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Engineering 473
Machine Design
Mechanical Properties
(Static Strength – Monotonic Elongation)
P
Sut
SFt
S yt
Set
Stress
lo σ = P/A 0
εe ε y εu εF
0.002 li − l0
P ε=
l0
Mechanical Properties
(Static Strength Nomenclature)
Subscripts
y ≡ 0.2% offset yield
Sut
u ≡ ultimate SFt
S yt
e ≡ elastic Set
F ≡ fracture Stress
t ≡ tension σ = P/A 0
c ≡ compression
Logarithmic Strain σF
σu
dl
dε =
l
True Stress
li
dl li
ε = ! = ln
lo
l lo
True Stress
P
σ=
Ai εu εF
Logarithmic Strain
Mechanical Properties
(Example Data)
True Stress-Logarithmic
Strain Curves for Several
Metallic Materials
P li − l0
ε=
l0 εu ε y εe 0.002
Stress
lo σ = P/A 0
Sec
S yc
Suc
P
Mechanical Properties
(Work Hardening or Cold Working)
Syt
Syt
σ
ε
Mechanical Properties
(Reverse Loading)
Bauschinger’s Effect
Creep is most
pronounced at high ε Failure strain σ, T
temperatures. It may
also occur at room
temperatures when
the stress level is
close to the yield
strength. time
Primary Secondary Tertiary
Creep Creep Creep
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Things that Affect Metal Strength
Cold-working
Casting
Heading
Sand Casting
Roll threading
Investment Casting
Spinning
Shell Molding
Stamping
Powder-Metallurgy
Heat Treatment
Hot-working
Annealing
Hot rolling
Quenching
Extrusion
Tempering
Forging
Case Hardening
Hot Working
Large coarse
Smaller grains
grain structure
Allen, pg 508.
Forging
Grain boundaries in
3003 aluminum alloy.
Strength of Spin Formed Materials
Heat Treating
Processes
• Annealing
• Quenching
• Tempering
• Case Hardening
Annealing
Equiaxed Crystals
Have equivalent dimensions
in all directions (i.e. not
longer in one direction)
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Purpose
The stress state at critical locations in a machine
component is required to evaluate whether the
component will satisfy strength design
requirements.
Positive
σ xx σ xx
Face
Face
τ xy Negative
Face
Stresses acting in a positive
τ yx coordinate direction on a positive
Y σ yy face are positive.
àj
ài
X
2D Mohrís Circle
(Transformation of Axis)
y σ
τ φ
All equations for a 2-D
τ xy Mohrís Circle are
φ derived from this figure.
ds
σ xx dy
dx ΣF in the x- and y-
x directions yields the
τ yx transformation-of-axis
σ yy equations
σ xx + σ yy σ xx − σ yy
σ= + cos(2φ ) + τ xysin (2φ )
2 2
σ xx − σ yy
τ=− sin (2φ ) + τ xycos(2φ )
2
2D Mohrís Circle
(Principal Stress Equations)
2
σ xx + σ yy & σ xx − σ yy #
σ1 , σ 2 = ± $$ !! + τ 2xy
2 % 2 "
2
& σ xx − σ yy #
τ1 , τ 2 = ± $$ !! + τ 2xy
% 2 "
2
σ xx + σ yy & σ − σ yy #
σ1 , σ 2 = ± $$ xx !! + τ 2xy
2 % 2 "
2
& σ − σ yy #
τ1 , τ 2 = ± $$ xx !! + τ 2xy
% 2 "
σ xx σ xx & σ − σ yy #
τ1 , τ 2 = ± $$ xx !! + τ 2xy
% 2 "
τ xy
Tensor
τ yx
σ yy The sign convention is
important when the
τ yx
transformation-of-axis
τ xy equations are used.
σ xx σ xx
The same answer is obtained
τ xy
when computing the principal
τ 2D Mohrís
yx stress components.
σ yy Circle
3D Stress Components
σ yy Note that the tensor
τ yx sign convention is
used.
τ xy
τ zy σ xx There are nine
τ zx τ xz components of stress.
Moment equilibrium
σ zz can be used to reduce
the number of stress
y components to six.
àj τ xy = τ yx
ài
x τ xz = τ zx
kà τ yz = τ zy
z
Cauchy Stress Tensor
(σ xx − σ ) τ xy τ xz
τ yx (σ yy − σ) τ yz = 0 This is an eigenvalue
τ zx τ zy (σ zz − σ ) problem.
3D Principal Stresses
(Characteristic Equation)
τ zx τ zy (σ zz − σ ) equation
τ τ1,3
Note that the principal
τ1,2 stresses have been ordered
such that σ1 ≥ σ 2 ≥ σ3 .
τ2,3
σ3 σ2 σ1
σ
Maximum shear stresses
σ1 − σ 2
τ1,2 =
2
σ 2 − σ3
τ 2,3 =
2
σ1 − σ 3
τ1,3 =
2
Octahedral Stresses
1 1 1
σ oct = I1 = (σ1 +σ 2 +σ3 ) = (σ xx +σ yy +σ zz )
3 3 3
2 2 1
( 2 2
)
τ oct = τ 1,2 + τ 2,3 + τ1,3 2
3
1 1
[ 2 2
= (σ1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ3 ) + (σ3 − σ1 )
3
2 2
]
1
1 &(σ xx − σ yy ) + (σ yy − σ zz ) + (σ zz − σ xx ) #
2 2 2 2
= $ !
( )
3 $+ 6 τ 2xy + τ 2yz + τ 2xz
% !"
Use the Mohrís circle formulas to compute the principal stresses and compare
to those found using the Mohrís circle graph.
Write the stress components given above as a Cauchy stress matrix. Use
MATLAB to compute the principal stresses. Compare the answers to those
found using Mohrís circle. Note that tensor notation is required.
Verify the that the terms in the 3D characteristic equation used to compute
the principal stresses are correct.
Stress Concentration Factors and
Notch Sensitivity
Lecture 4
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Photoelasticity
σ max
Kt =
σ nom
F
σ nom =
A0
A 0 = (w − d )t
r
d Spotts, Fig. 2-8, Peterson
Geometric Stress Concentration
Factors
(Bending Example)
Mc Mc
σ = Kt σ = Kf
I I
or
Kf −1
q= 0 ≤ q ≤1
K t −1
K f = 1 + q(K t − 1) 1 ≤ Kf ≤ Kt
Notch Sensitivity Factors
(Bending Example)
www.measurementsgroup.com
www.stressphotonics.com
Assignment
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Steady Load Failure Theories
- Sc
Maximum-Normal-Stress Failure
Surface
(Three-dimensional Case)
σ2
~ St According to the
Maximum-Normal-Stress
σ1 Theory, as long as stress
state falls within the box,
~
~ the material will not fail.
