Introduction

History of Hinduism

India

Hinduism's early history is the subject of much debate for a number of reasons.

Firstly, in a strict sense there was no 'Hinduism' before modern times, although the sources of
Hindu traditions are very ancient.

Secondly, Hinduism is not a single religion but embraces many traditions.

Thirdly, Hinduism has no definite starting point. The traditions which flow into Hinduism
may go back several thousand years and some practitioners claim that the Hindu revelation is
eternal.

Although there is an emphasis on personal spirituality, Hinduism's history is closely linked

with social and political developments, such as the rise and fall of different kingdoms and
empires. The early history of Hinduism is difficult to date and Hindus themselves tend to be
more concerned with the substance of a story or text rather than its date.

Hindu notions of time

Hindus in general believe that time is cyclical, much like the four seasons, and eternal rather
than linear and bounded. Texts refer to successive ages (yuga), designated respectively as
golden, silver, copper and iron.

During the golden age people were pious and adhered to dharma (law, duty, truth) but its
power diminishes over time until it has to be reinvigorated through divine intervention.

With each successive age, good qualities diminish, until we reach the current iron or dark age
(kali yuga) marked by cruelty, hypocrisy, materialism and so on. Such ideas challenge the
widespread, linear view that humans are inevitably progressing.

Main historical periods

Although the early history of Hinduism is difficult to date with certainty, the following list
presents a rough chronology.

 Before 2000 BCE: The Indus Valley Civilisation

  1500–500 BCE: The Vedic Period
 500 BCE–500 CE: The Epic, Puranic and Classical Age
 500 CE–1500 CE: Medieval Period
 1500–1757 CE: Pre-Modern Period
 1757–1947 CE: British Period
 1947 CE–the present: Independent India

Top

Indus Valley Civilisation

The Indus Valley Civilisation (before 2000 BCE)

The Indus basin ©

The Indus Valley civilisation was located in the basin of the river Indus, which flows through
present day Pakistan. It had developed by about 2500 BCE although its origins reach back to
the Neolithic period. It had faded away by 1500 BCE.

The Indus Valley was a developed urban culture akin to the civilisations of Mesopotamia.
Two major cities have been uncovered, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, which has given us the
alternative name of Harappan culture. These cities housed about 40,000 people who enjoyed
quite a high standard of living with sophisticated water systems; most houses having drainage
systems, wells, and rubbish chutes. Grain was the basis of the economy and large grain stores
collected grain as tax.

The civilisation was extensive, from the eastern foothills of the Himalayas, to Lothar on the
Gujarat coast, and to Sutgagen Dor near the Iranian border. Some cities of the Indus valley
culture have yet to be excavated.

The Indus civilisation did not develop as a result of contact with other civilisations such as
Sumer or Egypt but was an indigenous development growing out of earlier, local cultures.

Religion in the Indus valley

We know little of the religion, social structure or politics of this early civilisation and we do
not know the language, but seals have been found with what looks like a script inscribed on
them. This has not been deciphered successfully and some scholars now question whether it
is in fact a script, although this is contentious.
 Male figure found at Mohenjo-Daro. Photo: Amir Taj ©

Religion in the Indus valley seems to have involved temple rituals and ritual bathing in the
'great bath' found at Mohenjo-Daro. There is some evidence of animal sacrifice at
Kalibangan. A number of terracotta figurines have been found, perhaps goddess images, and
a seal depicting a seated figure surrounded by animals that some scholars thought to be a
prototype of the god Shiva. Others have disputed this, pointing out that it bears a close
resemblance to Elamite seals depicting seated bulls. One image, carved on soapstone
(steatite), depicts a figure battling with lions which is reminiscent of the Mesopotamian
Gilgamesh myth.

There may be continuities between the Indus Valley civilisation and later Hinduism as
suggested by the apparent emphasis on ritual bathing, sacrifice, and goddess worship. But
ritual purity, sacrifice and an emphasis on fertility are common to other ancient religions.

Top

Vedic Period
The Vedic Period (c.1500–c.500 BCE)

There have been two major theories about the early development of early south Asian
traditions.

1. The Aryan migration thesis that the Indus Valley groups calling themselves 'Aryans'
(noble ones) migrated into the sub-continent and became the dominant cultural force.
Hinduism, on this view, derives from their religion recorded in the Veda along with
elements of the indigenous traditions they encountered.
2. The cultural transformation thesis that Aryan culture is a development of the Indus
Valley culture. On this view there were no Aryan migrations (or invasion) and the
Indus valley culture was an Aryan or vedic culture.

