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Determinants of Sharing Travel Experiences in Social

Media
a b
Myunghwa Kang & Michael A. Schuett
a
Department of Hospitality, Restaurant & Tourism Management, Department of Agricultural
Leadership, Education and Communication, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 300 Ag Hall,
Lincoln, NE, 68583, USA
b
Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences of the Center for Socioeconomic
Research & Education (CSRE), Texas A&M University in College Station, TX, USA
Version of record first published: 04 Mar 2013.

To cite this article: Myunghwa Kang & Michael A. Schuett (2013): Determinants of Sharing Travel Experiences in Social Media,
Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 30:1-2, 93-107

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 Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 30:93–107, 2013
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1054-8408 print / 1540-7306 online
DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2013.751237

DETERMINANTS OF SHARING TRAVEL

EXPERIENCES IN SOCIAL MEDIA
Myunghwa Kang
Michael A. Schuett

ABSTRACT. The advent of Internet-based social media technologies has enabled travelers to quickly
and conveniently share their travel experiences. Shared information on social media sites is recognized
Downloaded by [Indiana Universities] at 12:47 09 April 2013

as an important information source which may influence travel decision making for potential travelers.
This study tests a conceptual framework which examines why travelers share their travel experiences on
social media based on the social influence theory and its three conceptual foundations—identification,
internalization, and compliance. Data were collected using an online survey and the research model was
tested with 543 respondents who were social media users. Results showed that identification and inter-
nalization are critical determinants that positively increase actual travel-experience sharing on social
media as mediated by perceived enjoyment. Our research extends prior literature on social media by
identifying specific determinants that can impact travel-experience sharing. Suggestions are provided
for academics, the travel industry, and those working with social media.

KEYWORDS. Social media, social influence theory, perceived enjoyment, travel-experience sharing

INTRODUCTION forms such as social networks (e.g., Facebook),

Social media is one of the fastest grow-
ing communication technologies in the Internet
environment as well as tourism marketing
(Blackshaw, 2005; Blackshaw & Nazzaro, 2006;
eMarketer, 2007; Buhalis & Law, 2008; Gretzel,
Kang, & Lee, 2008; Xiang & Gretzel, 2010).
It refers to Internet-based online media in which
individuals with common interests, goals, and
practices engage in social interactions con-
structing personal profiles and sharing infor-
mation and experiences (Chiu, Hsu, & Wang,
2006). Social media represents a variety of
photo sharing sites (e.g., Flickr, Photobucket),
video creating and sharing sites (e.g., YouTube,
Ustream), online communities, microblogging
tools (e.g., twitter), social tagging (e.g., Digg),
newsreaders (Google Reader), public Internet
boards and forums, review/rating websites
(e.g., TripAdvisor), blogs/moblogs, tagging
sites, podcasting, wikis, and individual websites
(Akar & Topcu, 2011; Blackshaw, 2005).
One of the most important functions of social
media is that it provides a Web-based applica-
tion in which users can easily create and post
a variety of content in the forms of texts, photos,

