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ASM Ready Reference: Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Metals Data Book (#06333G)

Part 1
Electrical Properties
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Ready Reference: Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Metals Data Book (#06333G)
Chapter 1
Introduction to Electrical Properties
ONE OF THE PRIME CHARACTERIS-
TICS of a material that distinguishes it as a
metal is its ability to conduct heat and electric-
ity. A majority of the elements are classified as
metals. These elements are found on the left
side of the periodic table (Fig. 1.1).
The elements on the border, such as carbon,
have metal-like and nonmetal-like properties.
Graphite and graphite composites have been in-
cluded in this book because of their significant
roles as contact materials.
Metallic atoms tend to lose electrons in their
outer shell, so the substance can be thought to
exist as a matrix of positive ions in an electron
gas. These free electrons have the ability to
move in an ordered manner, which we perceive
as an electrical current. The greater the mean
free path of the electrons is, the more conduc-
tive the substance will be. An increase in the
motion of the atoms is indicated by its tempera-
ture increase. Typically, metallic solids have a
diminished ability to carry current as their tem-
perature increases. Their resistance is said to
have increased. In this book, conductance and
resistance refer to the electrical conductance
and resistance, unless specifically stated as
thermal resistance and thermal conductance.
The tables in Part 1 use the following units:
International
Standard (SI) Customary
Property Abbreviation unit unit
Volume conductivity σv 106 /m %IACS
Weight conductivity σw S · m2/g Ω · mile2/lb,
%IACSweight
Volume resistivity ρv µΩ · m Ω circular-mil/ft
Weight resistivity ρw Ωg/m2 Ω lb/mile2
Thermal coefficient ∆ρ/ρ °C–1 °F–1
of resistivity
Definitions
Circular Mil. As round wire was so impor-
tant to the electrical and communications in-
dustries at their inception, it is natural that units
reflecting them were adopted in the customary
system. Because the radial dimension of a wire
is much smaller than its axial dimension,
unit of resistivity used the circular mil to
press the cross-sectional area and feet to
press length.
A circular mil is the area of a circle 1
(0.001 in.) in diameter (d). This area is:
1 circular mil = πr2 = π(0.001/2)2 = 7.854 × 10–7 in.2
where the radius (r) = d/2.
Circular mils were considered convenient
because the area in circular mils equals the
square of the diameter in mils.
Conductance (G) is defined as the recipro-
cal of resistance: G = 1/R.
The reciprocal of an ohm (Ω) had been called
a mho, but is now called a siemen (S). A specimen
with 1 Ω resistance has a conductance of 1 S.
Conductivity. All readers of this book have
the concept of what resistivity and conductivity
are. Resistivity and conductivity are inverses of
each other. Definitions of such basic terms tend
to be self reflexive, often using the terms of re-
sistance and impedance in the definition. Mate-
rial conductivity is a factor such that the con-
duction-current density is equal to the
electric-field intensity in the material multi-
plied by the conductivity (Ref 1).
Implicit in this definition is the fact that ma-
terial conductivity is a property of the material
itself; it is a constant multiplier relating the
electric field (voltage) to the current density
(current per unit area), and it is independent of
the shape of the material.
The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity:
γ = 1/ρ
The conductivity, as with resistivity, can be ei-
ther volume or weight based. The preferred SI
units of conductivity are 106 S/m. In customary
units, the conductivity of a metal is commonly
compared with that of the International An-
nealed Copper Standard (%IACS), and its con-
ductivity is then expressed as %IACS (Ref 2).
This comparison is made at 20 °C (68 °F).
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the Conductivity, ac. For time-varying electric
ex- fields, the current will vary as well. The ability
ex- of materials to conduct alternating current (ac)
is dependent on the frequency of that current,
mil the shape of the conductor, and its proximity to
other conductors. In this book, the conductivity
and resistivity are non-time-varying direct cur-
rent (dc).
An ohm (Ω) is the unit of resistance (and im-
pedance) in the SI system and the customary
system such that a conductor with 1 Ω resis-
tance and a constant current of 1 ampere (A)
will have a potential of 1 V between its ends.
Resistance is the more tangible unit than resis-
tivity. Resistance can be measured in ohms di-
rectly with instruments. It is also what is ob-
servable through physical effects such as the
temperature rise of the conductor or voltage
drop through the conductor.
%IACS. In customary units, the conductivity
of a metal is commonly compared with that of
the IACS (100% soft copper), and its conduc-
tivity is then expressed as %IACS (Ref 2). This
comparison is made at 20 °C (68 °F). A 100.0%
conductivity sample has a resistivity of
0.017241 µΩ · m (10.371 Ω circular-mil/ft) at
20 °C (68 °F).
Resistivity is an intrinsic property of the ma-
terial itself, independent of the size and shape
of the conductor. The resistivity can be ex-
pressed on a volume basis or a weight (mass)
basis. This allows for a direct comparison of
materials.
Resistivity, Volume. In ASTM B 193-95,
“Standard Test Method for Resistivity of Elec-
trical Conductor Materials” (Ref 3), resistivity
is defined as the electrical resistance of a body
of unit length and unit cross-sectional area or
unit weight.
Resistance is expressed in ohms (Ω). Vol-
ume resistivity is expressed in ohms for a
theoretical conductor of unit length and cross-
sectional area, in units of Ω · mm2/m in SI units,
and in Ω circular-mil/ft in customary units:
ρv = (A/L)R (Eq 1.1)
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org
ASM Ready Reference: Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Metals Data Book (#06333G)
4 / Electrical Properties