σ3
- Sc
The Maximum-Normal-Strain
Theory
(Saint-Venant’s Theory)
Eε1 = σ1 − ν(σ 2 + σ 3 ) = ±S y
E ≡ Young' s Modulus
Eε 2 = σ 2 − ν(σ1 + σ 3 ) = ±S y
ν ≡ Poisson' s Ratio
Eε 3 = σ 3 − ν (σ1 + σ 2 ) = ±S y
Maximum-Normal-Strain Theory
(Biaxial Condition)
τ σ1 > σ 2 > σ 3 τ
τ1/3 = τ max τy
τ1/2
τ 2/3 σ1 = S y
σ3 σ2 σ1 σ σ 2 , σ3 σ
τ
τ max = Ss
Ss = 0.5Sy
σ1 = S y
Sy = σ1 − σ 3
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
(Hydrostatic Effect)
Principal stresses will always σ1d − σ d2
have a hydrostatic component τ1/2 =
(equal pressure) 2
σ1 = σ d1 + σ h σ d2 − σ3d
τ 2/3 =
2
σ 2 = σ d2 + σ h d d
σ1 − σ3
σ 3 = σ d3 + σ h τ1/3 =
2
The maximum shear
σ h = 1 I1 = 1 (σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3 ) stresses are independent of
3 3 the hydrostatic stress.
d => deviatoric component
h => hydrostatic
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
(Hydrostatic Effect – Continued)
If σ1d = σ d2 = σ 3d
The Maximum-Shear-Stress
Then τ max = 0, and there Theory postulates that
yielding is independent of a
is no yielding regardless hydrostatic stress.
of the magintude of the
hydrostati c stress.
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory
(Biaxial Representation of the Yield Surface)
± S y = σ1 − σ 2 ± Sy = σ1 − σ 2
± Sy = σ 2 − σ 3 ± Sy = σ 2
± S y = σ1 − σ 3 ± Sy = σ1
σ2 locus of
For biaxial case failure states
(plane stress) Sy
σ3 = 0 II
I
- Sy
± Sy = σ1 − σ 2
Sy σ1
± Sy = σ 2 III
IV
± Sy = σ1 - Sy
failure surface
Lecture 6
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Distortion-Energy Theory
1 1 1
U = σ1ε1 + σ 2 ε 2 + σ 3ε 3 U
2 2 2
εi ε
Units
The strain energy in a tensile
test specimen is the area under
[ ] [
[U ] = lb in 2 ⋅ [in in ] = lb − in in 3 ] the stress-strain curve.
Strain Energy
(Elastic Stress-Strain Relationship)
1 1 1
U = σ1ε1 + σ 2ε 2 + σ 3ε 3
2 2 2
1 &1 #
= σ1 % (σ1 − νσ 2 − νσ3 )"
2 $E !
1 &1 #
+ σ 2 % (σ 2 − νσ1 − νσ3 )"
2 $E !
1 &1 #
+ σ3 % (σ 3 − νσ1 − νσ 2 )"
2 $E !
1 2
U=
2E
[ ]
σ1 + σ 22 + σ32 − 2ν(σ1σ 2 + σ 2σ3 + σ3σ1 )
Distortion and Hydrostatic
Contributions to Stress State
σ2 σh σ2 − σh
σ1 σh σ1 − σ h
= +
σ3 σh σ3 − σ h
σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3
Principal Stresses σh = Distortional Stresses
Acting on Principal 3
Planes Hydrostatic Stress
The distortional stress components are often called the
deviatoric stress components.
Physical Significance
(Hydrostatic Component)
σh σ h = Ke
K ≡ Bulk Modulus
σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3
σh = e ≡ volumetric strain
3
Physical Significance
(Distortional Stresses)
1
=
2E
[ ]
3σ 2h − 6ν ⋅ σ 2h
This term is equal to the strain
3 (1 - 2ν ) 2 energy per unit volume from the
Uh = σh
2 E hydrostatic stress components.
Distortional Strain Energy
The distortional strain energy is equal to the difference between
the total strain energy and the hydrostatic strain energy.
Ud = U − Uh
1 2
=
2E
[ ]
σ1 + σ 22 + σ32 − 2ν(σ1σ 2 + σ 2σ3 + σ3σ1 )
2
3 (1 − 2ν ) (σ1 + σ 2 + σ3 )
−
2 E 9
1 2
=
2E
[ ]
σ1 + σ 22 + σ32 − 2ν(σ1σ 2 + σ 2σ3 + σ3σ1 )
1 (1 − 2ν ) 2
−
2 3E
( )
σ1 + σ 22 + σ32 + 2(σ1σ 2 + σ 2σ3 + σ3σ1 )
1+ ν 2
Ud =
3E
[
σ1 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ1σ 2 − σ 2 σ 3 − σ 3σ1 ]
Distortional Strain Energy in Tension
Test Specimen
Postulate: Yielding will occur when the distortion-
energy per unit volume equals the distortion-
energy per unit volume in a uniaxial tension
specimen stressed to its yield strength.
1+ ν 2
Ud =
3E
[
σ1 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ1σ 2 − σ 2 σ 3 − σ 3σ1 ]
1+ ν 2
Ud = Sy
3E
σ eff = Sy
σ eff =
(σ1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ1 )2 Form 2
2
σ3 = 0 σ2
Sy
σ eff = σ12 + σ 22 − σ1σ 2
- Sy
(σ1 − σ 2 )2 + σ 22 + σ12 Sy σ1
σ eff =
2
- Sy
σ2 - Sy
σ3 σ1
45° S σ1
y
- Sy
Mohrís Circle
σ eff = σ12 + σ 32 − σ1σ 3
for Pure Shear
= 3σ12 = 3τ 2max = Sy
σ eff =
(σ1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ1 )2
2
τ
τ1/3
People came up with the same τ1/2
equation using different starting τ 2/3
points.
σ3 σ2 σ1 σ
ïShear Energy Theory
ïVon Mises-Hencky Theory
ïOctahedral-Shear-Stress Theory
σ1 > σ 2 > σ 3
Assignment
ï Show that the two forms of the equation for the effective stress
are equal.
ï Show that the effective stress for a hydrostatic stress state is
zero.
ï Compute the effective stress at the critical location in the
stepped shaft loaded in tension (previous assignment). The
yield strength of the material is 30 ksi. Will the material yield
at the critical location?
σ eff =
(σ1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ 2 − σ 3 )2 + (σ 3 − σ1 )2
2
Assignment
(Continued)
In the rear wheel suspension of the Volkswagen ìBeetleî the spring motion was
provided by a torsion bar fastened to an arm on which the wheel was mounted.
See the figure for more details. The torque in the torsion bar was created by a
2500-N force acting on the wheel from the ground through a 300-mm lever
arm. Because of space limitations, the bearing holding the torsion bar was
situated 100-mm from the wheel shaft. The diameter of the torsion bar was 28-
mm. Find the von Mises stress in the torsion bar at the bearing.
Lecture 7
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Important Historical Studies of
Failure Theories
ï The American Institute of Steel Construction does not use either in the
Manual of Steel Construction. Buildings, bridges, etc. are dominated
by normal stresses and buckling type failures.
σ
Sc St
σ1 σ 3
− = 1, where σ1 > σ 2 > σ 3 .
S t Sc
Comparison with Maximum Shear
Stress Theory
Internal Friction Theory
σ1 σ 3
− = 1, where σ1 > σ 2 > σ 3 . Note that the IFT is a
S t Sc generalization of the
MSST. The MSST is
Maximum Shear Stress Theory limited to materials in
S t = Sc which the tensile and
compressive yield
σ1 σ 3 strengths are
− = 1, where σ1 > σ 2 > σ 3 ,
S t Sc approximately equal.