Myunghwa Kang is in the Department of Hospitality, Restaurant & Tourism Management, Department
of Agricultural Leadership, Education and Communication, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 300 Ag Hall,
Lincoln, NE 68583, USA (E-mail: mkang5@unl.edu).
Michael A. Schuett is in the Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences of the Center for
Socioeconomic Research & Education (CSRE) at Texas A&M University in College Station, TX, USA
(E-mail: mschuett@tamu.edu).
The authors would like to thank Mandala Research, LLC and the Center for Socioeconomic Research &
Education at Texas A&M University for technical assistance.
Address correspondence to: Myunghwa Kang at the above address.
93
 94 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
videos, etc. (Postman, 2008; Rau, Gao, & Ding,
2008). With the help of these applications, the
users of social media can share travel-related
information, stories and experiences upload-
ing text contents, images, audios, and videos
without any special technical skills as well as
their travel-related comments, opinions, reviews
and ratings, and recommendations (Xiang &
Gretzel, 2010). These contents are known as
user-generated content (UGC; Blackshaw &
Nazzaro, 2006; Blackshaw, 2005) and consid-
ered as a more objective and reliable informa-
tion source in travel planning.
Since people can’t try travel-related prod-
ucts and services before they consume them
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on actual travel sites, they usually involve a
dynamic process with various amounts and
types of information sources (Fodness &
Murray, 1997). Previous research has shown that
people prefer independent and unbiased travel-
related information and experiences provided by
the individuals who have traveled previously—
e.g., family members, or/and friends (Kotler,
Bowen, & Makens, 2010). Many travelers con-
sider the information from internal information
sources as less biased, credible, and trustworthy
compared with traditional organizational mar-
keting communications (Kotler et al., 2010).
As a consumer-to-consumer medium, social
media have grown enormously in the tourism
industry as an information search platform.
Within this platform people can obtain infor-
mation and experiences about their travel plans
and assist in decision making about destinations,
products, and services (Buhalis & Law, 2008;
Gretzel et al., 2008; Xiang & Gretzel, 2010).
Travel organizations and businesses have
used social media as an important communica-
tion platform (Akehurst, 2009) and considered
its UGC as a priceless information resource.
In fact, while travel and tourism organizations
do not have any control over what social media
users do or what kind of travel information and
experiences they upload on their social media
sites, they have recognized that users’ shared-
travel experiences play a role in influencing
potential travelers’ decision making (Xiang &
Gretzel, 2010). More important, even negative
postings by travelers also provide travel orga-
nizations with chances to increase their service
quality. Therefore, travel organizations have
encouraged consumers to participate in online
activities and share travel experiences on their
social websites. Currently, much of the research
emphasis has focused on social media, but lit-
tle has explored why users share their travel
information and experiences. It is expected that
identifying the determinants underlying travel-
experience sharing behavior would help travel
and tourism organizations gain an understanding
on how to stimulate travel-experience sharing
in social media. Therefore, the purpose of this
study is to identify the determinants that influ-
ence the travel-experience sharing behaviors of
social media users.
Travel-Experience Sharing on Social
Media
This study defines travel-experience shar-
ing on social media as behaviors or activ-
ities occurring when an individual dissemi-
nates travel-related experiences to other mem-
bers through social media. As user-generated
travel information, shared travel experiences
on social media are often considered more
reliable than information provided by tourism
organizations and private sector businesses
(Arsal, 2008; Litvin, Goldsmith, & Pan,
2008; Wheeler, 2009). According to Forrester
Research (2008) after traveling, many con-
sumers share their experiences—e.g., stories,
opinions, and complaints—in many forms
including text, photos, audio or voice podcasts.
As an example, the number of posts by users on
TripAdvisor.com increased from around 2 mil-
lion in 2005 (Litvin et al., 2008) to 75 million
in 2012 (TripAdvisor, 2012). Social media have
played a major role as a platform for personal
travel story reviews, warnings, advice/tips, and
recommendations which influence trip decisions
and even create pretrip destination impressions.
Shared travel experiences on social media are in
demand by potential travelers who need to find
unbiased and reliable information to plan their
trips and vacations (Arsal, 2008; Litvin et. al.,
2008). Fifty-eight percent of U.S. online travel
researchers used ratings for their travel infor-
mation; 49% of them checked reviews and rec-
ommendations; 18% used photos and friends’
 Myunghwa Kang and Michael A. Schuett
social networking sites; 12% read blogs; and 5%
watched videos (eMarketer, 2007).
Social media enables individuals to share
individual meaning and convey social benefits
(Wang, Yu, & Fesenmaier, 2002). A core con-
cept that underlies this research is that social
influence has an impact on travel-experience-
sharing behavior. Social psychological lenses on
online communities have been widely discussed
in the literature (Chiu et al., 2006; Wang &
Fesenmaier, 2004a). Wang and Fesenmaier
(2004b) showed a positive relationship between
perceived social benefits and level of participa-
tion in an online travel community. In order to
identify why social media users participate in
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sharing their travel experiences on social media,
this study proposes a framework of travel-
experience sharing behavior based on Kelman’s
(1958, 1961) social influence theory and per-
ceived enjoyment concept (Davis, Bagozzi, &
Warshaw, 1992).
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION AND
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
Social Influence Theory
Shared-travel experiences on social media are
one of the most important aspects of traveler
behaviors for customers as well as travel and
tourism organizations. Therefore, it is critical to
see that users are active and engaged in cre-
ating, editing, and sharing travel experiences
on social media. People participating in social
media activities are usually in communities and
appear to be socially influenced by community
group members. Social influence is defined as
the degree to which a person believes that people
who are important to him or her want that per-
son to perform a particular behavior (Venkatesh,
Speir, & Morris, 2002). Such proactive engage-
ment and volitional contributions often depend
upon users’ personal norms and values as well
as normative social compliance (DeLone &
McLean, 2003; Kelman, 1958). The levels and
types of volitional commitment to a behavior
(e.g., sharing travel experiences) appear to be
different among people (Malhotra & Galletta,
2005). Commitment to a certain behavior has
95
referred to both the antecedents and conse-
quences of behavior and the process and state
of attachment to specific behaviors (Malhotra &
Galletta, 2005).
Kelman’s (1958, 1961) social influence the-
ory is a well-established basis for understand-
ing the psychological commitment to a specific
behavior or attitude (Malhotra & Galletta, 2005;
O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986). Social influence
theory argues that changes in behaviors pro-
duced by social influence occur at three different
process modes—internalization, identification,
and compliance—and distinguishes three differ-
ent underlying processes (Kelman, 1958). These
three modes represent different commitments
resulting from a desire to satisfy different per-
sonal goals (Malhotra & Galletta, 2005). Unlike
the social normative compliance, these three
levels of psychological attachment result from
proactive choice responses made by individu-