Periodic table of the elements

Fig. 1.1
© 2000 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.
ASM Ready Reference: Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Metals Data Book (#06333G)
where ρv is volume resistivity, A is the unit
cross section, L is the unit length, and R is the
resistance in ohms.
The units of length squared over length can be
simplified so the volume resistivity is expressed
as Ω · mm2/m equals 10–6 Ωm or µΩ · m in the
SI system.
An expression of resistivity that is sometimes
encountered is Ω or µΩ of a cubic centimeter,
abbreviated as Ω/cm3. It actually represents a
cube of the material having edges 1 cm long. The
cross-sectional area of the cube face is 1 cm2.
An electrical potential (V) is set up between
two opposite faces. The resistance is measured
across the 1 cm length so the resistivity is:
ρv = (A/L)R
ρv = (1 cm2/1 cm)Ω
ρv = cm ⋅ Ω = 0.01 mΩ
Resistivity, Weight. Weight resistivity (ρw)
can be expressed as:
ρw = (W/L1L2)R (Eq 1.2)
where W is weight (or mass) of the test speci-
men in grams for SI and pounds for customary
units; L1 is the gage length used to determine
the resistance, R, in meters or miles; L2 is the
specimen length in meters or miles; and R is the
resistance in ohms.
For weight resistivity, it was natural to think
in terms of the pounds of metal per mile of ca-
ble, so the units are Ω lb/mile2 (Ref 2). This leads
to a large difference between the magnitude of
the values in the SI and customary systems.
Weight resistivity is useful to compare mate-
rials for applications where weight is a factor,
such as transmission lines and in aircraft.
The thermal coefficient of resistivity (α)
given in the tables is defined as the slope or
fractional change in resistivity per unit change
in temperature:
α = ∆ρ/ρ per °C or °F
The units of α are °C–1 in the SI system and
°F–1 in the alternate system.
The values of the thermal coefficient (αA)
can be used to determine the resistivity (ρB) of
a material at temperature TB, given the resistiv-
ity (ρA) at temperature TA using the formula:
ρB = ρA [1 + αA (TB – TA)]
The thermal coefficient (αA) is defined over a
temperature range for which the linear approxi-
mation is valid. Care must be taken not to use a
value of a thermal coefficient beyond its region
of validity.
Using Volume Resistivity Values to Deter-
mine Resistance. The volume resistivity values
found in the tables can be used to find the resis-
tance of an object with known volume in the
following manner. Solving Eq 1.1 for R:
R = (L/A)ρv
Following are two examples of determining re-
sistance:
• Example 1. Given a 9 m length of wire with 2
mm2 cross-sectional area, for a material at
20 °C with ρ = 0.05 Ωm, the resistance at 20
°C is:
R = [(9 m)/(2 mm2 · 10–6 m2/mm2)] · 0.05 µΩ · m
Using unit analysis, the length units cancel
and
R = 0.225 Ω
• Example 2. Given a 12 gage wire (80.81 mils
diam and 6530 circular-mil area), 50 ft long,
made of a material with ρ = 50 Ω circu-
lar-mil/ft at 68 °F, the resistance can be esti-
mated as:
R = (50 ft/6530 circular-mil) · 50 Ω circular-mil/ft
R = 0.383 Ω
Since ρ and the length are known to only one
significant figure, R = 0.4 Ω is sufficiently ac-
curate.
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Introduction to Electrical Properties / 5
Common wire gages and areas are given in
Table A.3 in the Appendix.
Note that these are dc resistances at specific
temperatures. Alternating current resistances
depend on the geometry of the conductor, prox-
imity to other conductors, and the frequency of
the alternating current. This book focuses on
materials properties; an engineering textbook
should be consulted for ac resistances.
The data tables are constructed starting with
the units as given by the source. If the source
units correspond to the units presented previ-
ously, the qualifier of the source, if given, is
noted behind the value. If a conversion more
complex than a change in the power of 10 was
needed, the value is followed by a “d” to indi-
cate that the value was derived from the source
in addition to any other qualifier. In the tables,
conductivities have been derived from sources
where only the resistivity is given. The reverse
has not been done; that is, resistivity has not
been derived from conductivity.
Another temperature coefficient of resistance
is found in literature that has units of Ω per
degree K or R. This allows for the resistance
to be found by multiplying the factor by the
absolute temperature. Again, the factor is
given for a particular temperature or tempera-
ture range. This coefficient is not reported in
this book. Checking the units of the coeffi-
cients will ensure that the desired coefficient is
being used.
REFERENCES
1. IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and
Electronic Terms, Std 100-1977, American
National Standards Institute/Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(ANSI/IEEE), 1977
2. ASM Ready Reference: Properties & Units
for Engineering Alloys, ASM International,
1997, p 100
3. “Standard Test Method for Resistivity of
Electrical Conductor Materials,” B 193-95,
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM,
1995
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