σ1 − σ 3
=1
Sy
Plane Stress Condition
σ3 σ2 = 0
Sut
Suc IFT
σ1
Sut MSST
Suc
Colomb-Mohr
Theory is the IFT
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Fracture Mechanics
ìÖevery structure contains small flaws whose size and
distribution are dependent upon the material and its
processing. These may vary from nonmetallic inclusions
and micro voids to weld defects, grinding cracks, quench
cracks, surface laps, etc.î
K = σ nom π ⋅ a
for
a << b
MPa ksi
[k] = or
m in
Fracture toughness is a
MPa ksi material property.
[k] = or
m in
Brittle to Ductile Transition
Temperature
Low temperatures and
high strain rates
generally promote brittle
behavior (i.e. low
fracture toughness).
Sailors, R.H., H.T. Corten, “Relationship Between Material Fracture Toughness Using Fracture
Mechanics & Transition Temperature Tests, Stress Analysis and Growth of Cracks,” ASTM
STP514, Am. Society of Testing Materials, 1972.
Comparison with Charpy
V-Notch Test Data
K o = σ nom π ⋅ a
K IC = Sy π ⋅ a K IC = 26 MPa m
Sy = 455 MPa
2
1 &$ K IC #!
a=
π $% Sy !" a = 0.001 m
= 1 mm = 0.04 inch
Lecture 9
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Critical Crack Size
Case 1:
1 The machine element is inspected and no
cracks are found.
K IC
σf =
Y π⋅a
Case 2:
2 The part is tested and does not fail under a
known load.
2
1 & K IC #
a = $$ !!
π % Yσ f "
Possible crack size
Stress caused by the test load
Fracture Mechanics Cases
(Crack is detected)
Case 3:
3 The part is inspected and a crack is found.
2
1 & K IC #
a crit = $ !
π % Yσ "
Expected service stress
Stress-Corrosion Cracking
Parts subjected to continuous static loads in certain corrosive
environments may, over a period of time, develop cracks.
Modified Internal
Friction
When do I apply these
failure theories?
Design Governed Design Not Governed by
by Industry Industry Design
Design Standard Standard
ï Follow formulas in standard. ï Choose a factor of safety
that the design is to be
ï Formulas can often be derived based on.
based on a knowledge of the
failure theory incorporated in ï Use appropriate failure
the standard. theory during the design of
machine elements.
ï Factor of safety is included in
the standard. ï Compute failure margins at
all critical locations.
Flow Chart for
Typical Analysis
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Load Histories and
Design Objectives
Failure
σ, F σ, F
Failure
t, time t, time
Conservative
Lower Bound
for Ferrous
Materials
Sʹ′e = 0.3Sut
Se = k a ⋅ k b ⋅ k c ⋅ k d ⋅ k e ⋅ Sʹ′e
There are several
factors that are known
Se ≡ Endurance limit of part to result in differences
between the endurance
Sʹ′e ≡ Endurance limit of test specimen
limits in test specimens
k a ≡ Surface factor and those found in
k b ≡ Size factor machine elements.
k c ≡ Load factor
k d ≡ Temperature factor See sections 7-8 & 7-9 in
k e ≡ Miscellaneous - effects factor Shigley for a discussion on
each factor.
Mean Stress Effects
ï The S-N curve obtained from a
rotating beam test has completely
reversed stress states.
Alternating Stress
σ max − σ min
σa =
2
Mean Stress
σ max + σ min
σm =
2
Stress Ratio Amplitude Ratio
Note that R=-1 for a
σ min σa completely reversed
R= A=
σ max σm stress state with zero
mean stress.
Mean Stress Fatigue Testing
www.fdinc.com
Fluctuating Stress Failure Data
k f Sa S m 1
+ =
Se S yt N f
k f Sa Sm 1
+ =
Se Sut N f
Note that the fatigue stress
concentration factor is applied
only to the alternating
component.
Gerber Interaction Line
Any combination of mean and
2 alternating stress that lies on or
k f Sa & S m # below the Gerber line will have
+ $$ !! = 1 infinite life.
Se % Sut "
Factor of Safety Format
2
k f N f Sa & N f S m #
+ $$ !! = 1
Se % Sut "
The Modified-Goodman
Interaction Line never exceeds
the yield line.
Example No. 1
A 1.5-inch round bar has been machined from AISI 1050 cold-
drawn round bar. This part is to withstand a fluctuating tensile
load varying from 0 to 16 kip. Because of the design of the
ends and the fillet radius, a fatigue stress-concentration factor
of 1.85 exists. The remaining Marin factors have been worked
out, and are ka=0.797, kb=kd=1, and kc=0.923. Find the factor
of safety using the Goodman interaction line.
π ⋅ d2 Se = k a k b k c k dSʹ′e
A= = 1.77 in 2
4
= (0.797 )(1)(0.923)(1)(50 ksi )
16 kip Se = 36.8 ksi
σ max = 2
= 9.04 ksi
1.77 in
σ min = 0 ksi
σ max − σ min
σa = = 4.52 ksi
2
Example No. 1
(Continued)
k f σa σm 1
+ =
Se Sut N f
N f = 3.67
Example
5 in 5 in Pmax = 1000 lb
Pmin = 350 lb
1 2
Material UNS
1.5 in. dia. 0.875 in. dia. G41200 Steel
0.125 in. rad. Notch sensitivity
Will the beam have infinite life? q=0.3
π 4 π I1 0.249 in 4
I1 =
4
D 1 = (1.5) = 0.249 in 4 S1 = = = 0.332 in 3
64 64 c1 0.75 in
π 4 π 4 I 2 0.088 in 4
I2 = D 2 = (0.875) = 0.088 in 4 S2 = = = 0.201 in 3
64 64 c 2 0.438 in
Example
(Continued)
5 in 5 in Pmax = 1000 lb
Pmin = 350 lb
1 2
Material UNS
1.5 in. dia. 0.875 in. dia. G41200 Steel
0.125 in. rad. Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
kf −1 D 1.5 in k t = 1.61
q= = = 1.71
k t −1 d 0.875 in k f = 1 + q(k t − 1)
r 0.125
k f = 1 + q(k t − 1) = = 0.143 = 1 + 0.3(1.61 − 1)
d 0.875
= 1.18
Ref. Peterson
Example
(Continued)
5 in 5 in Pmax = 1000 lb
Pmin = 350 lb
1 2
Material UNS
1.5 in. dia. 0.875 in. dia. G41200 Steel
0.125 in. rad. Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
Section 1 (Base)
Material UNS
1.5 in. dia. 0.875 in. dia.
G41200 Steel
0.125 in. rad. Notch sensitivity
Section 2 (Fillet) q=0.3
k f σa σm 1 1
+ = Nf = = 1.99
Se Sult N f 0.502
Part has infinite life.
Example
(Continued)
Section 2 (Fillet)
k f σa σm 1 1
+ = Nf = = 2.16
Se Sult N f 0.463
Lecture 11
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Finite Life Estimates
S yt Sut
Mean Stress, σ m
Goodman Diagram
S-N Curve
What do you do if
the stress state is not
completely
reversed?
Completely reversed cyclic
stress, UNS G41200 steel
Alternating Stress
σ max − σ min
σa =
2
Mean Stress
σ max + σ min
σm =
2
Stress Ratio Amplitude Ratio
Note that R=-1 for a
σ min σa completely reversed
R= A=
σ max σm stress state with zero
mean stress.
Fluctuating-Stress Failure
Interaction Curves
The interaction curves
provide relationships between
alternating stress and mean
stress.
When the mean stress is
zero, the alternating
component is equal to the
endurance limit.
k f Sa Sm 1
+ =
Se Sut N f
Note that the fatigue stress
concentration factor is applied
only to the alternating
component.