als in conformance with their own beliefs and
values (Malhotra & Galletta, 2005).
According to Kelman (1958), “identifica-
tion occurs when an individual adopts induced
behaviors to establish or maintain a satisfying
self-defining relationship to another person and
group” (p. 53). Similarly, Malhotra and Galletta
(2005) state that, “behavior adopted through
identification is performed only under condi-
tions of salience of the individuals’ relationship
to the influencing agent” (p. 123). Based on this
concept, individuals feel a sense of belonging
or fitting into a group of social media users
because they share travel experiences through
social media. Internalization occurs “when an
individual accepts influence because the con-
tent of the induced behavior is intrinsically
rewarding” (Kelman, 1958, p. 53) and is con-
gruent with his/her value systems and beliefs
(Malhotra & Galletta, 2005). Therefore, “behav-
ior adopted through internalization is integrated
with the users’ own values and becomes a
part of his or her personal norm” (Malhotra &
Galletta, 2005, p. 123). Thus, the reason indi-
viduals prefer using social media is based on the
similarity of their values represented by social
media. In contrast, compliance occurs “when
an individual accepts induced behaviors because
he/she hopes to achieve a favorable reaction
from another person or group and gain a reward
 96 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
or approval, and avoid costs such as disap-
proval by conforming” (Kelman, 1958, p. 53).
According to Malhotra and Galletta (2005),
“behavior based upon compliance will be per-
formed by the user only under conditions of
surveillance by the influencing agent” (p. 123).
In contrast to behavior underlying identifica-
tion and internalization, individuals participat-
ing in social media may try to make an effort
to provide information because they feel pres-
sured to do so. As discussed, a commitment
to certain behaviors would enable individuals
to achieve personal, meaningful, and rewarding
goals through internalization and identification
through which they can enjoy the behaviors.
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Perceived Enjoyment
Perceived enjoyment refers to “the extent
to which the activity of using a certain tech-
nology is perceived as being enjoyable in its
own right, apart from any performance con-
sequence that may be anticipated and aside
from the instrumental value of the technol-
ogy” (Davis et al., 1992, p. 1113). Perceived
enjoyment has been studied as a strong pre-
dictor which explains a specific behavior in
information and communication technologies
(ICT) such as technology adoption and uses
(Cyr, Head, & Ivanov, 2006; Davis et al., 1992;
Hong, Thong, Moon, & Tam, 2008; Novak,
Hoffman, & Duhachek, 2003; Thong, Hong, &
Tam, 2006). Motivation has been distinguished
into two broad classes: intrinsic and extrinsic
FIGURE 1. Proposed Research Model
Identification
H1
H5
Perceived
Internalization
H2 Enjoyment
H6
H3
Compliance
motivation (Deci, 1971; Pritchard, Campbell, &
Campbell, 1977). Extrinsic motivation is the
performance of activity perceived to be instru-
mental in achieving valued outcomes such as
improved job performance, pay or promotions,
distinct from the activity itself. Intrinsic moti-
vation refers to the performance of activity not
forced by external reinforcement other than the
process of performing the activity (Davis et al.,
1992). According to Davis et al. (1992), per-
ceived enjoyment is intrinsic motivation which
leads to extrinsic motivation that represents per-
ceived usefulness. A number of studies have
shown that social factors (e.g., identification,
internalization, compliance) influence increased
perceived enjoyment (Lombard & Ditton, 1997;
Zajonc, 1965). Based on this previous work, the
following theoretical framework will be utilized
for this research (Figure 1).
The Effect of Social Influence on
Perceived Enjoyment
Identification and internalization, charac-
terized by the highest level of psychologi-
cal and affective attachment to behavior, is
expected to have a direct influence on perceived
enjoyment (Hwang, 2005; Meyer & Allen,
1984). Previously discussed, “behavior adopted
through identification is performed only under
conditions of salience of the individuals’ rela-
tionship to the influencing agent” (Malhotra &
Galletta, 2005, p. 123). Based on this concep-
tualization, it is expected that individuals feel
H4
Use of Social
Media in travel H7
planning
Actual travel-
experience
sharing
Experience with H8
Social Media
 Myunghwa Kang and Michael A. Schuett
a sense of belonging or fit into a group of
social media users because they share travel
experiences through social media. Prior research
shows that identification has an additional pos-
itive relationship with a sense of belonging, a
general positive outlook on life, and positive
impact affinity (Bressler & Grantham, 2000;
Cohen, 2001, 2006; Zillmann, 1994). The for-
mation of the identification as a member of a
virtual travel community relies on a sense of
belonging and affiliation with members in the
community. Social cohesion (i.e., being part of
or attracted to an online community on social
media) increases feelings of reward, pleasant-
ness, and enjoyment leading to emotional happi-
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ness (Brandtzeg, Folstad & Heim, 2003; Monk,
Hassenzahl, Blythe, & Reed, 2002; Zajonc,
1965). Therefore, the following hypothesis is
suggested:
Hypothesis 1: Identification will have a pos-
itive influence on perceived enjoyment of
knowledge and information sharing on
social media.
Internalization occurs when influence is
accepted because the increased behaviors are
congruent with one’s own values—e.g., the val-
ues of the individual and community are the
same (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986). Behavior
adopted through internalization is integrated
with an individual’s own values or intrinsic
motivation and becomes a part of his or her
personal norms (Kelman, 1958; Malhotra &
Gelletta, 2005). Therefore, internalization drives
adoption of the induced behavior by the system
user based on perceived congruence with one’s
own personal norms and values (Malhotra &
Gelletta, 2005). In this sense, information shar-
ing on social media through internalization
tends to be integrated with one’s own personal
norms and values as intrinsically rewarding.
Thus, the user derives satisfaction from inter-
nalization due to the content of behavior and
finds technology use intrinsically rewarding.
The internalization, characterized by the highest
level of psychological and affective attachment
to technology use, is expected to have a direct
influence on perceived enjoyment.
97
Hypothesis 2: Internalization will have a
positive influence on perceived enjoyment
of knowledge and information sharing on
social media.
According to social influence theory
(Kelman, 1958), behavior based upon com-
pliance is performed by the user only under
conditions of surveillance by the influencing
agent. This commitment is based on the costs
that the technology users associate with not
adopting the induced behavior and not engaging
in the specific behavior. Users with compliance
engage in the induced behaviors not because
they feel it is the right thing to do or they
want to do it; rather, their primary focus is
on rewards and punishment. Accordingly,
compliance occurs when an individual accepts
the induced behavior because he or she wants
to achieve a favorable reaction from another
person or group, conform to gain rewards or
approval, and minimize costs such as punish-
ment or disapproval. Therefore, in the case of
compliance, induced behavior is seen by the
user as controlling and pressurizing and has a
negative influence on the users’ affective status.
In contrast to the affective process underlying
identification and internalization, a social
process driven by compliance may not create
an enjoyable commitment to a certain behavior
such as knowledge and information sharing on
social media. Thus, the following hypothesis is
proposed:
Hypothesis 3: Compliance will have a neg-
ative influence on perceived enjoyment of
knowledge and information sharing on
social media.
The Effect of Perceived Enjoyment on
Travel-Experience Behavior
