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Abstract. In the field of materials forming processes, the use of simulation coupled with
optimization is a powerful numerical tool to support design in industry and research. The finite
element software Forge®, a reference in the field of the two-dimensional and three-dimensional
simulation of forging processes, has been coupled to an automatic optimization engine. The
optimization method is based on meta-model assisted evolutionary algorithm. It allows solving
complex optimization problems quickly. This paper is dedicated to a specific application of
optimization, inverse analysis. In a first stage, a range of reverse analysis applications are
considered such as material rheological and tribological characterization, identification of heat
transfer coefficients and, finally, the estimation of Time Temperature Transformation curves based
on existing Continuous Cooling Transformation diagrams for steel quenching simulation. In a
second part, a novel inverse analysis application is presented in the field of cold sheet forming, the
identification of the material anisotropic constitutive parameters that allow matching with the final
shape of the component after stamping. The advanced numerical methods used in this kind of
complex simulations are described along with the obtained optimization results. This article shows
that automatic optimization coupled with Forge® can solve many inverse analysis problems and is a
valuable tool for supporting development and design of metals forming processes.
1. Introduction
Forge® finite element software is used to simulate hot, warm and cold forming of axisymmetric and
three-dimensional parts. It has been coupled to an automatic optimization engine and this work is
focused on a specific application of this optimization algorithm, the inverse analysis of material
parameters.
To be sure that the optimum is found, total number of chained simulations was 60 with twice
the number of parameters computations per generation to be optimized over 10 generations. It is
important to note parallel computing aspects of this method because all individual evaluations are
calculated simultaneously in each generation. Indeed for each unknown parameter optimization we
have two completely independent calculations. Here for 3 parameters we have 6 independent
calculations per generation. Therefore the cost of the CPU time is reduced to only 10 Forge®
calculations with 6 nodes of a parallel cluster. Total computing time for this inverse analysis was 20
minutes. Best parameters were found at iteration 39 of 60:
= +. $.
+ . .
Final cost function is the sum of squared deviations between tests and simulation curves;
Figure 1 shows that effort versus displacement curves for compression and traction are close
between experiments and best Forge® simulations. To go further, best fit should probably be
obtained by second optimization within new parameters range around this first solution.
Fig. 1: Force versus displacement curve comparison between optimized Forge® simulation (green),
worst Forge® simulation (red) and experiments (blue) for compression and tensile tests
2.1.2 Reverse analysis for more complex rheological law
Like in the previous example we present identification of more complex Hansel Spittel
rheological law depending on deformation, temperature and strain rate:
=
Sought are six unknown optimization parameters A, m1, m2, m3, m4 and m8. We define a
range of variation between minimum and maximum values for each of them. Following four torsion
tests done in the workshop we get four curves of torsion torque versus time for different
temperatures and strain rate conditions (for temperature at 900°C, 1200°C, strain rate at 0.1s-1, 1s-1).
First we have to define four Forge® reference simulations for each temperature and strain rate with
same condition as the workshop experiments. The final cost function is the sum of the four squared
difference between the test curves and numerical curves results obtained by simulation Forge®.
example of tribological law is Tresca:
‖.‖ =
/
√
/ is the coefficient of
where ., are respectively shear stress and Von Mises equivalent stress,
the Tresca law and is a potential optimization unknown parameter value between 0 and 1.
We propose an identification method which is to set up the experimental ring test. We define
ring test reference Forge® simulation has the same as the experimental compression test ring. The
unknown parameter is / coefficient of Tresca Fiction law, the minimizable is a cost function
representative of dimension of the ring. We choose a cost function representative of the final aimed
shape. We have a cost function calculated within internal and external diameters of the final shape:
Fig. 2: Final shape of simulated ring test with internal and external diameter used for cost function
With this method friction coefficient reflecting lubricant used for ring test is found. This inverse
analysis can be done for more complex tribology such as coulomb-tresca or viscoplastic law with
more unknown parameters coefficients of the friction law.
Results of experiment and computed temperatures for 3 thermocouples are presented in Figure 3,
different colors are for each thermo-couple, lines with markers are experimental data, dotted lines
are initial values, and continuous lines are for best reverse HTC.
It shows that at least the inverse analysis fit is much better than the one obtained with the
original set. For this optimization we have used 30 generations of 20 individuals. Total number of
simulations was 600. Due to the parallel computing aspects of this method many individual
evaluations have been calculated simultaneously in each generation because for 10 parameters there
are 20 independent calculations per generation. Total computing time for the inverse analysis was
10 hours using 10 nodes of a parallel cluster machine.
L
three optimization parameters according to a Kirkaldy model:
JK ! #& = L 7 L JK ! M 7 M& +
M
where M and M are respectively transformation temperature and asymptotic temperature
in Kelvin for different phases and L , L , L
are optimization parameters.
The inverse analysis is decoupled in five optimization problems with 3 parameters for each
phase. For each optimization cost function is the quadratic difference between experimental and
numerical CCT cooling curves obtained. For these 5 optimizations we impose 15 calculations per
generation and 10 generations; there are 750 calculations to perform. For faster response time
optimization engine of the inverse analysis has been modified and is close to experimental design.
The interpolation degree of meta-model has been decreased to promote exploration of the
parameters optimization domain. Thanks to this, total optimization time is less than 15 minutes.