There are two sources of knowledge about this ancient period - language and archaeology -
and we can make two comments about them. Firstly, the language of vedic culture was vedic
Sanskrit, which is related to other languages in the Indo-European language group. This
suggests that Indo-European speakers had a common linguistic origin known by scholars as
Proto-Indo-European.
 Page of the Rig Veda in
Sanskrit: early 19th century Indian manuscript ©

Secondly, there does seem to be archaeological continuity in the subcontinent from the
Neolithic period. The history of this period is therefore complex. One of the key problems is
that no horse remains have been found in the Indus Valley but in the Veda the horse sacrifice
is central. The debate is ongoing.

Vedic religion

If we take 'Vedic Period' to refer to the period when the Vedas were composed, we can say
that early vedic religion centred around the sacrifice and sharing the sacrificial meal with
each other and with the many gods (devas). The term 'sacrifice' (homa, yajna) is not confined
to offering animals but refers more widely to any offering into the sacred fire (such as milk
and clarified butter).

Some of the vedic rituals were very elaborate and continue to the present day. Sacrifice was
offered to different vedic gods (devas) who lived in different realms of a hierarchical universe
divided into three broad realms: earth, atmosphere and sky.

Earth contains the plant god Soma, the fire god Agni, and the god of priestly power,
Brhaspati. The Atmosphere contains the warrior Indra, the wind Vayu, the storm gods or
Maruts and the terrible Rudra. The Sky contains the sky god Dyaus (from the same root as
Zeus), the Lord of cosmic law (or rta) Varuna, his friend the god of night Mitra, the nourisher
Pushan, and the pervader Vishnu.

Top

Epic, Puranic and Classical Age

The Epic, Puranic and Classical Age (c.500 BCE–500 CE)
 Arjun and one of his brothers, two of the heroes of the Mahabharata.
Dasavatara Temple, Deogarh, 6th century. Photo: Vaticanus ©

This period, beginning from around the time of Buddha (died c. 400 BCE), saw the
composition of further texts, the Dharma Sutras and Shastras, the two Epics, the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana, and subsequently the Puranas, containing many of the
stories still popular today. The famous Bhagavad Gita is part of the Mahabharata.

The idea of dharma (law, duty, truth) which is central to Hinduism was expressed in a genre
of texts known as Dharma Sutras and Shastras. The Dharma Sutras recognise three sources of
dharma: revelation (i.e. the Veda), tradition (smrti), and good custom. The Laws of Manu
adds 'what is pleasing to oneself'.

During this period the vedic fire sacrifice became minimised with the development of
devotional worship (puja) to images of deities in temples. The rise of the Gupta Empire (320-
500 CE) saw the development of the great traditions of Vaishnavism (focussed on Vishnu),
Shaivism (focussed on Shiva) and Shaktism (focussed on Devi).

From this period we can recognise many elements in present day Hinduism, such as bhakti
(devotion) and temple worship. This period saw the development of poetic literature. These
texts were composed in Sanskrit, which became the most important element in a shared
culture.

Top

Medieval Period
Medieval Period (500 CE–1500 CE)

Temple to Sri Brahadeeswarar (Shiva) in Tanjavur, the world's first

granite temple, built 1004–1009 CE ©
From 500 CE we have the rise of devotion (bhakti) to the major deities, particularly Vishnu,
Shiva and Devi. With the collapse of the Gupta empire, regional kingdoms developed which
patronised different religions. For example, the Cholas in the South supported Shaivism.

This period saw the development of the great regional temples such as Jagganatha in Puri in
Orissa, the Shiva temple in Cidambaram in Tamilnadu, and the Shiva temple in Tanjavur,
also in Tamilnadu. All of these temples had a major deity installed there and were centres of
religious and political power.

Poet-saints and gurus

During this time not only religious literature in Sanskrit developed but also in vernacular
languages, particularly Tamil. Here poet-saints recorded their devotional sentiments. Most
notable are the twelve Vaishnava Alvars (6th–9th centuries), including one famous female
poet-saint called Andal, and the sixty-three Shaiva Nayanars (8th–10th centuries).

Subsequent key thinkers and teachers (acharyas or gurus) consolidated these teachings. They
formulated new theologies, perpetuated by their own disciplic successions (sampradaya).

Shankara (780–820) travelled widely, defeating scholars of the unorthodox movements,

Buddhism and Jainism, which around the turn of the millennium had established prominent
seats of learning throughout India. He re-established the authority of the Vedic canon,
propagated advaita (monism) and laid foundations for the further development of the
tradition known as the Vedanta.

Madhva (c.1238–c.1317, Vaishnava saint and founder of the

philosophical school Dvaita Vedanta ©

Developments in Vaishnavism and Shaivism

The Vaishnava philosophers Ramanuja (c. 1017–1137), Madhva (13th cent) and others
followed, writing their own scriptural commentaries, propounding new theologies and
establishing their own successions. Ramanuja qualified Shankara's impersonal philosophy,
and Madhva more strongly propounded the existence of a personal God.