A number of studies have shown that per-
ceived enjoyment as an intrinsic motivation
directly influences inducing behavior toward
using information technologies (Davis et al.,
1992; Lee, Kang, & Kim, 2007; Reeve, 1996).
This study also suggests that, increased by
social influence, perceived enjoyment affects
 98 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
travel-experience sharing, the use of social
media in travel planning, and experience with
social media. All of these factors will lead to
travel-experience sharing. Previous studies have
found that perceived enjoyment is an important
antecedent for predicting the use of technol-
ogy such as the Internet (Novak et al., 2003)
and mobile services (Cyr et al., 2006; Thong
et al., 2006; Hong et al., 2008). Therefore,
this study proposes that perceived enjoyment
increases travel-experience sharing behavior.
Hypothesis 4: Perceived enjoyment positively
influences increased travel-experience
sharing on social media.
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A number of studies have shown that intrin-
sic motivation (perceived enjoyment) leads to
enhanced perception of extrinsic motivation
(e.g., usefulness or perceived value) that in turn
leads to behavior (Batra & Ray, 1986; Hwang,
2005; Sun & Zhang, 2006; Venkatesh et al.,
2002). This study argues that the use of social
media in travel planning is one of extrinsic
motivation (usefulness) which is influenced by
intrinsic motivation (perceived enjoyment).
Hypothesis 5: Perceived enjoyment has a pos-
itive influence on the use of social media in
travel planning.
Previous studies have shown that perceived
enjoyment influences experience with ICT
(Hsu & Chiu, 2004). If individuals perceive
an enjoyable use of ICT, they increase the
frequency and time of use (Igbaria, Iivari, &
Maragahh, 1995). Teo, Lim, and Lai (1999)
showed that perceived enjoyment increased the
frequency of Internet usage. Atkinson and Kydd
(1997) demonstrated that there is a positive
relationship between perceived enjoyment and
website usage for both course-related and enter-
tainment purposes. Moon and Kim (2001) also
found a significant effect of intrinsic motivation
in determining the use of web-based activities.
These findings support the concept that per-
ceived enjoyment as intrinsic motivation can
result in increased time spent for use, therefore
enabling people to gain more experience with
various technologies.
Hypothesis 6: Perceived enjoyment has a pos-
itive influence on experience with social
media.
Past research has conceptualized that behav-
ior is determined by extrinsic motivation—e.g.,
usefulness or perceived value (Fang, Chan,
Brzezinski, & Xu, 2006; Davis et al., 1992).
Individuals who use social media as an informa-
tion source for travel planning are more likely
to share their travel experiences on social media.
A positive benefit of social media as an informa-
tion source would influence travel-experience
sharing activities.
Hypothesis 7: The use of social media in
travel planning has a positive influence
on sharing travel experiences on social
media.
A number of studies have found that when
technology is perceived as easy and less com-
plex to use, its use increases because mental
anxiety is minimized (Lim, Lim, & Heinrichs,
2008). This study argues that the more indi-
viduals experience social media, and the more
they perceive that social media is less complex
to use, the more likely they are to share their
travel experiences on social media. In contrast, it
is also proposed that membership duration with
social media (defined as how long they have
been members) will have a positive relationship
with commitment and participation in online
travel communities. The development of online
communities is a relationship building process.
As time goes by, members will foster closer and
more intimate relationships with other members
in the travel community and will become more
willing to spend time sharing their thoughts and
ideas (Kozinets, 1999).
Hypothesis 8: The level of experience with
social media has a positive influence
on sharing travel experiences on social
media.
 Myunghwa Kang and Michael A. Schuett
RESEARCH METHOD
Sample and Data Collection
These data were collected online using a
research firm’s domestic leisure travel panel
between July 10 and 20, 2009. To qualify for
inclusion in the study, respondents must have
taken at least one trip in the past 12 months for
vacation, pleasure, or personal purposes within
the United States that was 50+ miles away from
home one way. A final sample of 1,048 respon-
dents answered the questionnaire. The entire
sample drawn for this survey was balanced by
age, gender, race, and ethnicity according to
the latest population parameters reported by the
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U.S. Census Bureau.
To analyze and test our hypotheses, this study
used 543 of the 1,048 respondents (52%) who
were social media users. Our sample was a sub-
set of a larger travel study which queried travel-
ers on many travel-related behaviors. If individ-
uals responded that they read or post to social
media or both read and post to social media
sites (Bebe, Facebook, Friendster, LinkedIn,
Myspace, Twitter, Second Life, and/or other),
they were considered a social media user.
Questionnaire
The measurement items (Table 1) for the four
constructs (identification, internalization, com-
pliance, and perceived enjoyment) were selected
from previous studies and rephrased to suit the
context of the current study. Three items of iden-
tification measures were adapted and reworded
from two studies (Ashforth, Saks, & Lee, 1998;
Mael & Tetrick, 1992). Two items of internal-
ization and three items of compliance were from
previous research (Malhotra & Galletta, 2005).
Perceived enjoyment of sharing knowledge and
information on social media was measured by
three items adapted from the study conducted
by Davis et al. (1992). All these items used a
5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
The use of social media in travel planning
was measured by asking one question using a
5-point Likert scale from 1 (I never do this)
to 5 (I always do this). Their involvement
99
with social media was indexed based on
a question regarding their experience with
seven social media websites (Bebo, Facebook,
Friendster, LinkedIn, Myspace, Twitter, Second
Life, and/or other). The respondents were asked
to indicate if they read, posted, or both read
and posted these social networking sites. Both
posting and reading indicates more involve-
ment than only reading: 1 point was given
to reading, 2 points to posting, and 3 points
to both reading and posting. The sum of all
the scores of the seven social media websites
was used to index the level of experience with
social media. Actual travel-experience sharing
on social media was measured by asking how
they shared travel experiences from their most
recent trip. If they answered that they shared
their travel experiences by posting them online
— i.e., social networking websites, photo shar-
ing websites, travel review websites, personal
blogs, and/or websites—they were considered
travelers who shared their travel experiences on
social media. If they did not share their travel
experiences on these sites, that was recorded as
well.
Data Analysis
The validity of the measures was assessed
by a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA); sub-
sequently, a structural equation model (SEM)
was used to test the proposed conceptual model
based on the maximum likelihood approach.
This study used a polychoric correlation matrix
as an input matrix because travel-experience
sharing behavior (endogenous variable) is a
dichotomous variable. SEM assumes normality
of the latent endogenous variables; therefore,
if any endogenous latent variable in a struc-
tural model is dichotomous or categorical, a
polychoric correlation matrix should be used
as an input matrix (Muthén & Christoffersson,
1981). Based on the recommendation of Kline
(2005), this study assessed several goodness-
of-fit indices: chi-square (χ 2 ), normed fit index
(NFI), root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA), nonnormed fit index (NNFI), and
the comparative fit index (CFI). A RMSEA of
less than .05 indicates a good fit. NFI, NNFI,
 100 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

