TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES QUEZON CITY

DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL

CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY
- The recycling of carbon dioxide is a climate
regulator because carbon dioxide and other
Geology – from Greek word geo and logos, is gases, allow sunlight to pass through
defined as the study of the earth, but now must also them but they trap the heat reflected back
include the study of the planets and the moons in our from earth’s surface
solar system. - This “retention” of heat is called the
greenhouse effect
TWO TYPES OF DISCIPLINE IN GEOLOGY - Greenhouse effect results to an increase
of temperature that results in global
Physical Geology – it is the study of earth materials
warming
such as minerals and rocks as well as the processes
operating within earth and on its surface THREE CONCENTRIC LAYERS

Historical Geology – It examines the origin and Crust – Outermost layer of the earth
evolution of earth, its continent, oceans, atmosphere,
Mantle – The mantle is the second layer of the earth.
and life.
It is the biggest and takes up 84 percent of the earth.
FOUR SUBSYSTEMS OF EARTH
Core – is the innermost part of the earth, comprised
1. Atmosphere of the inner core, at the center of the earth, made of
2. Biosphere iron and the outer core, which surrounds the inner
3. Hydrosphere core, made of iron and magma
4. Lithosphere
Plate Tectonic Theory – it is the theory that Earth’s
THE PROBLEM OF OVERPOPULATION DIFFERS outer shell is divided into several plates that glide
FROM COUNTRY TO COUNTRY over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core.
1. For poor non-industrial countries – the COMPOSITIONAL LAYERS
problem is many people cannot have
enough food. - CRUST
2. For developed and industrial countries – - MANTLE
the problem is many people abuses the - CORE
renewable and nonrenewable resources
they have. MECHANICAL LAYER
3. For most industrially developed
- LITHOSPHERE
countries- the problem is people produced
- ASTHENOSPHERE
more pollutants
- MESOSPHERE
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING - OUTER CORE
- INNER CORE
- Carbon Dioxide is a component of global
ecosystem and constantly being recycled as ALFRED WEGENER
part of carbon cycle
- German meteorologist and geophysicist who
- The increase in carbon dioxide levels has a
formulated the first complete statement of
role in the greenhouse effect
the continental drift hypothesis.
- PANGEA / PANGAEA
*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
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DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
o Laurasia & Gondwana
o Pangea – “ALL LANDS”
THREE TYPES OF PLATE TECTONIC
BOUNDARIES
Convergent Boundary – is a type of boundary where
two plates meet together and start to push against
one another
1. Oceanic–oceanic plate boundary – an
oceanic trench forms where one oceanic
plate is sub-ducted beneath another
2. Oceanic-continental plate boundary –
when an oceanic plate is subducted beneath
a continental plate and andesitic volcanic
mountain range is formed.
3. Continental-continental plate boundary –
when two continental plates converge,
neither is subducted because of their great
thickness and low equal densities.
Divergent Boundary – Are locations where plates
are moving away from one another.
Transform Boundary – are places where plates slide
sideways past each other. At transform boundaries
lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed.
EVIDENCE FOR CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
1. Continental Fit
2. Similarity of Rock Sequences and Mountain
Ranges
3. Glacial Evidence
4. Fossil Evidence
FEATURES OF THE SEA
Continental Shelf - is geologically part of the
continental crust
Continental Slope – The slope between the outer
edge of the continental shelf and the deep ocean floor
Continental Rise – is an underwater feature found
between the continental slope and the abyssal plain
*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
Abyssal Plain – flat surface covering vast area of
sea floor
Oceanic Trench – are hemispheric-scale long but
narrow topographic depressions of the sea floor
Volcanic Island – is a solitary mountain formed by
volcanic activity
Submarine Ridge – an elongated steep-sided
elevation of ocean and sea floors
Trench – they also are the deepest parts of the
ocean floor
Igneous rock – The name igneous comes from the
latin word ignis which means fire. It is a rock that has
formed from cooling and solidification of magma or
lava.
TWO TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
1. Intrusive igneous rock (Plutonic igneous
rock) – form when magma cools slowly
below the Earth’s surface. Allows large
crystals to form.
2. Extrusive igneous rock (Volcanic igneous
rock) – form when lava cools quickly on
Earth’s surface. They form small crystals.
Pluton - is a body of intrusive igneous rock also
called a plutonic rock that is crystallized from magma
slowly cooling below the surface of the Earth.
Pluton can be:
 Concordant – they have boundaries that
parallel the layering in the country rock
 Discordant – with boundaries that cut
across the country rocks layering
Pyroclastic Materials – a sedimentary clastic rock
composed solely or primarily volcanic material which
is ejected from volcanoes during explosive eruptions.
Another name for a cloud ash.
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DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY
Silicates – most abundant mineral on the Earth’s Dikes – are a type of later vertical rock between older
surface. layers of rock.

