one allele for the trait.
 The son / daughter is normal so he / she must have at least one normal allele.
 His / her normal allele must have been inherited from either one of the parents.
 Hence, either one of the parents must be heterozygous.
 In heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the recessive
allele will be masked. Since the both parents have the trait, the allele for the trait is
dominant while normal allele must be recessive.
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 1 1991 HKCE I (1ci)

Which character, normal body pigmentation or albino, is recessive?

 Both individual 3 and 4 are normal so they must have at least one normal allele.
 Individual 10 has albino so she must have at least one albino allele.
 Her albino allele must have been inherited from either individual 3 or 4.
 Hence, either 3 or 4 must be heterozygous.
 In heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the recessive
allele will be masked. Since the both individual 3 and 4 are normal, normal allele is dominant
while albino allele must be recessive.

e.g. 2 1993 HKCE I (1bi) 

 Both individual 1 and 2 are six-toed so they must have at least one allele for six toes.

 Individual 3 / 6 is normal so she / he must have at least one normal allele.

 His / her normal allele must have been inherited from either individual 1 or 2.

 Hence, either 1 or 2 must be heterozygous.

 In heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the recessive
allele will be masked. Since the both individual 1 and 2 are six-toed, allele for six toes is
dominant while normal allele must be recessive. 
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 3 1995 HKCE I (1bi)

 Both individual 3 and 4 have blood group A so they must have at least one antigen A allele.

 Individual 11 / 12 has blood group O so she / he must have at least one allele for blood
group O.

 Her / his allele for blood group O must have been inherited from either individual 3 or 4.

 Hence, either 3 or 4 must be heterozygous.

 In heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the recessive
allele will be masked. Since the both individual 3 and 4 have blood group A, allele for antigen
A is dominant while allele for blood group O must be recessive. 
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 4 2002 HKCE I (3ci) 

(b) Deduce which character, normal fingers or short fingers, is dominant.

Explain your deduction.
(Marks will not be awarded for genetic diagrams.)

(5 marks)

 Both individual 1 and 2 have short fingers so they must have at least one allele for short fingers. 
 Individual 3 / 6 has normal fingers so she / he must have at least one allele for normal fingers.
 Her / his allele for normal fingers must have been inherited from either individual 1 or 2.
 Hence, either 1 or 2 must be heterozygous.
 In heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the recessive allele will be masked. Since the both
individual 1 and 2 have short fingers, allele for short fingers is dominant while allele for normal fingers must be recessive. 

Individual 3 / 6 is normal, so she / he must have received at least one allele for
normal fingers from either of her / his parents (individual 1 or 2). 1
Individual 1 and 2 have short fingers, so each of them must carry at least one allele 1
for short fingers.
Thus, at least one of the individual 1 and 2 is heterozygous. 1
In the heterozygous condition, only the dominant character is shown. 1
Thus, short finger is the dominant character. 1
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 5 2003 HKCE I (2ai) 

Individuals of a certain type of plant produce either purple or white flowers. The flower
colour is controlled by a pair of alleles. A gardener carried out two crosses with this type of
plant and the results are shown below:

Based on cross 1, deduce the dominant flower colour. Explain your deduction.

(5 marks)

 Both parents produce purple flowers so they must have at least one allele for purple flowers. 
 The offspring produce white flowers so it must have at least one allele for white flowers.
 The allele for white flowers must have been inherited from either one of the parents.
 Hence, either one of the parents must be heterozygous.
 In heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the recessive allele will be masked.
Since the both parents produce purple flowers, allele for purple flowers is dominant while allele for white flowers
must be recessive. 

The offspring in cross 1 have white flowers, so they must have received at least one allele
for white flower from either of the parents. 1
Since both parents have purple flowers, each of them must carry at least one allele for purple 1
flower.
Thus at least one of the parents is heterozygous. 1
In the heterozygous condition, only the dominant character is shown. 1
Thus purple flower is the dominant character. 1
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 6 2002 HKAL IB (13a)

Eye colour and wing morphology of a certain species of fly are controlled by two different genes. A
student made a cross using flies he collected from the field. The cross and its F1 progeny are shown
below:

Deduce the recessive trait for eye colour and wing morphology. Explain your deduction.