TABLE 1. Constructs and Items in the Measurement Model

Construct Notation Item

Identification IDEN 1 In general, I am very interested in what the group members

Internalization
Compliance
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think about sharing my knowledge and information through
social media.
IDEN 2 I feel a sense of belonging to the group when I share my
knowledge and information through CGM.
IDEN 3 I feel I will fit into the group when I share my knowledge
through social media.
INTER 1 The reason I prefer use of social media is primarily based on
the similarity of my values and those represented by the
social media.
INTER 2 The reason I prefer social media to other communication tools
is because of its value.
COMP 1 Unless I am rewarded for sharing knowledge and information
on social media in some way, I may spend less time to

share knowledge and information.

Perceived enjoyment
Use of social media in
travel planning
Experience of social
media
Actual travel-experience
sharing
COMP 2 How hard I work on social media is directly related to how
much I am rewarded.
COMP 3 In order for me to get the responses I want on social media, it
is necessary to express the right behavior or attitude on
social media.
ENJOY 1 I usually find sharing my knowledge and information through
social media to be enjoyable.
ENJOY 2 Sharing my knowledge and information through social media
in the group is pleasant.
ENJOY 3 I have fun sharing my knowledge and information through
social media in the group.
Use of social media How often do you research travel online by reading about
other travelers’ experiences via social media websites?
Experience of social Did you read, post, or both read and post seven social media
media websites (Bebo, Facebook, Friendster, LinkedIn, Myspace,
Twitter, and Second Life)?
Actual travel-experience- Did you share travel experiences from your most recent trip on
sharing online social networking websites, photo sharing websites,
travel review websites, personal blogs, and/or websites?