TYPES OF MAGMA ACCORDING TO Silis – is a tabular sheet intrusion that has intruded
CONSTITUENTS between older layers of sedimentary rock, beds of
volcanic lava or tuff, or along the direction of foliation
1. FELSIC = >65% Silica in metamorphic rock and are Concordant.
2. INTERMEDIATE = 53% - 65% Silica
3. MAFIC = 45% - 52% Silica Laccolith – has a flat floor domed in its central part,
4. ULTRAMAFIC = <45% giving it a mushroom like.
Viscosity – resistance to flow Volcanic Pipe – connects to an underlying magma
Note: Water’s viscosity is very low that is why it flows chamber. Magma rises through this structure.
so easily. Volcanic Neck – or lava neck, created when magma
Magma – the molten rock material that originates hardens within a vent on an active volcano.
under the Earth’s crust and forms igneous rock when Batholith – comes from Greek work bathos - depth
it has cooled.
and lithos - work
Magma chambers – it is the underground space Stocks – have a discordant relationship with the
usually deep below the earth’s surface occupied by
rocks that it intrudes
magma that may ascend from it to or toward the
surface. Volcano – a volcano on earth is a vent or fissure in
the plane crust through which lava, ash, rock and
Lava – The term lava is also used for the solidified
gases erupt.
rock formed by the cooling of a molten lava flow
THREE REASON WHY MAGMA MIGHT RISE AND
Bowen’s Reaction Series – this consists of a
CAUSE ERUPTIONS ONTO EARTH’S SURFACE
discontinuous branch along which a succession of
ferromagnesian silicates crystalizes as the magma’s 1. Tectonic plates slowly move away from each
temperature decreases and the continuous branch other
along which plagioclase feldspars with increasing 2. Tectonic plates move toward each other
amount of sodium crystalize. 3. Through hotspots