Shaivism similarly developed during this period with important philosophers such as
Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025) writing commentaries on the Tantras, an alternative revelation
to the Veda, and other texts.

The Tantras became revered as a revelation that fulfilled or superseded the Veda. Some of
these texts advocated ritually polluting practices such as offering alcohol, meat and ritualised
sex to ferocious deities but most of these texts are simply concerned with daily and
occasional rituals, temple building, cosmology and so on.

Top

Pre-Modern Period
The Pre-Modern Period (c.1500–1757 CE)

Marble elephants at Jagdish Temple in Udaipur, Rajasthan (1651

CE). Photo: Christopher Walker ©

Alongside the development of Hindu traditions, most widespread in the South, was the rise of
Islam in the North as a religious and political force in India. The new religion of Islam
reached Indian shores around the 8th century, via traders plying the Arabian Sea and the
Muslim armies which conquered the northwest provinces.

Muslim political power began with the Turkish Sultanate around 1200 CE and culminated in
the Mughul Empire (from 1526). Akbar (1542–1605) was a liberal emperor and allowed
Hindus to practice freely. However, his great grandson, Aurangzeb (1618–1707), destroyed
many temples and restricted Hindu practice.

During this period we have further developments in devotional religion (bhakti). The Sant
tradition in the North, mainly in Maharashtra and the Panjab, expressed devotion in poetry to
both a god without qualities (nirguna) and to a god with qualities (saguna) such as parental
love of his devotees.

The Sant tradition combines elements of bhakti, meditation or yoga, and Islamic mysticism.
Even today the poetry of the princess Mirabai, and other saints such as Tukaram, Surdas and
Dadu are popular.

Top

British Period
British Period (1757–1947 CE)
 Map of British Indian Empire, 1909 ©

Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey (1757) heralded the end of the Mughul Empire
and the rise of British supremacy in India.

At first, the British did not interfere with the religion and culture of the Indian people,
allowing Hindus to practice their religion unimpeded. Later, however, missionaries arrived
preaching Christianity. Shortly after, the first scholars stepped ashore, and though initially
sympathetic, were often motivated by a desire to westernise the local population. Chairs of
Indology were established in Oxford and other universities in Europe.

Hindu reformers

The nineteenth century saw the development of the 'Hindu Renaissance' with reformers such
as Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) presenting Hinduism as a rational, ethical religion and
founding the Brahmo Samaj to promote these ideas.

Another reformer, Dayananda Sarasvati (1824–83), advocated a return to vedic religion

which emphasised an eternal, omnipotent and impersonal God. He wanted to return to the
'eternal law' or sanatana dharma of Hinduism before the Puranas and Epics through his
society, the Arya Samaj.

Both of these reformers wished to rid Hinduism of what they regarded as superstition. These
groups were instrumental in sowing the seeds of Indian nationalism and Hindu missionary
movements that later journeyed to the West.

Another important figure was Paramahamsa Ramakrishna (1836-86), who declared the unity
of all religions. His disciple Vivekananda (1863–1902) developed his ideas and linked them
to a political vision of a united India.

These ideas were developed by Gandhi (1869–1948), who was instrumental in establishing
an independent India. Gandhi, holy man and politician, is probably the best known Indian of
the twentieth century. He helped negotiate independence, but was bitterly disappointed by the
partition of his country. He was assassinated in 1948.
 A shrine to Paramahamsa Ramakrishna at Mysore. Photo: Chetan
Hegde M ©

Gandhi drew much of his strength and conviction from the Hindu teachings, such as the
notion of ahimsa (non-violence), and propounded a patriotism that was broad-minded and
magnanimous.

Hindutva

During the resistance to colonial rule, the term 'Hindu' became charged with cultural and
political meaning. One central idea was hindutva (hindu-ness), coined by V.D. Savarkar to
refer to a socio-political force that could unite Hindus against 'threatening others'.

Cultural organisations such as the RSS (Rashtriya Svayam-Sevak Sangh) and VHP (Vishva
Hindu Parishad) have embraced and developed this ideal, which found political expression in
the BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party). These sectarian ideas continued after independence.

Top

Independent India
Independent India (1947 CE–present)

Gate of the Swaminarayan Temple in London. Photo: Colin

Gregory Palmer ©

The partition of India in 1947, and the resultant bloodshed reinforced nationalistic tendencies
and specifically notions of India as 'a Hindu country', and of Hinduism as 'an Indian religion'.

These tendencies have continued and, since then, communal violence has frequently erupted.
In 1992, Hindus were incited to tear down the Babri mosque in Ayodhya, which they believe
was deliberately and provocatively built over the site of Rama's birth. Tensions have been
exacerbated by attempts to covert Hindus to other religions and reactions by the continuing
hindutva movement.
Identity in the Hindu diaspora

However, the post-war Hindu movements imported into the west, and wide migration of
Hindus, raised questions about the exact nature of Hindu identity. From the 1960s onwards,
many Indians migrated to Britain and Northern America. Gurus travelled to the West to
nurture the fledgling Hindu communities, sometimes starting missionary movements that
attracted Western interest.