and CFI exceeding .90 indicate an acceptable fit
(Hu & Bentler, 1999).
RESULTS
Profile of Respondents
Table 2 shows the profile of the social media
participants: 47% were male, 53% female.
Over half the participants (59.9%) were under
44 years of age and 11% were over 64 years
of age. Approximately 41% graduated with a
2-year degree or some college, followed by
26.7% with a 4-year degree and 16.8% with
a graduate/professional degree. Almost 30%
of the respondents had household income over
$75,000 or more while 44% had less than
$50,000 household income. The social media
users were largely White (75.1%) with approx-
imately 11% African American. In comparison
to the entire sample, the social media group had
slightly more females, a higher percentage of
younger individuals (under 44 years old), and
fewer seniors. Race/ethnicity, education, and
income were all very similar.
Approximately 52% of leisure travelers used
social media in their trip for the past 12 months
to share their travel experiences. Approximately
23% of social media users (n = 124) used
all 7 social media sites; 42% of them (n =
228) used 4–6 social media sites; 35% (n = 190)
 Myunghwa Kang and Michael A. Schuett 101

TABLE 2. Descriptive Profile of Respondents TABLE 3. Percentage of Use for Seven Social
Media Sites
Profiles Total (%) Social media
users N = 543 Sites used by Both read & Read Post
(%) social media users post

Gender (n = 1,048) Facebook.com 65% 25% 10%

Male 49.9 47.0 Myspace.com 31% 59% 10%
Female 51.1 53.0 Twitter.com 20% 72% 8%
Age (n = 1,048) LinkedIn.com 16% 77% 7%
Under 29 20.2 27.3 Friendster.com 7% 85% 7%
29–44 27.7 32.6 Second Life.com 6% 88% 6%
45–63 33.0 29.1 Bebo.com 5% 87% 8%
64 & over 19.1 11.0
Ethnic group∗ (n = 1,048)
White/Caucasian 76.5 75.1
Black/African American 11.4 10.5 The model fits indices showed χ 2 (df = 47) =
Asian/Pacific Island 5.7 3.3 226.56 at p = .00, RMSEA = .030, NFI = 1.0,
Hispanic or Spanish 7.5 7.9
NNFI = 1.0, and CFI = 1.0.
Downloaded by [Indiana Universities] at 12:47 09 April 2013

decent
Native American 3.4 3.3 The final measurement model (Table 4)
Something else 5.1 5.9 exhibited adequate internal consistency and uni-
Education (n = 1044) dimensionality such as loading values and com-
High school/GED or 14.6 14.6
less
posite reliability. Composite reliability and aver-
2-year degree or some 42.0 40.6 age variance extracted (AVE) for each construct
college were investigated to assess internal consistency
4-year degree 26.7 27.4 of the constructs in the model (Fornell &
Graduate/professional 16.8 17.3
degree
Larcker, 1981). A value of composite reliabil-
Household income ity over .70 indicates internal consistency of the
Less than $50,000 (n = 964) indicators assessing a given factor. A desirable
$50,000 ∼ $74.999 44.2 41.8 level of AVE estimates measuring the amount
$75,000 ∼ $99,999 24.6 23.2
More than $100,000 15.8 14.4
of variance captured by the factors is 50% or
15.5 14.0 higher. As Table 4 shows, all the composite reli-
∗ Exceeded
abilities ranged from .71 to .94, and the AVE
over 100% due to multiple responses.
of all the constructs also exceeded .57. The
result supports the internal consistency of the
proposed measurement.
used 1–3 social media sites. Table 3 shows Convergent validity was tested by analyzing
level of usage by website. A majority of the the squared multiple correlations (SMC) and
social media users (65%) have used Facebook testing the significance and magnitude of the
to both read and post activities and 59% of them indicator’s estimated coefficient on its speci-
participated in reading Myspace. fied underlying construct (Anderson & Gerbing,
1988; Netemyer, Johnston, & Burton, 1990).
Measurement Model Fit Assessment The SMC ranged from .27 to .81, loading values
ranged from .52 to .93, and the t-values showed
Based on the first test results of the mea- convergent validity of the measurement model.
surement model, one of the three items of Discriminant validity was evaluated by investi-
compliance (COMP 3: see Table 1) was elim- gating AVE and squared correlations between
inated because the item was cross-loaded with constructs. Discriminant validity is achieved
other constructs—identification and enjoyment when AVE is greater than the squared correla-
(Byrne, 1997). The resulting CFA of the final tion between the constructs (Fornell & Larcker,
measurement model tested with four constructs 1981; Netemyer et al., 1990). In this study,
and its 10 indicators revealed that the fit of the the smallest AVE of the construct was .57
overall confirmatory factor model was adequate. (Table 4) and the largest squared correlation
 102 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