 Both parents have red eyes and normal-wings so they must have at least one allele for red
eye and normal wing respectively.

 Some progenies / offspring have yellow eyes and vestigial wings so they must have at least
one allele for yellow eye and vestigial wings respectively. 

 The alleles for yellow eyes and vestigial wings must have been inherited from either one of
the parents. 

 Hence, either one of the parents must be heterozygous for eye colour and wing morphology.

 Under heterozygous condition, only the dominant alleles will be expressed while the
recessive alleles will be masked. Since both parents have red eyes and normal wings, yellow
eye and vestigial wing are recessive traits.
Genetics (Question Types)

2b) Sex linked

Formula of case 1:

The father (the son) has the trait and being a male he has the genotype of XY. His X-chromosome
must bear the allele for the trait on his only X-chromosome. 

 This X-chromosome with the allele for the trait must have been inherited to the daughter
(from his mother).

 Genotype of female is XX. The daughter (the mother) is normal in phenotype. Her other X-
chromosome must bear the normal allele for manifestation of the normal phenotype. 

 Hence, the daughter (the mother) is heterozygous. 

 Under heterozygous condition, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the
recessive allele will be masked. Hence, the allele for trait is recessive.

Formula of case 2:

 The father (the son) is normal and being a male he has the genotype of XY. His X-
chromosome must bear the normal allele on his only X-chromosome. 

 This X-chromosome with the normal allele must have been inherited to the daughter (from
his mother).

 Genotype of female is XX. The daughter (the m

 other) has the trait. Her other X-chromosome must bear the allele for the trait for
manifestation of the trait. 

 Hence, the daughter (the mother) is heterozygous. 

 Under heterozygous condition, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the
recessive allele will be masked. Hence, the allele for trait is dominant.
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 1 2001 HKCE Human Biology I (3biii)

The pedigree below shows the inheritance of a disease caused by a sex-linked gene.

Without using a genetic diagram, deduce whether the allele for this disease is dominant or
recessive. 

 Individual 3 has the disease and being a male he has the genotype of XY. His X-chromosome
must bear the defective allele on his only X-chromosome. 

 This X-chromosome with the defective allele must have been inherited from individual 1.

 Genotype of female is XX. Individual 1 is normal in phenotype. Her other X-chromosome

must bear the normal allele for manifestation of the normal phenotype. 

 Hence, 1 is heterozygous. 

 Under heterozygous condition, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the
recessive allele will be masked. Hence, the defective gene is recessive.
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 2 2010 May / June 9700 / 04 GCE AL IV (6b: modified)

The pedigree below shows the inheritance of a rare form of rickets caused X-linked allele. 

Without using a genetic diagram, deduce whether the allele for this disease is dominant or
recessive. 

 7 is normal and being a male he has the genotype of XY. His X-chromosome must bear the
normal allele on his only X-chromosome. 

 This X-chromosome with the normal allele must have been inherited to 9.

 Genotype of female is XX. 9 has rickets. Her other X-chromosome must bear the allele for
the trait for manifestation of rickets. 

 Hence, 9 is heterozygous. 

 Under heterozygous condition, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the
recessive allele will be masked. Hence, the allele for rickets is dominant.

(6 & 11)
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 3 1993 HKAL II (1b)

The occurrence of colour blindness and haemophilia in a family is shown by the pedigree below. The
alleles for the two traits are found on the X chromosome.

Deduce the dominance or recesssiveness of the allele which leads to 

(1) Colour blindness

 Individual A has colour blindness and being a male he has the genotype of XY. His X-
chromosome must bear the defective allele on his only X-chromosome. 

 This X-chromosome with the defective allele must have been inherited to individual D.

 Genotype of female is XX. Individual D is normal in phenotype / not colour blind. Her other
X-chromosome must bear the normal allele for manifestation of the normal phenotype. 

 Hence, D is heterozygous. 

 Under heterozygous condition, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the
recessive allele will be masked. Hence, allele for colour blindness is recessive.

(2) Haemophilia 

 Individual C has haemophilia and being a male he has the genotype of XY. His X-chromosome
must bear the defective allele on his only X-chromosome. 

 This X-chromosome with the defective allele must have been inherited to individual F.

 Genotype of female is XX. Individual F is normal in phenotype. Her other X-chromosome

must bear the normal allele for manifestation of the normal phenotype. 

 Hence, F is heterozygous. 

 Under heterozygous condition, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the
recessive allele will be masked. Hence, allele for haemophilia is recessive.
Genetics (Question Types)

2c) Autosomal (type ii)

Formula of case 1:

 Father (mother) with the trait must have at least one allele for the trait.
 Mother (father) with normal trait must have at least one normal allele.
 When they are crossed, all offspring are normal.
 Since the offspring must have received an allele for the trait and a normal allele, they are
heterozygous.
 Under heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the
recessive allele will be masked. Since all offspring are normal, normal allele must be
dominant while the allele for the trait must be recessive.

Formula of case 2:

 Father (mother) with the trait must have at least one allele for the trait.
 Mother (father) with normal trait must have at least one normal allele.
 When they are crossed, all offspring have the trait.
 Since the offspring must have received an allele for the trait and a normal allele, they are
heterozygous.
 Under heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the
recessive allele will be masked. Since all offspring have the trait, the allele for the trait must
be dominant while the normal allele must be recessive.
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 1 2012 HKDSE IB (8bi) 

 Pure-bred purple and smooth kernels must have at least one allele for purple and smooth kernels respectively.
 Pure-bred yellow wrinkled kernels must have at least one allele for yellow and wrinkled kernels respectively. 
 When they are crossed, all offspring produce purple and smooth kernels.
 Since the F1 offspring must have received an allele for purple colour, yellow colour, smooth appearance and
wrinkled appearance, they are heterozygous for grain colour and appearance.
 Under heterozygous conditions, only the dominant alleles will be expressed while the recessive alleles will be
masked. Since all offspring can produce purple and smooth kernels, alleles for purple colour and smooth
appearance must be dominant while the alleles for yellow colour and wrinkled appearance must be recessive.
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 2 1996 HKCE I (3ai)

 Consider cross B.

 Parent plants with pear-shaped fruits must have at least one allele for pear-shaped fruits.

 Parent plants with spherical fruits must have at least one allele for spherical fruits.

 When they are crossed, all offspring produce spherical fruits.

 Since the offspring must have received an allele for spherical fruit and an allele for pear-
shaped fruit, they are heterozygous.

 Under heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the
recessive allele will be masked. Since all offspring can produce spherical fruit, allele for
spherical fruit must be dominant while the allele for pear-shaped fruit must be recessive.

e.g. 3 2011 HKCE I (6a)

In a breeding programme, a leopard and a black panther which are both homozygous for their coat
patterns, were allowed to interbreed. The diagram below shows the programme and the results:

 Leopards must have at least one allele for spotted coat.

 Black panthers must have at least one allele for black coat.

 When they are crossed, all offspring are leopards with spotted coat.

 Since the offspring must have received an allele for spotted coat and an allele for black coat,
they are heterozygous.

 Under heterozygous conditions, only the dominant allele will be expressed while the
recessive allele will be masked. Since all offspring can have spotted coat, allele for spotted
coat must be dominant while the allele for black coat must be recessive.
Genetics (Question Types)

e.g. 4 1999 HKASL (5a)

A purebred red-eyed and long-winged insect species was crossed with a purebred white-eyed and
short-winged insect of the same species. Their F1 offspring were all red-eyed and long-winged. Each
of the characters is governed by a pair of alleles.

What are the dominant characters? Explain your answer WITHOUT the use of genetic diagrams.

 Pure-bred red-eyed and long-winged insects must have at least one allele for red eye and
long wing respectively.

 Pure-bred white-eyed and short-winged must have at least one allele for white eye and
short wing respectively. 

 When they are crossed, all offspring are red-eyed and long-winged.

 Since the F1 offspring must have received an allele for red eye, white eye, long wing and
short wing, they are heterozygous for eye colour and wing morphology. 

 Under heterozygous conditions, only the dominant alleles will be expressed while the
recessive alleles will be masked. Since all offspring are red-eyed and long-winged, alleles for
red eye and long wing must be dominant while the alleles for white eye and short wing must
be recessive.