In the late 1960s, Transcendental Meditation achieved worldwide popularity, attracting the
attention of celebrities such as the Beatles. Perhaps the most conspicuous was the Hare
Krishna movement, whose male followers sported shaved heads and saffron robes.

Practising yoga in Paris. Photo: austinevan ©

Many such Western adherents, and casual practitioners of yoga also, were attracted to the
non-sectarian spiritual aspects of Hinduism. Many Hindu youth in the diaspora have similarly
preferred these universal aspects of Hinduism, standing in tension with its more political and
sectarian elements.

At the end of the millennium, the Hindu communities became well established abroad,
excelling socially, economically and academically. They built many magnificent temples,
such has the Swaminarayan Temple in London.

Hindus in diaspora were particularly concerned about the perpetuation of their tradition and
felt obliged to respond to Hindu youth, who sought a rational basis for practices previously
passed down by family custom. They are now particularly concerned about how to deal with
contentious issues such as caste, intermarriage and the position of women. In many ways,
Hindus in the West are turning back to their roots.

Hindu scripture

The Vedas

These are the most ancient religious texts which define truth for Hindus.

They got their present form between 1200-200 BCE and were introduced to India by the
Aryans.

Hindus believe that the texts were received by scholars direct from God and passed on to the
next generations by word of mouth.
Vedic texts are sometimes called shruti, which means hearing. For hundreds, maybe even
thousands of years, the texts were passed on orally.

Contents of the Vedas

The Vedas are made up of four compositions, and each veda in turn has four parts which are
arranged chronologically.

 The Samhitas are the most ancient part of the Vedas, consisting of hymns of praise to
God.
 The Brahmanas are rituals and prayers to guide the priests in their duties.
 The Aranyakas concern worship and meditation.
 The Upanishads consist of the mystical and philosophical teachings of Hinduism.

The Samhitas

 Rig-Veda Samhita (c. 1200 BCE) is the oldest of the four vedas and consists of 1028
hymns praising the ancient gods.
 Yajur-Veda Samhita is used as a handbook by priests performing the vedic
sacrifices.
 Sama-Veda Samhita consists of chants and tunes for singing at the sacrifices.
 Atharva-Veda Samhita (c. 900 BCE) preserves many traditions which pre-date the
Aryan influence and consists of spells, charms and magical formulae.

The Upanishads

The Upanishads were so called because they were taught to those who sat down beside their
teachers. (upa=near, ni=down, shad=sit).

These texts developed from the Vedic tradition, but largely reshaped Hinduism by providing
believers with philosophical knowledge.

The major Upanishads were largely composed between 800-200 BCE and are partly prose,
partly verse.

Later Upanishads continued to be composed right down to the 16th century. Originally they
were in oral form.

The early Upanishads are concerned with understanding the sacrificial rites.

Central to the Upanishads is the concept of brahman; the sacred power which informs reality.

Whilst the priests (brahmins) had previously been the ones who, through ritual and sacrifice,
had restricted access to the divine, now the knowledge of the universe was open to those of
the high and middle castes willing to learn from a teacher.

Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita, or "Song of the Lord" is part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata, the
world's longest poem.

The Bhagavad Gita ©

Composed between 500 BCE and 100 CE, the Mahabharata is an account of the wars of the
house of Bharata.

It is one of the most popular Hindu texts and is known as a smriti text (the remembered
tradition). This is considered by some to be of less importance than shruti (the heard text,
such as the Vedas). It has, nevertheless, an important place within the Hindu tradition.

The Bhagavad Gita takes the form of a dialogue between prince Arjuna and Krishna, his
charioteer.

Arjuna is a warrior, about to join his brothers in a war between two branches of a royal
family which would involve killing many of his friends and relatives.

He wants to withdraw from the battle but Krishna teaches him that he, Arjuna, must do his
duty in accordance with his class and he argues that death does not destroy the soul.

Krishna points out that knowledge, work and devotion are all paths to salvation and that the
central value in life is that of loyalty to God.

The Ramayana

Composed in the same period, the Ramayana is one of India's best known tales.

It tells the story of Prince Rama who was sent into exile in the forest with his wife, Sita, and
his brother, Lakshamana.

Sita was abducted by the evil demon Ravana but ultimately rescued by Prince Rama with the
help of the Monkey God, Hanuman.

The story is written in 24,000 couplets.

The symbolism of the story has been widely interpreted but basically is the story of good
overcoming evil. Many people have said that it is a story about dharma or duty.