Geothermal gradient – is the rate of increasing Volcanism – is any various processes and
temperature with respect increasing depth in the phenomena associated with the surficial discharge of
Earth’s interior. molten rock, pyroclastic fragments or hot water and
steam including volcanoes.
Mantle plumes – are areas of hot upwelling mantle.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
Hot spot – develops above the plume. Hot spots are
places within the mantle where rocks melt to generate 1. Shield Volcano – shield volcanoes are the
magma. largest volcanoes in terms of volume and in
diameter. They are built almost entirely of
fluid lava flows.
*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
 TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES QUEZON CITY
DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
2. Cinder Cones – is a steep sided conical
volcano characterized by loose rock
fragments from eruptions. They are formed
by the accumulation of small particles of
lava.
3. Composite Volcano
(STRATOVOLCANOES) – a composite
volcano forms in subduction zones when a
crustal plate is forced into the mantle and
begins to melt.
4. Lava Domes – Lava domes are formed by
relatively small bulbous masses of lava too
viscous to flow any great distance
consequently or extrusion, the lava piles
over and around its vent.
5. Super volcano eruptions – a super volcano
is a large volcano that has had an eruption
with a volcanic explosivity index of 8, the
largest recorded value on the index.
Fissure Eruption – it is a linear volcanic vent through
lava erupts.
Basalt Plateaus – are plateaus that formed from the
fissure eruption. It is formed from the accumulation of
basaltic rocks.
Pyroclastic Sheet Deposit – the rocks formed due to
pyroclastic flows. Erupted from long fissures rather
than from a central vent.
Volcanic Belt – is a large volcanically active region.
Most of the world’s active volcanoes are in zones or
belts.
1. Circum-Pacific Belt (Ring of fire) – it has
more than 60% of all active volcanoes.
2. Mediterranean Belt – about 20% of all
volcanism takes place in this belt. Famous
Italian volcanoes located in this belt are
Mount Etna and Vesuvius and the Greek
Volcano Santorini.
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) - is a relative
measure of the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions.
*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
Tiltmeters – to detect changes in the slopes of a
volcano, as It inflates when magma rises beneath it.
Geodimeter – is used to measure horizontal
distances using a laser beam.
Volcanic Tremor ( harmonic tremor ) – is a
continuous seismic signal that lasts minutes todays
in duration and is observed during volcanic eruptions
or sometimes independently.
Sediment - is any solid that settles to the bottom of a
liquid
1. Detrital Sediment – solid particles derived
by weathering of preexisting rock
2. Chemical Sediment - solid particles that
precipitate from solution or that are extracted
from solution by organisms.
Sedimentary Rock - by definition are composed of
sediment
GEOLOGIC AGENTS
Glaciers - are moving solids and thus can transport
sediment of any size
Wind - transports only sand and smaller particles
Waves & Marine currents – along shorelines it
accomplish much of the work of sediment transport
and deposition.
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
1. CONTINENTAL ( On the land )
2. TRANSITIONAL (on or near seashores )
3. MARINE ( in the sea )
Lithification - The process where aggregates of
particles are converted into sedimentary rock. Which
involves compaction and cementation.
 Compaction-the squeezing together of
layers of sediment due to the great weight of
overlying layers of rock.
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 Cementation-the process in which
sediments are glued together by minerals
that are deposited by water
Detrital Sedimentary Rock - These rocks are made
up of gravel, sand, silt, and clay sized particles
derived from parent material.
Biochemical Sedimentary Rock – organisms play a
role in turning the ions into sediment.
Chemical Sedimentary Rock - the process is
inorganic, often resulting from a body of water
evaporating and concentrating the ions.
Sedimentary Facies - bodies of sediment each
possessing distinctive physical, chemical, and
biological attributes.
THREE SEDIMENTARY FACIES
1. Sand Facies
2. Mud Facies
3. Carbonate Facies
Marine Transgression- as sea level rises, the
shoreline moves inland, and the depositional
environments parallel to the shoreline migrate
landward.
Marine Regression – if sea level falls with respect to
a continent, the shoreline and environments that
parallel the shoreline move seaward.
Sedimentary structures - Physical and biological
processes operating in depositional environments are
responsible for a variety of features.
Cross-bedding - sedimentary rocks possess this,
layers are arranged at an angle to the surface on
which they are deposited.
Graded bedding - sedimentary rock layers show an
upward decrease in grain size.
*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
turbidity currents - which are underwater flows of
sediment and water that have a greater density then
sediment-free water.
Turbidity Currents and the Origin of Graded
Bedding
Ripple marks - small-scale alternating ridges and
throughs. It is common on the surfaces of some bed,
especially on layers of sand.
Wave-formed ripple marks - have a symmetrical
profiles, and as their name implies, are generated by
the to and fro motion of waves. They most commonly
form in the shallow waters near seashores or
lakeshores.
Current and Water-formed Ripple marks
Mud cracks - when clay-rich sediments dries, it shrinks
and develops intersectiong fractures
Fossils – Remains and Traces of Ancient Life
- the remains or traces of ancient organisms,
are interesting as evidence of prehistoric life,
and are also important for determining
depositional environments
Microfossils - are particularly useful for environmental
interpretation because hundreds
TYPES OF FOSSILS
Body Fossils - are the fossilized remains of an
animal or plant, like bones, shells and leaves.
Molds and Casts Fossils
- A mold is an imprint left by the shell of a
hard skeleton on surrounding rock.
- A cast is replica of molds, and are made
when molds are filled with sediments
Petrification Fossils - Are fossils that are formed
when minerals replace the structure of an organism.
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DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
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Footprints and Trackways Fossils
- Are trails and burrows through mud that
harden and became fossils.
- This give information about how animals
behaved when they were alive, such as how
they moved and how and where they fed.
Fossilization - Is the process by which a plant or
animal becomes a fossil.
METHODS OF FOSSILIZATION
Structural trap - is a type of geological trap that
forms as a result of changes in the structure of the
subsurface, due to tectonic, diapiric, gravitational and
compaction processes. These changes block the
upward migration of hydrocarbons and can lead to the
formation of a petroleum reservoir.
Structural traps - are the most important type of trap
as they represent the majority of the world’s
discovered petroleum resources. The three basic
forms of structural traps are the anticline trap, the
fault trap and the salt dome trap.