An example of steel alloy TTT diagram based on existing CCT experimental curves has been
computed within this automatic inverse analysis preprocessor. In the next Figure 4, CCT results of
optimized TTT diagram are compared to the experimental CCT curves; transformation phase of
ferrite, pearlite and bainite are presented. Grey lines are for experimental data, dotted lines are for
austenite, color lines are for optimized curves.
Fig. 5: Stamping process of aluminum part Fig. 6: Low and high anisotropy effect
Anisotropic Hill criterion has been developed in Forge® software to simulate ears effect in
stamping. We propose an identification method to find material anisotropic constitutive parameters
fitting the final stamping shape with exact ears dimension.
3.1 Advanced numerical methods
The cold forging technique is difficult because it requires a good mastery of the process to give
the expected output in term of part quality and shape control; thus cold forging simulation implies
some difficulties which are overcame in Forge® by advanced numerical methods.
Elasticity is taken into account thanks to an elasto-viscoplastic model [2]. After forming process
with large displacements, part spring back phenomenon is accurately simulated by a steady elastic
unloading. Anisotropy is taken into account by anisotropic Hill criterion [8].
CPU time reduction is important for optimization particularly for cold sheet forming simulation
which can be computation time consuming. This is due to thin sheet geometry and 3D complex
geometry with high curvature disadvantageous for meshes dimension and therefore for computation
time. For right balance between accuracy and computation time, meshes are automatically adapted
by advanced topological tetrahedral remesher using anisotropic mesh adaptation techniques [9].
Anisotropic mesh permits to preserve several elements in the thickness and to decrease the number
of nodes for thin sheet part. Remeshing is local; it saves CPU time and it preserves accuracy. The
mesh is automatically adapted below multi-criteria which are the geometry (automatic tools
curvature adaptation and thickness) and finite element error estimation based on velocity or
temperature gradient.
Fig. 7: Anisotropic mesh for thin geometry and local remeshing for automatic curvature
adaptation generates accurate mesh with limited number of elements
All of these Forge® solver capabilities are used for the stamping process optimization.
3.2 Reverse anisotropic behavior
Material's anisotropic behavior is modeled based on the Hill criterion which is derived directly
from the Von Mises criterion considering anisotropy in different directions:
Q. %% 7 RR + S. 88 7 RR + T. 88 7 %% + J. %R + U. R8 + (. 8% =
where is stress tensor, is yield stress, F, G, H, L, M, N are constants characteristic of the
current state of anisotropy. The coefficients of the Hill criterion can be written through relationships
with Lankford coefficients r0, r90, r45:
V V . + S. V + + S
= , S = , T = , ( = , J = U = (
V . + V + V + V
For isotropic behaviour, Hill parameters F, G, H are equal to 0.5 and L, M, N are equal to 1.5,
Lankford coefficients r0, r90, r45 are equal to unity.
Traditionally tensile tests in different directions will give the Lankford parameters. Hill criterion
is then deducted from Lankford parameter values. However Lankford identification tests can be a
tricky method also we propose an easy inverse analysis numerical method with Forge®
optimization module to find these anisotropic Lankford parameters values.
3.3 Parameters and minimizables for identification
We want identify anisotropic Lankford parameters r0, r90 and r45 fitting the final stamping form
with ears shown in Figure 8. In the rheological data file, coefficient values r0, r90 and r45 are
replaced by 3 unknown optimization parameters with a range of variation between 0.1 and 2. The
objective is to fit as well as possible final dimensions of the actual ear piece shown in the Figure 8.
Optimization minimizables are based on height measurements of backside ear and right side ear;
they are evaluated on final heights reached in these two areas of developing ears; they are the
absolute difference between simulated and real heights of final shape in rear and right area
illustrated in the Figure 8; the final cost function is the sum of these two computed minimizables.
Fig. 8: Objective of optimization is to target the real ears of the final stamping shape,
minimizables of optimization are difference between aimed and simulated ears height
Fig. 9: Various forms of final shape created Fig. 10: Real and optimal simulated shape
by optimization of the stamping process
The nearest part of the final target form was found for the fourth individual in the sixth
generation of optimization and Figure 10 shows that the optimal simulated shape is very close to the
actual shape. The minimal final cost function was close to naught with very small relative
differences in term of final size earrings, 0.1% for rear ear and 0.2% for right side ear. Best
Lankford parameters values were:
r0 = 0.93, r90 = 0.92 and r45 = 0.42
It gives Hill parameters values:
F = 0.524, G = 0.518, H = 0.482, L = M = N = 0.959
The anisotropic coefficients were identified Lankford values close to unity in the two main
directions and the lateral component is highly anisotropic.
Thanks to the adaptive remeshing computation time has been divided by a factor of 2.5, which
allows optimization within a reasonable time for this type of complex calculation. We have imposed
8 calculations per generation and 10 generations of optimization; thus there were 80 Forge®
calculations. Each Forge® simulation was performed in parallel within 6 cores of a Linux cluster
and 8 calculations of the same generation were made simultaneously. Thanks to the parallel
computing the inverse analysis was performed on a Linux cluster of 48 cores within 10 hours.
4. Conclusion
Forge® reverse analysis module, with its large application domain, can be used for development
and design assistance of metals forming processes. Inverse analysis handles many different
situations and is a good way to identify material properties or process parameters. It can be applied
for axisymmetric and three-dimensional metal forming processes. This unique software feature is
easy to use, fast on parallel machine and is very efficient for developing innovative forging designs.
References
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