TABLE 4. Results of the Measurement Model

Construct/Item Loadings t-valuea Mean R2 Composite reliability AVE

Identification 3.95 .69 .89 .73

IDEN 1 .83 −b 3.90
IDEN 2 .87 44.71 3.58
IDEN 3 .85 40.14 3.64
Internalization 3.92 .66 .82 .70
INTER 1 .82 −b 3.97
INTER 2 .84 39.97 3.75
Compliance 4.50 .83 .71 .57
COMP 1 .52 −b 4.51
COMP 2 .92 9.25 4.60
Perceived enjoyment 4.17 .75 .94 .83
ENJOY 1 .90 −b 4.05
ENJOY 2 .91 51.25 4.48
ENJOY 3 .92 54.72 3.98
Downloaded by [Indiana Universities] at 12:47 09 April 2013

Note. a If t > 3.291, significant at p < .001. b Reference indicator. CFA loading = completely standardized estimate.
Model fit indices: χ 2 (df = 47) = 226.56, p = .00, RMSEA = .030, NFI = .99, NNFI = 1.0, CFI = 1.0. All items were
scored from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. The estimate of composite reliability and AVE are based on
Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) formula.

TABLE 5. Correlation Matrix of Constructs

Identification Internalization Compliance Perceived Use of social Experience Actual travel-

enjoyment media in travel with social experience
planning media sharing

Identification 1.00
Internalization .65 1.00
Compliance .26 .27 1.00
Perceived .70 .68 .23 1.00
enjoyment
Use of social media .27 .27 .10 .32 1.00
in travel planning
Experience with .27 .21 .04 .35 .21 1.00
social media
Actual .24 .19 .05 .30 .22 .37 1.00
travel-experience
sharing

Note. All correlation values are significant at p = .001.

(Table 5) between the identification and enjoy-
ment was .49. Therefore, discriminant valid-
ity of the constructs was achieved. After CFA
identified the adequacy of measurement of all
four latent constructs in the structural model,
we proceeded with confidence to the structural
equation modeling (SEM) analysis.
Structural Model Fit Assessment
SEM assessed the relationships among
the three social influences (identification,
internalization, and compliance), perceived
enjoyment, experience with social media, use
of social media in travel planning, and actual
travel-experience sharing behavior. Table 6
presents the goodness-of-fit indices for the
hypothesized structural model. As shown in
Table 6, the model has a good model fit to the
data, χ 2 (df = 57) = 280.69 at p = .00, RMSEA =
.033, NFI = .99, NNFI = 1.00, and CFI =
1.00). The overall fit indices of the model
showed that the proposed model provided a
good fit for hypothesis testing.
 Myunghwa Kang and Michael A. Schuett 103

TABLE 6. Parameter Estimates for Research Model

Structural path Hypothesis Standardized path p-value

coefficients

Identification → Perceived enjoyment H1 .61 .023

Internalization → Perceived enjoyment H2 .45 .0036
Compliance → Perceived enjoyment H3 −.16 .0001
Enjoyment → Actual travel-experience sharing H4 .36 .0001
Enjoyment → Use of CGM in travel planning H5 .37 .0001
Enjoyment→ Level of experience with social media H6 .18 .0001
Use of CGM in travel planning → Actual travel-experience H7 .10 .025
sharing
Experience with CGM → Actual travel-experience sharing H8 .28 .0001

FIGURE 2. Coefficients of the Research Model

Downloaded by [Indiana Universities] at 12:47 09 April 2013

.36
(p = .0001)

Identification Use of Social

.61 .10
.37 Media in travel (p = .0025)
(p = .0023)
(p = .0001) planning
Actual travel-
.45 R2 = .13
(p = .0036) Perceived experience
Internalization sharing
Enjoyment
.28
.18 Experience with
2 (p = .0001) 2
R = .89 (p = .0001) Social Media R = .18
–.16
2
(p = .0001) R = .14
Compliance