Unaltered preservation - happens when insect or
plant parts are trapped in amber
Permineralization or petrification - Occurs when
rock-like minerals seep in slowly and replace the
original organic tissues with silica, calcite or pyrite,
forming a rock-like fossil.
Anticlinal (fold) Trap - An anticline is an area of the
subsurface where the strata have been pushed into
forming a domed shape.
Fault Trap - This trap is formed by the movement of
permeable and impermeable layers of rock along a
fault line.

Carbonization or coalification - in which only the
carbon remains in the specimen and other elements,
like hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are removed.
State Fossils - During the 1980s American states
started to designate one fossilized species to theirs
state.
Salt Dome Trap - Masses of salt are pushed up
through clastic rocks due to their greater buoyancy,
eventually breaking through and rising towards the
surface (see salt dome).
Tar sand is a type of sandstone in which viscous,
asphalt-like hydrocarbons fill the pore spaces.

TWO TYPES OF PETROLEUM TRAPS

Stratigraphic traps are formed as a result of lateral
and vertical variations in the thickness, texture,
porosity or lithology of the reservoir rock.
Primary - stratigraphic traps result from variations in
facies that developed during sedimentation.
Secondary - stratigraphic traps result from variations
that developed after sedimentation, mainly because
of diagenesis.
Metamorphic Rock – from the Greek word meta
means “change” and mopho means “shape”.
Metamorphism – it arises from the transformation of
existing rock type.
Asbestos – is a mineral composed of thin needle like
fibers used in many products because of its
resistance to heat.

Paleogeomorphic traps - are controlled by buried TYPES OF ASBESTOS

landscape. Some are associated with prominences
(hills); others with depressions (valleys).
*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
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DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
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GEOLOGY
Serpentine Asbestos – chrysolite is the fibrous Metamorphic Grade – metamorphic grade is a term
form of serpentine asbestos and the most commonly that characterizes the degree to which a rock has
used in buildings and other structures. undergone metamorphic change.

Amphibole Asbestos – Crocidolite also known as METAMORPHIC ROCKS ARE DIVIDED IN TO TWO
the blue asbestos, was commonly used to insulate
steam engines used in pipe insulation.
Foliated Metamorphic Rock – rocks subjected to
heat and differential pressure during metamorphism.
AGENT OF METAMORPHISM

 Fine Grained Foliated Rocks – low grade

1. HEAT
2. PRESSURE
i. Lithostatic pressure – is the pressure
exerted on a layer of soil or rock under
the surface of the earth due to the sum
of atmospheric pressure at the surface
and the weight of the material above the
layer of the interest.
3. FLUID ACTIVITY
metamorphic rocks, such as slate, have
finely foliated texture.
 Coarse Grained Foliated Rocks – High-
grade foliated rocks, such as gneiss, are
coarse-grained.
Non – foliated Metamorphic Rock – these rocks
consists of a mosaic of roughly equidimensional
minerals.

THREE TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

1. Contact Metamorphism – also called as

“Thermal Metamorphism”. It takes place
when a body of magma alters the
surrounding country rock.
Note: the area of metamorphism surrounding
an intrusion is an “AUREOLE”
2. Dynamic Metamorphism – Dynamic
metamorphism is associated with faults or
fault zones, where rocks are subjected to
high levels of differential pressure.
NOTE: The metamorphic rocks that result
from dynamic metamorphism are called
MYLONITES
3. Regional Metamorphism – caused by
extensive structural behavior.

Index Minerals – index minerals can tell geologists

how much the rock has metamorphosed

*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
 TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES QUEZON CITY
DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY

*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
 TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES QUEZON CITY
DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY

TR

*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
 TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES QUEZON CITY
DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY

*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
 TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES QUEZON CITY
DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY

*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
 TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES QUEZON CITY
DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY

*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.
 TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES QUEZON CITY
DEPARTMENT STUDENT COUNCIL
CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY

*The ideas and information in this review material were taken from other sources written by different authors.
*This material may not also contain all the information needed, but as far as reviewed, all relevant details were written as much
as possible.
*The text may contain grammatical and typographical errors and does not warrant the accuracy or completeness of the material
or reliability of any information written.