ANACHEM POST LAB  By adding HNO3 to the solution, the AgCl is

re-precipitated.
DISCUSSION

Group I Cations
Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+

Group Precipitant: HCl

Below are the solubility product constant of the

chloride precipitates:

PbCl2 Pb2+ + 2Cl- Ksp = 1.75 × 10-5

AgCl Ag+ + Cl- Ksp = 1.8 × 10-10

Group 2 Cation Analysis
Hg2Cl2 Hg22+ + 2C Ksp = 1.3 × 10-18
Pb2+, Hg2+, Bi3+, Cu2+, Cd2+, As3+,
2+
 The Pb is the only Group I cation that is Sb3+, Sn2+
soluble in hot water. (acid insoluble sulfides)
 PbCl2 can be easily separated from AgCl and Group Precipitant: H2S at pH range 2-5
Hg2Cl2 using hot water.
 Thioacetamide (CH3CSNH2), is generally
used to supply S2- to avoid the direct use
of the very toxic, odoriferous H2S gas.
Pb2+ + CrO42- → PbCrO4 yellow ppt  At pH < 3, thioacetamide hydrolyzes to
furnish H2S.
Separation of AgCl and Hg2Cl2

 By adding NH4OH to the solution, the AgCl

and Hg2Cl2 can be separated.

 Note: Even though Pb2+ ions are

precipitated and filtered off as PbCl2 in the
Group 1 analysis there may be enough
residual Pb2+ in solution to precipitate as
PbS.
 Confirmatory Tests

 
→

→


Group 3 Cation Analysis

Fe3+, Co2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Al3+, Cr3+

(precipitated as sulfides in ammoniacal solution

buffered with NH4Cl)

 

 


 Anion Analysis


 




 
 




Na3BO3 + 3H2SO4  Na2SO4 + 2H3BO3

H3BO3 + C2H5OH  B(OC2H5)3 + H2O


 Irreversible reaction

The reaction of sodium and chlorine is

Classifying Solutions of Electrolytes irreversible.

 Electrolytes form ions when dissolved in solvent 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)  2NaCl(s)

and thus produce solution that conducts
electricity. Irreversible reactions proceed to completion
and are represented by a single arrow:
- Strong electrolytes ionize almost completely.

- Weak electrolytes ionize only partially. Reversible reaction

CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTROLYTES The reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to form

ammonia is reversible.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

 Ammonia can also decompose to form

nitrogen and hydrogen. Reversible reactions
that can reach equilibria are represented by
two half arrows: ↔

 If a reversible reaction is carried out in a

closed container so that the reactants and
products cannot escape, a state of dynamic
equilibrium can be established
A+B C+D

It is an equilibrium because: the rates of the

forward and reverse reactions are the same
the net concentrations of the components of
the reaction mixture remain constant

 This graph illustrates the dynamic nature of

equilibrium. It shows that both the forward and
back reactions are taking place: they both have
non-zero rate. When their rates are equal,
equilibrium is reached.

If the reactants A and B are converted to products C
and D with the stoichiometry
aA + bB cC + dD
The equilibrium constant expression is written as:
 Where the small subscript letters denote
stoichiometric coefficients and each capital
letter stand for a chemical species. The symbol
[A] stands for concentration of A relative to its
standard state. We say that the reaction is
favored whenever K>1.
Standard state means:
 For solutes, the standard state is 1M
 For gases, the standard state is 1 bar
 For solids and liquids, the standard states
are the pure solid or liquid.
↔
 reactant and
product are in the same phases
 reactant
and product are in different phases
Le Châtelier’s
Principle
 When a chemical system at equilibrium is
disturbed, it reattains equilibrium by
undergoing a net reaction that reduces the
effect of the disturbance
 A system is disturbed when a change in
conditions forces it temporarily out of
equilibrium.
 The system responds to a disturbance by a
shift in the equilibrium position.
 A shift to the left is a net reaction from
product to reactant.
 A shift to the right is a net reaction from
reactant to product.
 A change in concentration has no effect on
the value of K.
• If a reactant is added, the equilibrium
position shifts to the right.
• If a product is added, the equilibrium
position shifts to the left.

 If a reactant is removed, the equilibrium
position shifts to the left.
 If a product is removed, the equilibrium
position shifts to the right.
Changes in pressure affect equilibrium systems
containing gaseous components.
• Changing the concentration of a gaseous
component causes the equilibrium to shift
accordingly.
• Adding an inert gas has no effect on the
equilibrium position, as long as the volume
does not change.
– This is because all concentrations and
partial pressures remain unchanged.
• Changing the volume of the reaction vessel will
cause equilibrium to shift if Dngas ≠ 0.
• Changes in pressure (volume) have no effect
on the value of K.
Plan: Whenever gases are present, a change in
volume causes a change in concentration. For
reactions in which the number of moles of gas
changes, a decrease in volume (pressure increase)
causes an equilibrium shift to lower the pressure by
producing fewer moles of gas. A volume increase
(pressure decrease) has the opposite effect.
SOLUTION:
(a) CO2 is the only gas present. To increase its yield,
we should increase the volume (decrease the
pressure).
(b) There are more moles of gaseous reactants than
products (Dngas > 0), so we should decrease the
volume (increase the pressure) to shift the
equilibrium to the right.
(c) The number of moles of gas is the same in both
the reactants and the products (Dngas = 0); therefore
a change in volume will have no effect.
 To determine the effect of a change in
temperature on equilibrium, heat is
considered a component of the system.
 Heat is a product in an exothermic reaction
(DH°rxn < 0).
 Heat is a reactant in an endothermic
reaction (DH°rxn > 0).
 An increase in temperature adds heat,
which favors the endothermic reaction.
 A decrease in temperature removes
heat, which favors the exothermic
reaction.
Plan: We write each equation to show heat as a
reactant or product. The temperature increases
when we add heat, so the system shifts to absorb
the heat; that is, the endothermic reaction is
favored. Thus, K will increase if the forward reaction
is endothermic and decrease if it is exothermic.
 + -
Arrhenius Form H ion in Form OH ion in
aqueous solution aqueous solution
+ +
Bronsted-Lowry Proton (H ) donor Proton(H ) acceptor
Lewis Electron pair acceptor Electron pair donor

1. A catalyst speeds up a reaction by lowering its

activation energy. A catalyst therefore speeds
up the forward and reverse reactions to the
same extent.
2. A catalyst causes a reaction to reach equilibrium
more quickly, but has no effect on the
equilibrium position.
 Type equation here.
+

pH = -log [H ]
 The conjugate base of a strong acid has
no measurable strength.
 H3O+ is the strongest acid that can exist
in aqueous solution.
 The OH- ion is the strongest base that
can exist in aqeous solution.
•