Table 6 provides a summary of the path
parameter estimates and their test significance.
The structural model illustrated in Figure 2
includes significant standardized path coeffi-
cients. As shown in Table 6 and Figure 2,
the path correlations (standardized coefficient
weights) between variables were all statistically
significant. Identification was positively related
to perceived enjoyment (path coefficient = .61,
t = 3.06, p = .023); internalization to per-
ceived enjoyment (path coefficient = .45, t =
2.10, p = .0036); however, compliance was
negatively related to perceived enjoyment (path
coefficient = −.16, t = −4.03, p = .0001).
Therefore, H1, H2, and H3 were supported.
Consistent with previous studies, these finding
showed that identification and internalization
had a positive influence on increasing perceived
enjoyment of knowledge and information shar-
ing on social media. Compliance had a negative
influence on increasing perceived enjoyment of
sharing information and knowledge on social
media.
Likewise, perceived enjoyment had a positive
relationship to actual travel-experience sharing
behavior (path coefficient = .36, t = 3.95, p =
.0001); the use of social media in travel planning
(path coefficient = .37, t = 10.87, p = .0001);
and the level of experience with social media
(path coefficient = .18, t = 12.06, p = .0001).
Accordingly, H4, H5, and H6 were statistically
supported. This result indicates that perceived
enjoyment increases the use of social media as a
travel information source in travel planning and
experience with social media directly influences
increased travel-experience sharing behavior.
Finally, the use of social media in travel
planning had a positive influence on increasing
actual travel-experience sharing behavior (path
coefficient = 0.10, t = 2.24, p = .025); and
the experience with social media also positively
related to actual travel-experience sharing on
 104 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
social media (path coefficient = .28, t = 6.26,
p = .0001). Therefore, H7 and H8 were sta-
tistically supported. These results demonstrate
that with increased perceived enjoyment, the use
of social media increases as a source in travel
planning, and level of experience with social
media has a positive influence on sharing travel
experiences on social media.
In sum, the study results supported a research
model which predicted the effect of social
influence factors—i.e., internalization, identi-
fication, and compliance—on actual travel-
experience sharing behavior as mediated by per-
ceived enjoyment, use of social media in travel
planning, and social media experiences. More
Downloaded by [Indiana Universities] at 12:47 09 April 2013
importantly, this study identified the importance
of perceived enjoyment which is a consequence
of social influence and determinant of social
media experiences and perceived usefulness as
measured by social media use.
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The purpose of this study is to gain a better
understanding of why travelers share their travel
experiences on social media. This study devel-
oped an integrated research model based on
social influence theory and its three constructs—
identification, internalization (personal norm),
and compliance (social norm; Kelman, 1961)
and perceived enjoyment (Davis et al., 1992)—
to understand psychological commitment to
a specific behavior, travel-experience sharing.
This study has significant implications for travel
marketers in the development of effective com-
munication strategies though social media and
its user-generated content (UGC); in particu-
lar, shared travel experiences posted by users.
The results encourage tourism organization mar-
keters to recognize social media as a platform
where travelers share their travel experiences
and search for independent and credible travel
information to plan their travel. Shared-travel
experiences on social media play a key role as
a necessary marketing information source. One
note of caution is worth mentioning; since UGC
is created by social media users, travel marketers
cannot control the quality and quantity of the
UCG on their own or other independent social
media sites. Time will tell if quality control
and accuracy should be investigated more dili-
gently to ensure how shared information should
be assessed and how it is being used.
Our results suggest that the success of social
media depends on a user’s choice for social
media use and the ability to share their experi-
ences. Social media users committed to travel-
experience sharing have used social media
for personally meaningful and rewarding goals
(internalization and identification). If users do
not perceive travel-experience sharing on social
media as useful in achieving their goals, travel-
experience sharing behavior may not be pur-
sued. As identified in this research, the goals
may be achieved through harmonious activities
and interaction.
Another important implication is the nega-
tive influence of compliance. Compliance leads
to cognitive commitment to travel-experience
sharing which creates the potential for disap-
proval by other users (Malhotra & Galletta,
2005). Therefore, in contrast to the affective
process underlying identification and internal-
ization, a social process driven by compliance
may not create an enjoyable commitment to
knowledge and information sharing. Thus, a
functional menu where users can post their opin-
ions or evaluations about posted travel expe-
riences is at best uncertain. Therefore, travel
marketers may not provide a function where
users can evaluate posted information. However,
comments on posted information (e.g., star rat-
ings) possibly influence users’ decisions to see
the information. Thus, the influence ratings have
on decision making could be an area ripe for
future inquiry. In sum, in designing social media
or online travel communities, designers should
ensure that users’ needs for internalization and
identification, which are the components of the
affective process, are closely met while needs
for compliance are minimized.
As Wang and Fesenmaier (2004b) empha-
sized, the online community on social media has
been redefining travel markets by opening direct
channels of communication among potential
travelers themselves as well as between them
and travel organizations. In this newly emerging
communication environment, shared informa-
tion and experiences will become more critical
 Myunghwa Kang and Michael A. Schuett
in the experiential nature of tourism products
and influence travelers’ decision making, possi-
bly more than other information sources—e.g.,
brochures, advertisements. However, the level
of participation of individuals or members in
sharing knowledge and information will vary in
terms of frequency and amount and its influence
may fluctuate as well. Given the prominence of
this web application, customer participation on
social media deserves the serious and continued
attention of researchers and practitioners.
This study had several limitations which
could be investigated in future studies on social
media. The sample for this study was part
of a larger travel study. It is suggested that
Downloaded by [Indiana Universities] at 12:47 09 April 2013
future studies focus on a more comprehen-
sive sample of social media users. Second, this
study did not differentiate between social media
participants—e.g., readers, comment providers,
or both. It is expected that there may be differ-
ences in sharing behavior in social media use
depending on which role it plays for the individ-
ual. Third, the travel-experience-sharing vari-
able was measured by a dichotomous response
choice—i.e., yes/no. It would have been useful
to differentiate between users according to dif-
ferent usage rates, actual frequency of use, and
opinions about each site. Lastly, future research
should explore various racial/ethnic groups in
travel-experience sharing. The sample in this
study was largely based on one race (White) and
it could be argued that social influence may vary
between and among diverse groups.
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SUBMITTED: May 1, 2012
FIRST REVISION SUBMITTED:
September 9, 2012
FINAL REVISION SUBMITTED:
October 2, 2012
ACCEPTED: October 3, 2012
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY