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Networked Narratives:
Understanding Word-of-Mouth
Marketing in Online Communities
Word-of-mouth (WOM) marketing—firms’ intentional influencing of consumer-to-consumer communications—is an
increasingly important technique. Reviewing and synthesizing extant WOM theory, this article shows how marketers
employing social media marketing methods face a situation of networked coproduction of narratives. It then
presents a study of a marketing campaign in which mobile phones were seeded with prominent bloggers. Eighty-
three blogs were followed for six months. The findings indicate that this network of communications offers four social
media communication strategies—evaluation, embracing, endorsement, and explanation. Each is influenced by
character narrative, communications forum, communal norms, and the nature of the marketing promotion. This new
narrative model shows that communal WOM does not simply increase or amplify marketing messages; rather,
marketing messages and meanings are systematically altered in the process of embedding them. The theory has
definite, pragmatic implications for how marketers should plan, target, and leverage WOM and how scholars should
understand WOM in a networked world.
Keywords: advertising and promotions, consumer communication, online communities, online consumer behavior,
Internet marketing, social media, word of mouth
ord-of-mouth marketing (WOMM) is the inten- structed in a marketing world untouched by the Internet
Networked Narratives / 73
data and used the constant comparative method to generate forums. We identify and examine personal life crisis, rela-
insights. We tested and verified our theory in this way, look- tionship, technical, and mommy forums. Sports, health,
ing for disconfirming cases and altering our theory in multi- fashion, celebrity, and news are other examples of forum
ple rounds of analysis. In this second step, unexpected find- topics.
ings led us to develop our network coproduction model of Third, the WOM communication is affected by commu-
WOM, identifying our main theoretical implications. Our nal norms that govern the expression, transmission, and
overall approach is in keeping with the precepts of main- reception of a message and its meanings. These norms
stream qualitative data analysis and interpretation (e.g., would vary by the size of the community, the average age of
Thompson 1997). community members, their interests, their lifestyles, their
Although our theory development is based on the entire ethnic orientation, social class, and extent of shared history,
data set encompassing all 83 bloggers, for data presenta- among other factors.
tion, we offer a more nuanced recounting of a greatly Fourth, the message and meanings of the WOM com-
reduced subset. The sections that follow focus on the indi- munication are affected by the promotional characteristics
vidual stories of 4 bloggers whose responses to the cam- of the WOMM campaign and related promotions, such as
paign are representative of our findings across the entire set. the type of product or service, the product’s brand equity
Samples of additional blogger responses, which we present and the objectives, terms, hard-sell nature, and humorous-
subsequently, underscore the general nature of our findings. ness of the campaign.
In the network of WOM communications, these four
elements work in concert to alter the nature of the WOMM
WOMM in Online Communities message and its associated meanings. They influence its
Our data analysis and interpretation reveal that WOMM is expression. They transform it, as we explain subsequently,
part of a complex cultural process that nonetheless follows from a commercial promotion to communally valuable
an ascertainable pattern. On the surface, WOMM that information. Character type, blog forum, and communal
attempts to direct the discourses of bloggers may seem to norms affect the narratives and influence the audience
have many similarities with the use of public relations or attracted to the blog and members’ response to its content.
other forms of paid promotion. However, because of a range Pertinent to our study, the four elements also influence the
of novel contextual and institutional elements that do not manifestation and reception of WOMM messages. Follow-
generally exist in the professional journalistic or advertising ing these four elements, we gain an understanding about the
relationship, the WOMM campaign is injected into less forces that shape WOM in the complex manner depicted by
established, less defined, and more complex cultural rela- the network coproduction model. In the remainder of this
tionships. These elements encompass and are related to the article, we explore the nature and implication of these net-
networked coproduction of marketing-related communica- works of narratives.
tions. Although we present these proposed elements before We recount in some detail the character narratives and
elaborating our findings, we derived them from an induc- types, communications forums, and communal orientation
tive, ground-up data analysis process. Figure 2 captures the and reception of four blogs from our data set on the
range of elements and their interactions. MobiTech–Buzzablog WOMM campaign. For confidential-
The WOM communication that is of interest to mar- ity, we have given the bloggers the pseudonyms “Frank,”
keters—a market-based message and its associated mean- “Alicia,” “Carrie,” and “Judith.” We offer each profile in
ings, as well as its reception by an intended audience—is depth to illustrate the complexity of the manifest phenome-
influenced by four important factors. First, it is affected by non, which encompasses WOM content and the communal
its placement within what we more broadly term communi- interactions resulting from the WOMM campaign. Each of
cator “character narratives,” or enduring personal stories or these four blogs exemplifies a particular narrative strategy
accounts that we may understand as being related to par- that is significant to marketing research and practice.
ticular expressed character types. Narratives vary, but there
are distinct archetypal patterns in how people offer perspec- Frank’s Blog: Seeking Social Connection and
tives that unfold over time. For example, a blogger may Offering Explanation
self-identify with the character of a loving mom, which Character narrative, forum, and communal orientation.
results in a narrative that stresses kindness, helpfulness, and According to his blog, Frank is a 27-year-old former broad-
caring. Others present a professional, critical, or clinical cast engineer in the midst of several significant life transi-
character, as might be seen in review blogs. Still others tions. He recently married and moved from his hometown
exemplify engaged community member types (e.g., politi- in the Midwest to his wife’s hometown in a major North-
cal bloggers, citizen journalists). Psychological guides to western city. Frank’s blog, a hybrid personal–technology
personality, such as the Myers-Briggs type indicators, might forum, becomes a way of “sorting out our new lives
usefully be employed to further specify the common com- together.” Frank had been unemployed for almost two years
ponents of these created character types. after moving and writes about finding his way around—and
Second, WOM communications take place while eventually into—new communities in the city.
embedded in a particular forum. The forum under investiga- As expressed on his blog, Frank’s character narrative
tion in the current research is the blog, but other WOM con- reveals goals of connecting with people and fitting in, as
texts might include dinner parties, bars, schools, or social well as a love of media, particularly radio. The two inter-
networking Web sites. There are different types of blog twine in his current project of settling into a new commu-
Character
Narrative
M me
s d
ng n
es a
ni e a
sa nin
ea g
ge gs
m ssa
an
e
M
d
Interpersonal Orientation of Communications
commercial-cultural tension
Evaluation Explanation
Communal Communications
Norms Forum
Embracing Endorsement
M me
Commercial–Cultural Tension
es a
s d
sa nin
ng n
ge gs
ni e a
an
ea g
m ssa
d
e
M
Marketing
Promotion
Elements
nity as he uses media (blogging, podcasting, and photogra- story on. In turn, those experiences can lead to more mate-
phy) as a vehicle to gain entry and status into the local net- rial to write about later. It’s an intriguing circle. (blog post
work of technophiles. For example, Frank uses his wife’s June 12, 2007)
(she is also a blogger seeded in the phone campaign) mem-
bership in “Metblogs,” a community-based club of blog- The WOMM campaign. Frank’s participation in the
gers, and his common interest in blogging and technology WOMM campaign comes relatively soon after he begins to
to forge relationships in his adopted city. This use of online adjust to his new city and provides a vehicle for building
communities to forge offline relationships is common (USC affiliation. Aside from its functional and economic value,
Annenberg School 2008). Over time, Frank begins attend- the WOMM campaign has what Cova (1997) terms “linking
ing in-person Metblog “meet ups” and writes: value,” facilitating Frank’s integration into his new commu-
nity. For example, the first of ten postings that refer to the
[Through blogging], I have been able to meet some really
seeded product is titled, “I’m one of those Buzzablog lucky
great people and develop friendships that are building into
a community like I have never experienced before. We all ones” (blog post July 16, 2006), underscoring the affiliation
do our own thing and when you actually meetup [sic], you and connection emphasized in his blog. Note that Frank
already have something to talk about and expand the back identifies campaign participants with the name of the
Networked Narratives / 75
WOMM firm rather than the product, minimizing the It is noteworthy that Brian uses the word “bribe” (twice)
importance of the phone itself as an object of focus and as well as the phrase “I can be bought.” In addition to high-
value. lighting and thus, in some sense, discharging moral conflict,
Having asserted membership in the local blogging com- the term confirms the significance of his awareness that he
munity by identifying himself as “one of them,” when is simultaneously a target and a marketer. In the discussion
Frank experiences ambivalence about participating in the of the “price” of receiving a free phone—framed by a pop
WOMM campaign, it is not surprising that he then seeks culture reference to infomercials (“the following is a paid
explicit affirmation that he is conforming to communal endorsement”)—and use of the ethically loaded term
norms. Frank interviews several members of “Metblogs” “bribe” to surface the tension, Brian signals that he is not
for a podcast and, in particular, confers with a member naive about the objective of the WOMM campaign and that
(“Brian”) who has also received a MobiTech phone in this he wants his online and in-person audience to read his com-
WOMM campaign. The tone of the podcast ranges from ments as infused with irony. Outing the marketers’ motiva-
humorous to ironic to uncomfortable: tion and even inviting more of the same, he confidently
announces his knowledge of persuasion tactics and simulta-
Frank: I was going to ask you, I just saw you pull your neously asserts agency in accepting them (e.g., Friestad and
nice MobiTech out there …
Wright 1994).
Brian: [interrupting] the following is a paid endorsement! Congruent with his narrative theme of gaining accep-
tance, Frank uses his participation in the WOMM campaign
Frank: [feigning surprise] you’re being paid for this? as a form of social capital. A few days after making initial
remarks about the phone, Frank leverages the podcast as
Brian: Well, not being paid, but bribed for certain, evidence that he is now not only friendly with other, higher-
umm…. MobiTech, through their viral marketing partner status bloggers but also performing a service for the wider
Buzzablog and in association with [wireless mobile com- technical blogging community. In a post forthrightly titled
pany], have basically had sort of an aid shipment of “Addressing the Buzzablog Issue,” Frank confronts the ten-
phones for bloggers and it’s a great concept. Basically, sion, in part by demonstrating his awareness of the mechan-
they send phones to bloggers in the hopes that they’ll ics of WOMM:
bribe them, er, in the hopes that the bloggers will talk
about the phones on their websites. All I can say is that I So how do I feel about doing this? There is a part of my
think this is an excellent marketing proposition; I’m really soul that feels like there is some selling out going on here,
hoping that Audi gets behind this idea as well, ‘cause A3 but I like being someone who can be a part of reviewing a
2.8 S-Line, I am all there, right? But yeah, it’s a perfectly product and actually do it with some honesty.... [I]t’s not
acceptable phone, I don’t want to give a capsule review,… the absolutely, greatest phone that beats out anything else
[opines on phone and future technology]. out there that you could buy. It’s also far from being the
worst.... Word of mouth. That’s what this is. It’s not over-
Frank: Right (laughing). And I too was contacted by the paid actors telling you that they use this phone; it’s the
same viral company.… What do you feel about the whole best and you should, too. I’m just a guy who blogs among
process in general? Do you feel like you were spammed the community of other bloggers with connections to the
into this and also, how do you feel about doing this on city of [name]…. In fact, did you listen to the last episode
your blog, because obviously I’m doing it on my podcast, of my podcast? I had a chance to meet a fellow blogger
so I don’t have too much of a problem with this, but…. who got the same deal and it was quite possibly some of
the best content to come from the podcast yet, even if it
did promote a product. But ask yourself, would you rather
Brian: I want to make this entirely clear right now. Atten- listen to us wise crack about this MobiTech or have some
tion corporate marketers: if you want to give me high paid actor or actress speak at you? It feels good to
$300–$500 worth of free stuff, my number is: [later know that there are people out there trying to break from
scrambled out in editing]. I will take your call at any time the static model mass media uses for advertising. (blog
of the day. I can be bought and I am relatively cheap.… post July 26, 2006)
Maybe I should just put my e-mail account in there
instead. Attention marketers: my e-mail address is Frank’s posting reveals a constant tacking between ethi-
[address]. I can be bought and I’m cheap! cal perspectives as he tries to argue for his legitimacy and
concern for the community, emphasizing his “honesty” in
Frank: Especially if you have any MP3 recording equip- both praising and criticizing the phone. The post expresses
ment, that’s what I’d like to see. Please. Thank you.
discomfort at “selling out” and guilt over collusion with
[Restates URL address for his podcast so donors can find
him.] marketers. Frank tries to impression manage his role, fram-
ing himself not as a marketer’s puppet or an “overpaid
Note that Frank joins his interviewee in speaking actor,” but instead as a bona fide member of his adopted
directly to marketers. This is an important action, for in that community (“I’m just a guy who blogs among the commu-
moment, not only has he moved from citizen journalist to nity of other bloggers”). Actively seeking to persuade his
fellow blogger, but he has also publicly considered the audience that his participation in the WOMM campaign not
potential conflict triggered by participation in the campaign only was worthy of communal sanction but also could be
and received approbation from his referent community. The beneficial, Frank presents himself as more faithful to the
podcast audio also indicated that other people were gathered community’s interests than to those of the marketers. The
around, laughing, and calling out comments or suggestions. post inspires two positive comments, both from community
Networked Narratives / 77
TABLE 1
Supplementary Blogger Data
Evaluation Explanation Embracing Endorsement
Orientation: Communal Orientation: Communal Orientation: Individual Orientation: Individual
Tension: Implicit Tension: Explicit Tension: Implicit Tension: Explicit
Joseph: If any of you have Randy: [post title: “I won’t be Franklin: I went to see The Shane: Mobitech is doing a
noticed the flickr stream now Mobitech’s Bitch”] This is Corporation;… it was an new buzz word-of-mouth pro-
on this page to the right, the cool: Mobitech’s going to be interesting, thought provoking motion giving their phones
pictures there were taken sending me a fancy free (not movie. But one section res- out to bloggers in the hopes
from a Mobitech 3839 that I fancy-free) cell phone soon, onated with me in ways I’m they’ll spread the word online
just received yesterday. [does because I have the POWER sure the movie’s makers did and talking to friends, posting
not mention how he received of BLOGGING at my finger- not intend. There was a long photos and videos taken with
the phone] … I have to say tips. They called, got my segment about how advertis- the cellphone. I’m thankful I
that my first impressions with name from somewhere I ers were finding insidious met the criteria and it worked
this device are pretty good so guess and a nice woman ways to get their product into out perfectly as I was just
far. I’ve been able to snap asked me a bunch of ques- your earshot.… And rather starting to look for a new
pictures and some decent tions about how often I blog than be disturbed by the phone as well. It’s all volun-
video, play mp3’s, have fun and what about and do I insidious (though some might tary, no obligation or con-
with Bluetooth.… I’ve only know how to use a telephone say: creative) paths corpora- tracts. I don’t have to do any
spent a day with it so far, but and so forth.… [M]e and 44 tions were taking to get their of this, but since I usually
there are some tiny things I other people ... will be getting products into the public con- write reviews like this any-
have to nitpick about.… Well, a MobiTech 3839 multimedia sciousness, my reaction was ways, I have no problem writ-
I look forward to messing smart phone.… Don’t worry, I quite different. My first ing a voluntary review as
around with this thing and won’t fill up the blog with all thought was: gee, how do I thanks for getting a phone
checking out all the possibili- sorts of shilling, toadying, get myself a piece of that and gear for free. And I’ll
ties. I’ll keep you posted with sycophantic things about action?… I’ve been blogging even be impartial about it.
more in-depth reviews and Mobitech, even though for four and a half years and I (blog post July 10, 2006)
posts about cool things you they’re being so nice to me. had to wonder, where was my
can do with this phone. No, for that to happen, they’d free stuff? When was Apple
Cheers! need to send me to [Mobitech going to contact me and ask
(blog post July 7, 2006) company headquarters]. Per- me to test out their new black
haps in August? Hello? MacBook? (hint, Apple, hint!).
(blog post June 23, 2006) Until today.
(blog post July 11, 2006)
Jasper: [first of an extensive, Sammy: People have been Svetlana: [post title: “Will Troy: [response to reader
multipart review] I got a new asking about … the whole Blog for Phones”] As a good comment about the film The
cellphone and I’m going to free phone gig and how I can marketing whore, because Corporation] Seen it? I saw it
talk about it to death. This is reconcile my code of ethics I’ve so had enough to give opening night in Ottawa and
the first part of a five part with blogging about products and never receive anything in my friends have the extended
series and I think this is the I receive for free.… I just return, you will see me post- DVD. Yup. Crazy marketing.
best review you’ll find the can’t seem to see the ethical ing pictures taken with this But I needed a cellphone.
MobiTech 3839 because quandary here: I’m not being phone, I may even do some Mine was dying, so the timing
unlike all those other gad- forced to say good things video, but don’t you think that is perfect. Either way, I write
get/phone reviewers, I will be about a product, or anything I am going to become the about RAID Cards ... so writ-
using this phone every day at all.… Bloggers do have the next Paris Hilton. ing about anything tech
for the next two years (unless potential to sway public opin- (blog post June 28, 2006) related that I own is normal
some other company wants ion (which is why I think Buz- for me. But yeah, it’s called
to give me one for free). zablog is working in a particu- guerilla marketing or some-
(blog post July 30, 2006) larly genius manner for the thing.... So where have you
Mobitech promotion…. been?
Accepting the new Mobitech (blog post August 24, 2006)
is not an ethical quandary at
all. It is instead a reflection of
a very smart strategy by
Buzzablog.
(blog post July 2, 2006)
Networked Narratives / 81
make you feel better by clicking on your renter.” Another suggestions for some conversion software I’d appreciate it”
commenter simply indicates sympathy by clicking as (blog post July 8, 2006).
directed: “BlogMad hit cha ching” (comments posted on Over time, as Judith’s sick leave continues, her blog
Judith’s blog June 28, 2006). becomes increasingly profitable. A year after the MobiTech
Although she establishes her character as a hardworking campaign, a blog post entitled “I’ve hit the 10,000 dollar
wife on sick leave trying to pay the bills, Judith has grown mark!” reports on her success. For new viewers of the blog,
her Web activity into a sophisticated cottage industry. Her the post contains a detailed explanation of her WOMM
12 editorial-style blogs offer regular columns, theme weeks, participation:
contests, and recurring features. Judith’s narrative reveals a I started doing paid blogging because I’ve been off work
growing astuteness, as she carefully monitors the blogs’ sta- since December 4th 2005 due to Crohn’s. I still have a job
tistics, promotes her sites to increase their traffic, and works as an ER nurse, but I’m unable to perform my duties
diligently to profit from them. The narrative also makes because I’m simply too ill.... I was getting sick pay and
clear that Judith views her blog as a product to develop and then medical unemployment for a while, but the money
a brand to maintain, a type of online magazine whose ran out by July 2006.... So last October, as our situation
started to become desperate I went searching for another
engaging content she develops with readers’ suggestions.
way to make money. Something that wouldn’t be too hard
The blog sells plenty of advertising; it is not uncommon to for me to do. I came across Payperpost and decided to try
see more than 25 advertisements surrounding and inter- it. Don’t get me wrong—it’s not easy work, but it’s cer-
jected into her postings. As does Alicia, she also accepts tainly easier than 12 hour ER nursing shift!... This year I
Payperpost assignments. really can see that I could make a living off my websites.
(blog post June 15, 2007)
The WOMM campaign. Judith begins her participation
in the Buzzablog campaign with a sophisticated teaser cam- This explanatory post garners 51 comments, all congrat-
paign that tempts her readers with a mystery, telling them ulatory. Judith’s personal narrative as a Sisyphean figure—
that she is about to receive something nice. The good news repeatedly making progress only to be overwhelmed by ill-
that she has been selected to receive a mystery product is ness or ill fate—is reflected in many of the comments,
added at the end of a post enumerating a challenging set of which frame her WOMM activity as heroic. For example, as
circumstances: Her Web site is hacked, she receives her first “Antonella” writes,
negative comment, and her television set has broken and Congrats! That is certainly a great accomplishment! My
requires an expensive repair. Reporting her good fortune in sister also has Crohn’s and is finally in remission after a
the context of an otherwise debilitating set of events is a couple years. It is great that you have been able to …
rhetorical device used frequently on this blog. It provides a make money while dealing with your health. Good luck
sense of drama to her character narrative and frames the with meeting your goals, I’m sure you won’t have any
perks she receives as relief rather than entitlement, as Carrie problem getting there and beyond! (blog comment August
13, 2007)
does. Similar to other blog content, the posting about the
phone is handled professionally, conceived the way a mar-
keter might design a campaign. Buzzablog and its offer are Summary of Findings
not dissected. Moral quandaries are not raised. The focus is As the WOMM campaign is incorporated into the publicly
squarely on the phone and its features. displayed character narratives of bloggers such as Frank,
When Judith’s blog reveals the product she has been Alicia, Carrie, and Judith, among others (see Table 1), we
given, it does so framed in the innocence of summer pas- find that a complex pattern emerges. The character narrative
times. As Judith and her husband stop for what is presented forms the backbone of blog content and contains the recol-
as a well-deserved ice-cream cone, she snaps a picture of lection, development, and representation of more short-term
the shop’s sign with her new phone. The sign reads, “May “life projects” and longer-term “life themes” (McCracken
all your days be ice cream days,” and in the 18 comments 1987; Mick and Buhl 1992; Schau and Gilly 2003) related
that result from the post, 16 mention the ice cream and only to lifelong goal pursuits that are commonly called “identity
2 mention the phone. The readers’ comments express projects” (e.g., Thompson 2005; Thompson and Tambyah
delight in her good fortune and share positive comments 1999).
about the phone. “May all your days be ice cream days too,” Each blog contains a particular history and perspective
starts one comment, continuing, “The phone sounds awe- in its character narrative; this narrative attracts a certain
some. I have a MobiTech 3839 that I adore. Enjoy” (blog audience and plays a part in setting the audience’s expecta-
comment July 8, 2006). tions. Importantly, in each case, the character narrative
Judith’s response to the phone is equanimous; for exam- transforms the substance and form of the WOMM cam-
ple, her excitement at being selected to receive the product paign. In addition, we observe explicit differences in the
is moderated by her description of the device as “newish.” way that members of the online communities respond to the
Similarly, she professes enthusiasm for the phone’s 1.3 WOMM campaign. This suggests that there is a larger dis-
megapixel built-in camera but then notes, “Ok so 1.3 course taking place about WOMM campaigns in general,
megapixels doesn’t compare to the latest digital cameras but including their rules and ethical implications.
I’ve found that it takes pretty good photos. I can also record We find that the bloggers and community members are
up to an hour of video if I want to…. The only problem is simultaneously flattered and threatened to be selected as
that the video is in 3GP.… If anyone could give me some WOMM campaign participants. Bloggers are faced with the
Networked Narratives / 83
FIGURE 3
Narrative Strategies for the Communal Reference Expression of WOMM
Evaluation Explanation
(e.g., Alicia, Joseph, Jasper) (e.g., Frank, Sammy, Randy)
Communication Strategies Communication Strategies
•Concealment: minimizes or avoids mention of •Disclosure: explicitly reveals WOMM campaign
WOMM campaign and their participation. and their participation.
•Product focus: focus on product itself, rather than •Awareness of cultural tension: explicitly signals
WOMM campaign. awareness of cultural tension between WOM
•Communal acknowledgment: proactively asserts marketing goals and community orientation.
Communal
communal orientation. •Communal acknowledgment: proactively asserts
•Leadership: asserts or affirms membership in the communal orientation.
community while positioning as safe or preferred •Leadership: asserts or affirms membership in the
information source. community while positioning as safe or preferred
Community Reaction information source.
•Negative regarding WOMM campaign, due to Community Reaction
avoidance of campaign's moral issues, dependent •Supportive or neutral regarding WOMM campaign.
on forum and communal norms. •Acceptance of opinion leader role, dependent on
•Hostility toward opinion leader role, dependent on forum and communal norms.
congruity with communicator narrative, forum and
Interpersonal norms.
Orientation of
Communications Embracing Endorsement
(e.g., Carrie, Franklin, Svetlana) (e.g., Judith, Troy, Shane)
Communication Strategies Communication Strategies
•Acceptance: consumer–marketer dual role •Disclosure: explicitly reveals WOMM campaign
enthusiastically adopted. and their participation.
•Justification: personal needs emphasized over •Awareness of cultural tension: explicitly signals
community needs, in terms of privilege or equity. awareness of cultural tension between WOM
•Professionalization: promotional marketing marketing goals and community orientation.
language and terms used; additional marketing •Justification: personal needs emphasized over
opportunities requested. community needs, in terms of privilege or equity.
Community Reaction •Professionalization: promotional marketing
Individualistic •Mixed, polarized responses. language and terms used; additional marketing
opportunities requested.
•Negative regarding WOMM campaign if not
related to prior forum content and communicator Community Reaction
narrative. •Tempered negative regarding WOMM campaign.
•Positive if communal norms, forum, and •Support for opinion leader role, dependent on
communicator narrative are congruent with whether narrative is deemed “deserving,” if
WOMM campaign. narrative integrates WOMM campaign, and if
•Resistance to opinion leader role, dependent on communal norms are supported.
congruity.
Commercial-
Implicit Cultural Explicit
Tension
Jasper, and Joseph, that we call evaluation. The evaluation reader–blogger tension. The community attempts to recon-
strategy deals with cultural anxiety by avoiding it; the cile the question of why one of its members would deem-
WOMM campaign is minimized through concealment, and phasize or obscure their other interests and may read the
attention is drawn to the good or service rather than to the source as having ulterior motives. This disparity, coupled
marketing campaign. This WOM strategy is aimed at retain- with the apparent incongruity of the blogger benefiting at
ing affiliation with bloggers’ audiences through acknowl- the individual level while professing a communal orienta-
edgment of their communities’ needs and goals. Communi- tion, can result in explicit hostility.
cators affirm their leadership position by attempting to Second, there is the “embracing” strategy, which is evi-
demonstrate that their information and opinions are trust- dent in the blogs of Carrie, Franklin, and Svetlana. Their
worthy. Yet, in ignoring the moral tension inherent in narratives also keep the cultural anxiety implicit, but they
WOMM, the evaluative strategy can backfire, generating mention the WOMM campaign and their participation in it,
Networked Narratives / 85
explicit commercialism, hard-sell offers result in more campaign, doing so at a time when this form of marketing
explanation and evaluation, while soft-sell, long-term was still novel and focusing our data collection almost
brand-building campaigns, such as funny, viral, or embed- exclusively on textual data rather than, for example, photo-
ded advertising created to be spread rapidly among large graphic, graphical, or audiovisual data. These limitations
numbers, inspire endorsing or embracing narratives (if any). also lead to opportunities. Research that examines the
Word-of-mouth marketing programs that overtly seek rec- WOMM phenomenon in different and new contexts, both
ommendations, mentions, or reviews may encourage narra- online and off, across, for example, social networking sites
tive responses using the evaluation strategy. and in-home parties, using combinations of advanced visual
and textual analysis, will help further our understanding and
guide our management of this increasingly important form
Theoretical Implications of marketing.
Consumers who communicate marketing messages to other
consumers were previously assumed to engage in this
behavior as a result of altruism or reciprocity or to attain Managerial Implications
higher status (Dichter 1966; Engel, Kegerreis, and Black- This research offers several practical suggestions for man-
well 1969; Gatignon and Robertson 1986). Our investiga- agers and marketers employing WOMM campaigns and
tion reveals something else. Motivations to participate in the techniques across all forums, not only online. Our major
bold new world of network coproduction of WOM are more findings question marketers’ fundamental assumptions
complex and culturally embedded, shaped by communal regarding WOM, represented by the common use of terms
interests and communicative orientations and charged with such as “amplification” to discuss marketing’s impact on
moral hazard. Along with previously identified factors, such WOM. Amplification assumes a simple quantitative
as personality and general communal involvement (Wang increase in frequency of an intact marketing message, simi-
and Fesenmaier 2003) or desire for social interaction or lar to increasing gross rating points on ad spending. Indeed,
economic incentives (Hennig-Thurau et al. 2004; Wang et as our interview with Buzzablog’s manager suggested, posi-
al. 2007), WOM communicators in our research demon- tive blogger mentions were interpreted as key indicators of
strate their need to balance inherent commercial–communal
the success of this campaign. However, our model suggests
tensions while being consistent with the character elements
that a particular WOMM promotion must be presented in a
of their ongoing narrative. These findings also question
manner that is congruent with the ongoing character narra-
Brown, Broderick, and Lee’s (2007) suggestion that a Web
tive, communications forum, and communal norms prevalent
site, rather than a person, is viewed as the primary actor in
in that WOM environment. This theory draws managerial
online WOM. Similar to Wang and colleagues’ (2007)
attention to the importance of working with a deep knowl-
online retailer avatars, relationships in blogging communi-
edge and awareness of the network coproduction of market-
ties are personal. However, as our research reveals, WOM
ing messages and meanings through consumer-generated
communicators who garner positive responses are not sim-
narratives.
ply personal, they are personal in a communally appropriate
manner. Measurement and classification of the different types of
Our findings generate several propositions for further character narratives and communications forums available
verification and testing. We find that WOMM messages and to marketers is a necessary first step to the implementation
their attendant meanings will be altered by communicators of this understanding. For example, we discussed several
in ways that are attuned to a range of different individual character narratives, providing a rudimentary classification
and communal factors. We determine that character narra- of blogger archetypes: the citizen journalist, the tell-it-like-
tives, communications forums, and communal norms are it-is mother, the satirical exhibitionist, the making-ends-
key elements interacting with the WOMM promotion to meet professional blogger, and so on. There are undoubt-
manifest particular forms of WOM narrative. This research edly many other character types that managers should
identifies four distinct strategic patterns that communicators explore, classify, and develop, not only across blogs or
use: evaluation, embracing, endorsement, and explanation. online communities but also across all media. Similarly, we
Our analysis of reader comments and responses suggests discussed communications forums as belonging to particu-
that a positive communal attitude toward a WOMM mes- lar types: the technology forum, the mommy forum, the
sage will be a function of the way that it (1) is consistent relationship forum, the personal life crisis forum, and so on.
with the goals, context, and history of the communicator’s Each of these forums responds to and fits into preexisting
character narrative and the communications forum, or media; narrative expectations on the part of the audience, while
(2) acknowledges and successfully discharges commercial– accommodating the need for complexity and variety
communal tensions or offers a strong reason an individual- through hybridized forms.
istic orientation is suitable; and (3) fits with the commu- Understanding and respecting communal norms is also
nity’s norms and is relevant to its objectives. important. Although this research focused on one particular
Word-of-mouth marketing operates through a complex dimension—the resistance and acceptance of commercial
process that transforms commercial information into cul- values—a range of other norms and values could be
tural stories relevant to the members of particular communi- explored, classified, and related to particular outcomes,
ties. This research explores this process in only one limited such as reciprocity, trust, or the role of authority. Depending
context (i.e., the online context) and for only one marketing on the context, including the product being marketed and
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