Master Fatigue Plot
Constant
cycles till
failure
interaction
curves.
106 cycles
S yt Sut
Mean Stress, σ m
The red and blue lines are estimated fatigue interaction curves
associated with a specific number of cycles to failure.
Number of Cycles to
Failure
Material UNS
1.5 in. dia. 0.875 in. dia. G41200 Steel
0.125 in. rad. Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
π 4 π I1 0.249 in 4
I1 =
4
D 1 = (1.5) = 0.249 in 4 S1 = = = 0.332 in 3
64 64 c1 0.75 in
π 4 π 4 I 2 0.088 in 4
I2 = D 2 = (0.875) = 0.088 in 4 S2 = = = 0.201 in 3
64 64 c 2 0.438 in
Example
(Continued)
5 in 5 in Pmax = 3000 lb
Pmin = 2000 lb
1 2
Material UNS
1.5 in. dia. 0.875 in. dia. G41200 Steel
0.125 in. rad. Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
kf −1 D 1.5 in k t = 1.61
q= = = 1.71
k t −1 d 0.875 in k f = 1 + q(k t − 1)
r 0.125
k f = 1 + q(k t − 1) = = 0.143 = 1 + 0.3(1.61 − 1)
d 0.875
= 1.18
Ref. Peterson
Example
(Continued)
Pmax = 3000 lb
5 in 5 in
Pmin = 2000 lb
1 2
Material UNS
1.5 in. dia. 0.875 in. dia. G41200 Steel
0.125 in. rad. Notch sensitivity
q=0.3
Section 1 (Base)
Material UNS
1.5 in. dia. 0.875 in. dia.
G41200 Steel
0.125 in. rad. Notch sensitivity
Section 2 (Fillet) q=0.3
k f σa σm 1
+ =
Se Sult N f
Section 2 (Fillet)
k f σa
σa =
σ m =0 1 σm
−
N f Sut
Base Fillet
σ a = 15.1 ksi σ a = 12.4 ksi
σ m = 75.3 ksi σ m = 62.2 ksi
(1.0)15.1 (1.18)12.4
σ a σ =0 = σ a σ =0 =
m 1 75.3 m 1 62.2
− −
1.0 116 1.0 116
= 43.0 ksi = 31.5 ksi
Cycles to Failure Estimate
90
70
50 Base
30 Fillet
20
10
Multi-axis Fluctuating
Stress States
Everything presented on fatigue has been based on
experiments involving a single stress component.
Se = k a ⋅ k b ⋅ k c ⋅ k d ⋅ Sʹ′e
The endurance limit is a function of the
load/stress component used in the test.
A part is subjected
σ, F to completely reversed
σ2 stresses as follows
σ1 σ3 σ1 for n1 cycles,
σ 2 for n 2 cycles,
t, time σ 3 for n 3 cycles,
!
σ m for n m cycles,
n1 n 2 n 3 nm
+ + +! + =C
N1 N 2 N 3 Nm
n i ≡ number of cycles for stress level i
N i ≡ cycles to failure at stress level i
C ≡ Constant ranging from 0.7 to 2.2.
C is usually taken as 1.0
Minor’s Rule is the simplest and most widely used
Cumulative Damage Law
Example
Lecture 12
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Evidence of Crack Growth
www.testresources.com
Stress Intensity Factor
Range
Stress Intensity Equation
K = Yσ nom π ⋅ a
(Refer to Class 7 Notes)
K max = Yσ max π ⋅ a
K min = Yσ min π ⋅ a
∆K = Y π ⋅ a ⋅ (σ max − σ min )
∆Kth log(∆K )
Phase II crack
growth data for 316
and 317 stainless
steel at ñ452 oF.
m
da C(∆K − ∆K th )
=
dN (1 − R )K c − ∆K
C, m ≡ empirical constants
σ min
R ≡ stress amplitude ratio =
σ max
K c ≡ Fracture toughness
ΔK th ≡ threshold value, crack growth is not
expected for values of ΔK less than ΔK th.
Griffith-Irwin Formula Plots
m
da C(∆K − ∆K th )
= Griffith-Irwin formula
dN (1 − R )K c − ∆K
da
= C ⋅ ∆K m Phase II simplified formula
dN
Lecture 13
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Axisymmetric Equation of
Equilibrium
(Geometry)
p i ≡ internal pressure
θ ≡ angular position coordinate
r ≡ radial position coordinate
u ≡ displacement in r - direction
v ≡ displacement in θ - direction
∂τ rθ
τ rθ + dθ
∂θ
τ rθ
∂τ rθ
= 0, due to axisymmetric constraint
∂θ
τ rθ = 0, due to stress compatibility
Ugural, Fig. 8.1(b)
Axisymmetric Equation of
Equilibrium
& ∂σ r # & dθ #
$ σr + dr ! ⋅ (r + dr )dθ ⋅ dz - 2σ θ sin $ !drdz - σ r ⋅ rdθ ⋅ dz + Fr rdθ ⋅ dr ⋅ dz = 0
% ∂r " % 2"
dσ r
r + σ r − σ θ + rFr = 0
dr
dσ r σ r − σ θ
+ + Fr = 0
dr r
∂u
dr + dr − dr
∂r du
εr = =
dr dr
εθ =
(r + u )dθ - rdθ u
=
rdθ r
du u
εr = , εθ =
dr r
Constitutive Equations
Hooke’s Law
Stress-Strain equations are often
1 referred to as constitutive
εr = (σ r − νσ θ ) equations, because they depend
E
on what the part is made of.
1 The equilibrium and strain-
ε θ = (σ θ − νσ r ) displacement equations are
E
independent of the material.
E
σθ = 2
(ε θ + νε r )
1− ν
Summary of
Axisymmetric Equations
dσ r σ r − σ θ 1
+ + Fr = 0 ε r = (σ r − νσ θ )
dr r E
1
ε θ = (σ θ − νσ r )
Strain-Displacement Equations E
du u
εr = , εθ =
dr r
Thick Walled Cylinders
(Displacement Differential Equation)
E
σr = 2
(ε r + νε θ )
1− ν
E
σθ = 2
(ε θ + νε r )
1− ν
E & du u#
σr = 2 $
+ν !
1 − ν % dr r"
E &u du #
σθ = 2 $
+ν !
1− ν % r dr "
a ≡ inside radius
b ≡ outside radius
d 2 u 1 du u
p i ≡ internal pressure 2
+ − 2 =0
dr r dr r
p o ≡ external pressure
Ugural, Fig. 8.2
Thick Walled Cylinders
(General Solution & Boundary Conditions)
E , du u)
σr = 2 *
+ ν '
1 − ν + dr r(
E ,u du )
σθ = 2 *
+ν '
1− ν + r dr (
d 2 u 1 du u E & , 1 − ν )#
+ − 2 =0 σr =
1− ν2 $C1 (1 + ν ) − C 2 * r 2 '!
dr 2
r dr r % + ("
E & , 1 − ν )#
General Solution
σθ =
1− ν2 $C1 (1 + ν ) + C 2 * r 2 '!
% + ("
C2
u = C1r +
r Ugural, Fig. 8.2
Thick Walled Cylinders
(Boundary Conditions)
E & , 1 − ν )#
σr = C
$ 1 (1 + ν ) − C 2* 2 '!
1− ν2 % + r ("
E & , 1 − ν )#
− pi = C
$ 1 (1 + ν ) − C 2* 2 '!
1− ν2
% + a ("
E & , 1 − ν )#
− po = C (1 + ν ) − C 2 * 2 '!
2 $ 1
1− ν % + b ("
Boundary Conditions
1 − ν & a 2 pi − b 2 po #
σr r =a
= −p i C1 = $ !
E % b2 − a 2 "
1 + ν & a 2 b 2 (p i − p o )#
σr = −p o C2 = $ !
r =b E % b2 − a 2 "
Ugural, Fig. 8.2
Thick Walled Cylinders
(Lame’ Equations)
a 2 p i − b 2 p o (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
σr = −
2
b −a 2
(
b2 − a 2 r 2)
a 2 p i − b 2 p o (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
σθ = +
2
b −a 2
(
b2 − a 2 r 2)
u=
( )
1 − ν a 2 p i − b 2 p o r 1 + ν (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
+
E 2
b −a 2
E (
b2 − a 2 r )
2E
1 σ r + σθ = 2
[C1 (1 + ν )]
ε z = 0 = (σ z − νσ r − νσ θ ) 1− ν
E
& 2EC1 #
σ z = ν(σ r + σ θ ) σ z = ν$ !
% 1− ν "
σz
po pi
σz
( )
σ z π b 2 − a 2 + po π ⋅ b 2 − pi π ⋅ a 2 = 0
pi a 2 − p o b 2
σz =
b2 − a 2
Special Cases
Internal Pressure Only External Pressure Only
a 2 pi & b 2 # b2po & a 2 #
σr = 2 $1 − 2 !!
2 $ σr = − 2 $1 − 2 !!
b −a % r " 2 $
b −a % r "
σ z = 0, unconstrained σ z = 0, unconstrained
2
2
2ν ⋅ a p i 2ν ⋅ b po
σz = 2 , constrained σ z = − 2 2
, constrained
b −a 2 b −a
2
2
a pi b po
σz = 2 , closed and unconstrained σz = − 2 2
, closed & unconstrained
b − a2 b −a
Stress Variation
b/a=4
Lecture 14
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Lame’ Equations for Thick
Walled Cylinders
a 2 p i − b 2 p o (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
σr = −
2
b −a 2
(
b2 − a 2 r 2)
a 2 p i − b 2 p o (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
σθ = +
2
b −a 2
(
b2 − a 2 r 2)
u=
( )
1 − ν a 2 p i − b 2 p o r 1 + ν (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
+
E 2
b −a 2
E (
b2 − a 2 r )
Compound Cylinders
Civil War Parrott Guns
www.wwd.net/steen
Compound Cylinders
(Assembly)
Outer Cylinder (2)
Inner Cylinder (1)
c
a b−δ
u=
( )
1 − ν a 2 p i − b 2 p o r 1 + ν (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
+
E 2
b −a 2
E (
b2 − a 2 r )
pb & b 2 + a 2 # Inner
u1 = $
$ 2 2
− ν i !!
Ei % b − a " Cylinder
pb & b 2 + c 2 # Outer
u2 = $$ 2 2
+ ν o !!
Eo % c − b " Cylinder
pb & b 2 + c 2 # pb & b 2 + a 2 #
δ= $
$ 2 2
! $
+ νo ! + $ 2 2
− ν i !!
Eo % c − b " Ei % b − a "
p=
( )(
Eδ b 2 − a 2 c 2 − b 2 ) For same
b (
2b 2 c 2 − a 2 ) materials
p=
( )(
Eδ b 2 − a 2 c 2 − b 2 )
b (
2b 2 c 2 − a 2)
p = 1,850 psi
Lame’ Equation
a 2 p i − b 2 p o (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
σθ = +
2
b −a 2
(
b2 − a 2 r 2)
External Pressure
− b2p − pa 2 b 2
σθ = 2 + 2
b −a 2
(
b − a2 r2 )
Interference Stresses
− 2pb 2
σθ r =a
= 2 2
= −8,440 psi
6
E = 30x10 psi b −a
a=6 in
b=8 in δ = 0.004 in − 2p(b 2 + a 2 )
σθ r =b
= 2 2
= −6,590psi
c=10 in b −a
p = 1,850 psi
Example Problem
(Outer Cylinder)
Lame’ Equation
b 2 p i − c 2 p o (p i − p o )b 2 c 2
σθ = + 2
2
c −b 2
(
c − b2 r 2 )
External Pressure
b2p pb 2 c 2
σθ = 2 + 2
c −b 2
(
c − b2 r 2 )
Interference Stresses
& b2 + c2 #
σ θ r = b = p$$ 2 ! = 8,410 psi
2 !
a=6 in E = 30x10 6 psi %c −b "
b=8 in δ = 0.004 in 2pb 2
c=10 in σ θ r =c = 2 = 6,560 psi
p = 1,850 psi c −b 2
Example Problem
(Shrink-fit Stress Distribution)
Outer Cylinder
b c
Inner Cylinder
a=6 in E = 30x10 6 psi
b=8 in δ = 0.004 in
c=10 in p = 1,850 psi
Harvey, Fig. 2.23(a)
Example Problem
(Internal Pressure)
Lame’ Equation
a 2 p i − c 2 p o (p i − p o )a 2 c 2
σθ = + 2
2
c −a 2
(
c − a2 r2 )
Internal Pressure
a 2 pi pia 2c 2
σθ = 2 + 2
c −a 2
(
c − a2 r2 )
Radial Locations
σθ r =a
= 42,500 psi
a=6 in E = 30x10 6 psi σθ = 28,830 psi
r =b
b=8 in δ = 0.004 in σθ = 22,500 psi
c=10 in p i = 20,000 psi
r =c
Example Problem
(Internal Pressure Stress Distribution)
Outer Cylinder
c
b
The force and moment required to cause the head and shell to
displace and rotate the same amount will cause local bending
stresses in both the head and shell.
Harvey, Fig. 4.8
Discontinuity Stresses
(Example)
Lecture 15
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Standards
US Customary
Preferred Limits and Fits for Cylindrical
Parts, ANSI B4.1-1967.
Metric
Preferred Metric Limits and Fits, ANSI
B4.2-1978.
Limits and Fits
(Metric Nomenclature)
Shigley, 4-9
Tolerance Grade Numbers
Tolerance ñ difference
between the maximum and
minimum size limits of a part.
International Tolerance
Grade Numbers are used to
specify the size of a tolerance
zone.
Shigley, 4-9
Tolerance Grade Numbers
Grade Number
IT11
International Tolerance
Shigley, 4-9
Tolerance Grades Table
δ F , Fundamental Deviation
32g6
Hole Shaft
32.080 +−00..080
080 31.800 +−00..080
080
Force Fit
(Example)
Determine the ìforce fitî tolerances for a shaft and
hole that have a basic diameter of 32 mm.
From Table 4-5, Specification is 32H7/32u6
Hole Shaft
Tolerance Grade 0.025 mm (0.001 in) 0.016 mm (0.0006 in)
Upper deviation 0.025 mm 0.076 mm
Lower deviation 0.000 mm 0.060 mm
Max Diameter 32.025 mm (1.261 in) 32.076 mm (1.262 in)
Min Diameter 32.000 mm (1.260 in) 32.060 mm (1.262 in)
Ave Diameter 32.013 mm (1.260 in) 32.068 mm (1.263 in)
Hole Shaft
32.013+−00..012
013 32.068+−00..008
008
Interference Pressures
& Torques
a 2 p i − b 2 p o (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
σr = −
2
b −a 2
(
b2 − a 2 r 2)
a 2 p i − b 2 p o (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
σθ = +
2
b −a 2
(
b2 − a 2 r 2)
u=
( )
1 − ν a 2 p i − b 2 p o r 1 + ν (p i − p o )a 2 b 2
+
E 2
b −a 2
E (
b2 − a 2 r )
Shaft Displacement and
Stresses
p σ θ = −p
1 − νs
us = − pa
Es
Hub Displacement and
Stresses
a 2 - b2
σr = p 2
b − a2
a 2 + b2
σθ = p 2
b − a2
pa & a 2 + b 2 #
uh = $$ 2 + ν h !!
po = 0 Eh % b − a 2
"
Interference Pressure Equation
& b2 + a 2 #
$ 2 + νh !
$ b − a 2 1 − νs !
C = u h − u s = ap +
$ Eh Es !
$ !
% "
C
p=
& b2 + a 2 #
$ 2 + νh !
2 1 − νs !
a$ b − a +
$ Eh Es !
$ !
% "
Maximum Torque without
Slipping
Fn = p ⋅ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ a ⋅ L
a
Ff = µFn
p Torque = Ff ⋅ a
L= Hub Thickness
Assignment
1. A 4-in diameter, 2-in face width, 20-tooth cast iron
pinion gear is to transmit a maximum torque of 1200 in-
lb at low speed. Find the required radial interference on
1 in diameter steel shaft and the stress in the gear due to
the press fit. Use the dedendum radius as the outside
radius of the pinion gear.
2. Determine the dimension and tolerance to be specified
on a drawing for a shaft and hole having a basic size of
50 mm. The fit must allow a snug fit but be freely
assembled and disassembled.
Stresses in Rotating Disks
Lecture 16
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Summary of
Axisymmetric Equations
Equilibrium Equation Constitutive Equations
1
dσ r σ r − σ θ εr = (σ r − υσθ )
+ + Fr = 0 E
dr r
1
ε θ = (σ θ − υσ r )
E
Strain-Displacement Equations
or
du u
εr = , εθ = E
dr r σr = 2
(ε r + υε θ )
1− ν
E
σθ = 2
(ε θ + υε r )
1− ν
Rotating Disk
Fr Equilibrium Diff Equation
dθ
θ dσ r σ r − σ θ
+ + Fr = 0
dr dr r
r ω
Fr = ρrω2
dσ r σ r − σθ
+ + ρrω2 = 0
dr r
dr 2
+
r dr r
(
− r = − 1− υ ) E
Constitutive Equations
E
σr = 2
(ε r + υε θ ) This equation is the
1− ν
differential equation of
equilibrium written in terms
E
σθ = 2
(εθ + υε r ) of the radial displacement
1− ν component.
General Solution
Differential Equation of Equilibrium
2 2
d u 1 du u 2 ρrω
dr 2
+
r dr r
(
− r = − 1− υ
E
)
Homogeneous Solution Particular Solution
3 2
C2 ρr ω
u h = C1r + ( )
u p = − 1 − υ2
8E
r
The homogeneous solution
is the same as the general General Solution
solution for the thick walled 3 2
C2 ρr ω
cylinder. u = C1r +
r
(
− 1− υ 2
) 8E
Stress Distributions
Constitutive Equations General Solution - Displacement
E
σr = (ε r + υε θ ) 3 2
1− υ 2
C2 ρr ω
u = C1r +
r
− 1− υ 2
(8E
)
E
σθ = 2
(εθ + υε r )
1− υ
General Solution - Stress
Displacement Based
E & du u#
σr = 2 $
+υ ! ( )
E & − (3 + υ ) 1 − υ2 ρr 2ω2 C2 #
1 − υ % dr r" σr = + (1 + υ )C − (1 − υ )
1 − υ2 $% r 2 !"
1
8E
σθ =
( )
E & − (1 + 3υ ) 1 − υ2 ρr 2ω2 C2 #
+ (1 + υ )C1 + (1 − υ ) 2 !
E &u du # 2 $
σθ = 2 $
+ υ ! 1− υ % 8E r "
1− υ % r dr "
Annular Rotating Disk
Boundary Conditions
σ r (a ) = 0
b
ω σ r (b ) = 0
a
(
σr b ) =
(
E & − (3 + υ ) 1 − υ2 ρb 2ω2
+ ()+ ) − ( − )
1 υ C1 1 υ 2 !
C2 #
2 $
1− υ % 8E b "
=0
Multiplying the top equation by a2 and the bottom by b2
and then subtracting the two equations yields
C1 = ρω 2 (a 2
)
+ b 2 (1 − υ )(3 + υ )
E 8
Constant Determination
(Continued)
( )
σr a =
E ( )
& − (3 + υ ) 1 − υ 2 ρa 2ω2 C2 #
+ (1 + υ )C1 − (1 − υ ) 2 ! = 0
1 − υ2 $ 8E a "
%
σ r (b ) =
(
E & − (3 + υ ) 1 − υ 2 ρb 2ω2) C2 #
+ (1 + υ )C1 − (1 − υ ) 2 ! = 0
2 $
1− υ % 8E b "
C1 = ρω 2 (a 2
)
+ b 2 (1 − υ )(3 + υ )
E 8
2 a b # (1 + υ )(3 + υ )
& 2 2
C2 = ρω $$ !!
% E " 8
Annular Rotating Disk Equations
3+ υ& 2 2 2 a b # 2
2 2
σr = $$ a + b − r − 2 !!ρω
8 % r "
3+ υ& 2 2 1 + 3υ 2 a b # 2
2 2
σθ = $$ a + b − r + 2 !!ρω
8 % 3+ υ r "
(3 + υ )(1 − υ ) & 2 2 1 + υ 2 1 + υ a b #
2 2
u= $ $a + b − r + !ρrω2
8E % 3+ υ 1 − υ r 2 !"
Boundary Conditions
b σ(b ) = 0
ω
u (0 ) = 0
Solid Rotating Disk
(Continued)
3 2
C2 ρr ω
u = C1r +
r
− 1− ν(2
8E
)
σr =
E ( )
& − (3 + υ ) 1 − υ2 ρr 2ω2 C2 #
+ (1 + υ )C1 − (1 − υ ) 2 !
1 − υ2 $ 8E r "
%
2
C1 = ρω 2 b (1 − υ )(3 + υ )
E 8
Solid Rotating Disk Stress and
Displacement Equations
3+ υ 2 2
σr =
8
( )
b − r ρω2
3 + υ & 2 1 + 3υ 2 # 2
σθ = $b − r !ρω
8 % 3+ υ "
1− υ
u=
8E
[ ]
(3 + υ)b 2 − (1 + υ)r 2 ρrω2
Lecture 17
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Shaft Design Issues
Shaft Rotating machine element
Shaft:
that transmits power. Loads
Material
Stationary
Se Sut Rotating
K IC Syt
Interfaces
RC q Press Fits
Environment Keyways
Temperature Splines
Corrosion Bearings
Magnetic
Assembly
Tolerances Stiffness
Shafts are one of the most commonly
encountered machine components.
Mott, Fig. 5-1
Parallel Shaft Gear Box
Helical Gears
Spiral Bevel Gears Belt Drives
Spur Gear Loads
T = 63,000 ⋅ P
n
T
Wt =
D
2
Wr = Wt ⋅ tanφ
T = 63,000 ⋅ P
n
T
Wt =
D
2
Wr = Wt ⋅ tan φ n /cos ψ
Wx = Wt ⋅ tan ψ
F1 F1
F2 F2
F1 F1
Bending Stresses Due to
Stationary Loads
3
M 2 c 3 M 3c 2
σb = −
M3 I 22 I33
c2
c3 M 2 r sin θ M 3 r cos θ Eq. 1
θ 2 σb = −
I I
M2
∂σ b M 2 r/ cos θ M 3 r/ sin θ
= + =0
∂θ I/ I/
I 22 = I 33 = I
c 2 = r cos θ M2 Eq. 2
tan θ = -
c 3 = r sin θ M3
Bending Stresses Due to
Stationary Loads
3 Eq. 3
M = M 22 + M 32
M3
Combining with Eq. 2,
c2
c3 2
θ − M2
M2 M sin θ
tan θ = =
M3 cos θ
M
M 2 r sin θ M 3 r cos θ Eq. 1
σb = −
I I − M2
sin θ =
M Eq. 4
M M3
tan θ = - 2 Eq. 2 cos θ =
M3 M
3
Bending Stresses Due to
Stationary Loads
M3
Combining Eqí3 1,3, and 4
c2
c3 2
θ M 2 r sin θ M 3 r cos θ
σb = −
M2 I I
M r sin θ M 3 r cos θ
Eq. 1 M 22 r M 32 r
σb = 2 − σb = − −
I I I I
M = M 22 + M 32 Eq. 3
− M2 M 22 + M 32 ⋅ r
sin θ = σb = −
M I
Eqís 4
M3
cos θ =
M
Bending Stresses Due to
Stationary Loads
M 22 + M 32 ⋅ r M 22 + M 32 ⋅ r
σ b,max = σ b,min =−
I I
r τ
2
M1 M2
time
Wx
σx =
A
φ
e
2
meω cos(ωt - φ ) meω 2sin (ωt - φ )
xs = ys =
2 2
2 2
(k − mω ) + (cω) 2 (k − mω ) + (cω) 2
2 cω
2 2
OS = x + y =
meω tan φ =
s s
2 2 k − mω 2
(k − mω ) + (cω) 2
Lecture 18
Engineering 473
Machine Design
3
Bending Stresses Due to
Stationary Loads
M3
Combining Eqí3 1,3, and 4
c2
c3 2
θ M 2 r sin θ M 3 r cos θ
σb = −
M2 I I
M r sin θ M 3 r cos θ
Eq. 1 M 22 r M 32 r
σb = 2 − σb = − −
I I I I
M = M 22 + M 32 Eq. 3
− M2 M 22 + M 32 ⋅ r
sin θ = σb = −
M I
Eqís 4
M3
cos θ =
M
Shaft Stress Equations
(Bending and Torsion Only)
Reference Bending Stress Torsional Stress
Mc Tc
σx = τ xy =
M = M 2y + M 2z I J
64Md 32 M Td
c=d 2 σx = = 2 = 16T
2π ⋅ d 4
πd 3 τ xy =
πd 4 32 πd 3
πd 4 Principal Stresses
I=
64 σx & σx #
2
σ1 , σ 2 = ± $ ! + τ 2xy
2 % 2 "
πd 4 16M
2
& 16M # & 16T #
2
J = 2I = σ1 , σ 2 = ± $ 3 ! +$ 3 !
32 πd 3
% πd " % πd "
16
[
σ1 , σ 2 = 3 M ± M 2 + T 2
πd
]
Yielding in Ductile Material
(No Stress Concentration)
Circular Shaft
16
[
σ1 , σ 2 = 3 M ± M 2 + T 2
πd
]
Distortion Energy Theory for Shaft
16 1 Syt
πd 3
(
4M 2
+ 3T 2
) 3
≤
ns
Static Loading Minimum
Diameter
16 1 Syt
πd 3
(4M 2
+ 3T 2
) 3
≤
ns
Axial Stress
32M 4P
σx = 3
+ 2
πd πd
Principal Stresses
2 &8M + Pd ±
σ1 , σ 2 = 3
$%
(8M + Pd )2 + (8T )2 #!
πd "
Torsional Stresses
τ
Shear Stress
Time
Shaft von Mises Stress
Equation
2 2 2
Von Mises Equation & σx # & σx # & σx # & σx #
2 2
σ1 = $ ! + 2$ ! $ ! + τ xy + $ ! + τ 2xy
1 Syt % 2 " % 2 " % 2 " % 2 "
( 2 2
σ1 + σ 2 − σ1σ 2 ≤2
)
ns 2 2 2
& σx # & σx # & σx # & σx #
2 2
σ 2 = $ ! − 2$ ! $ ! + τ xy + $ ! + τ 2xy
% 2 " % 2 " % 2 " % 2 "
Principal Stress
- σ x * '!- σ x * $
2 2
Equation 2 !
σ1σ 2 = + ( − &+ ( + τ xy # = − τ 2xy
2 , 2 ) !%, 2 ) !"
σx &σ #
σ1 , σ 2 = ± $ x ! + τ 2xy
2 % 2 "
Shaft Equivalent Stress
2 2
Syt
σ eff = σ + 3τ
x xy ≤
ns
Effective Alternating and
Mean Stresses
2 2
& n sk f σa # & n sσm #
$$ !! + $ ! =1
S $ S !
% e " % yt "
πd 3 2 2
S= & n s k f M # & n sT 3 #
32 $$ !! + $ ! =1
$ !
% S ⋅ Se " % 2S ⋅ S yt "
σ=M
S , 2 2 2
)
n & k M
& s # *$ f ! # 3 & T #
$ ! $ + $ ! ' =1
% S " *% Se !" 4 $% S yt !" '
τ=T + (
2S
2 2
& kf M # 3 & T #
2 2
& n sk f σa # & n sσm # 32n s
$$ !! + $ ! =1 $$ !! + $ ! = 1
$ ! πd 3 $ !
% Se " % S yt " % Se " 4 % Syt "
Minimum Diameter Equation
(Bending and Torsion Only)
2 2
32n s , kf M ) 3 , T ) This equation gives the
** '' + * ' = 1
πd 3 * ' minimum diameter
+ Se ( 4 + S yt (
shaft that will result in
infinite fatigue life,
1
& 2 2 # 3 and appears in the
$ 32n s , kf M ) 3 , T ) ! ANSI Standard.
d= ** '' + * '
$ π * ' !
$% + Se ( 4 + S yt ( !"
Summary of Shaft Stress
Analysis Methodology
1
& 2 2 # 3
32n s , kf M ) 3 , T )
d=$ ** '' + * ' !
$ π * ' !
$% + Se ( 4 + S yt ( !"
1. Establish factor of safety that will be used in the design.
2. Draw axial,shear, bending, and torsion diagrams. May
require orthogonal shear and bending diagrams.
3. Determine loads acting on the shaft (M,P, and T) at
critical locations.
4. Compute stress concentration factors.
5. Estimate endurance limit using test data or 0.5Sut and
the Marin factors.
6. Use above equation or equivalent to determine if shaft is
acceptable.
Assignment
The shaft shown in the figure receives 110 hp from a
water turbine through a chain sprocket at point C. The
gear pair at E delivers 80 hp to an electrical generator.
The V-belt sheave at A delivers 30 hp to a bucket
elevator that carries grain to an elevated hopper. The
shaft rotates at 1,700 rpm. The sprocket, sheave, and
gear are located axially by retaining rings. The sheave
and gear are keyed with sled runner keyseats, and there
is a profile keyseat at the sprocket. The shaft is made
from AISI 1040 cold-drawn steel, and has a yield
strength of 71 ksi and and ultimate strength of 80 ksi.
Using a design factor of safety of 3, determine the
minimum diameters at each section on of the shaft.
Assignment
(Continued)
Lecture 19
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Fundamental Problem in
Shaft Design
Keyseat
45o chamfer
Not to Scale
Better Practice
Standard contains recommended fillet
radii and key chamfer combinations to
provide lower stress concentration
General Practice: Zero factors.
root fillet and chamfer “Keys and Keyseats,” ANSI
Standard B17.1-1967.
1967
Fillet Radii Fabrication
R0.3125
The hub is slightly larger than the shaft and key to allow it to
slide over the shaft during assembly. The set screw is used to
take up the slack. The resulting friction is used to provide
resistance to axial motion. Thread adhesive may be required to
ensure that vibration doesnít cause the set screw to loosen.
Mott, Figure 11-1
Square and Rectangular
Key Geometry
“Keys and Keyseats,” ANSI
Standard B17.1-1967.
1967
Width is approximately º
the diameter of the shaft.
Holding Power ñ
Resistance to axial or
rotary motion of the hub or
Flat Point Cup Point collar relative to the shaft.
Holding power is a
function of friction
Oval Point
between contacting
Cone Point
portions of hub or collar
and shaft and any
penetration of the setscrew
into the keyway or shaft.
Half-dog Point
Shigley, Fig. 8-26
Representative Holding
Power Values
Based on alloy steel screw
against steel shaft, class
3A coarse or fine threads
in class 2B holes, and cup-
point socket setscrews.
Designed to be inserted from the end of the shaft after the hub
is in position. The taper will impart a compressive contact
pressure between the hub and the shaft. Friction will help
transmit torque and provide resistance to axial motion of the
hub relative to the shaft. Tapered keys do not require set
screws. Access to both ends of tapered keys are required so
that the key can be inserted and driven out when the key is
being removed.
Mott, Figure 11-3
Gib Head Keys
Circular groove in shaft holds the key in place while the hub
is slid over the shaft. The Woodruff key will have less shear
strength than a rectangular or square key.
T
Shear Stress Analysis of Square
and Rectangular Parallel Keys
T
F=
D
2
A s = WL
F T
τ ave = =
As ( )
D (WL )
2
2T
τ ave =
DWL
Sys = 0.5Syt
2T 0.5S yt
τ ave = =
DWL N fs
0.5Syt
τ all =
N sf
4TN fs
Ls =
Syt DW
Bearing Stress: Square and
Rectangular Parallel Keys
F 4TN fs
σb = KSyc Lb =
Ab σ b,all = KSyc DH
N fs
T
F= Triaxial Stress Factor
D
2
1.0 ≤ K ≤ 1.5
A b = HL
2 Mott, Fig. 11-4(a)
Comparison of Shear and
Bearing Length Equations
4TN fs 4TN fs
Ls = Lb =
S yt DW KSyc DH
If K=1, these equations give the same result for a square key. In
general K will be greater than 1.0 and more shear failures will be
observed in the field. Keys are generally designed to fail before
overloads can cause damage to the shaft or attached component.
In this respect they act like a mechanical fuse.
Stress Analysis of
Woodruff Keys
B
2
B
− ds
2
Shear Area ds
2 2
& B# & B # 2
$ ! = $ − ds ! + A
%2" %2 "
Shear Analysis of
Woodruff Keys
2 2
& B# & B # 2
$ ! = $ − ds ! + A
B %2" %2 "
2
B
− ds
2 A = d s (B − d s )
A A s ≡ Shear Area = 2W d s (B − d s )
ds 0.5S yt
2T
τ ave = τ s,all =
DA s N fs
Shear Pins
Lecture 20
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Fundamental Problem in
Shaft Design
External Spline
Internal Spline
www.advanceadapters.com
Spline Standards
! Parameter dimensions
are controlled by the fit
needed for a particular
application.
T = 1,000 ⋅ N ⋅ R ⋅ h
1&D d# D+d
R= $ + !=
2% 2 2" 4
1
h = (D − d )
2
D+d 1
T = 1,000 ⋅ N ⋅ ⋅ (D − d )
4 2
T = Torque per unit length
N = Number of teeth & D2 − d 2 #
T = 1,000 ⋅ N ⋅ $$ !!
D = Major spline diameter % 8 "
d = Minor spine diameter
d = f (D)
Torque Capacity Curves
(SAE Straight-Tooth Splines)
Standard Lengths
Common designs use spline lengths of 0.75 D to 1.25 D,
where D is the pitch diameter of the spline. When these
standard lengths are used, the shear strength of the splines
will exceed that of the shaft from which they are made.
Spline Manufacturing Methods
Splines are either “cut” (machined) or rolled. Rolled
splines are stronger than cut splines due to the cold
working of the metal. Nitriding is common to achieve
very hard surfaces which reduce wear.
www.drivetraindirect.com
Spline Failure Example
www.tsubaki.com
Polygons
An alternative to splines that has significantly
lower stress concentration is the polygon. Four
and three lobed polygons are shown.
www.generalpolygon.com
Retaining Rings
! Retaining rings are used on shafts to
maintain the axial position of
components.
Internal
www.rotorclip.com
Different Types of Retaining
Rings
www.mdmetric.com
Spring Loaded Retaining Rings
!“Bowed” retaining rings provide restoring
forces to the components being held.
! An alternative to attaching
components to shafts is to
machine the components
directly onto the shaft.
! Complex combinations of
components can be obtained
using modern CNC turning
centers. www.astas.co.za/shafts.html
Assignment
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Gear Interaction
Base Circle Line of Centers
Line Tangent to
Base Circles
Line Normal to
Line of Centers
Base Circle
1st Close Up of Meshed Teeth
Line of Contact
!
W
!
W
!
W
Base Circle
3rd Close Up of Meshed Teeth
Base Circle Line of Contact
Base Circle
Line of Action/Pressure Angle
Line of Action – Line tangent to both base circles
Pressure Angle – Angle between the line normal to the line of
centers and the line of action.
Pitch Point – Intersection of the line of centers with the line of
action
Line of Contact
Base Circle
Pitch Point
!
Line of Action
W Pressure
φ Angle
!
W
Base Circle
Pitch Circle
Base Circle
Pitch Circle
Relationship Between Pitch
and Base Circles
rb = rcos(φ )
Base Circle
Pitch Circle
rb r
Base Circle
Pitch Circle
Torque Relationship
Power P
T≡ =
Angular Velocity ω
P
T = 63,000 (lb ⋅ in )
n
Tooth Load Equations
T
Wr = Wt ⋅ tanφ
!
Wt = W = Wt cosφ
d/2
Line of Contact
Base Circle
!
Wr W Pressure
Line of Action φ Angle
! Wt
W
M
σ=
Ic
M = Wt ⋅ L
2
1 t = bt
I c = bt 3
12 2 6
6Wt L
σ=
bt 2
Deutschman, Fig. 10-18
Lewis Equation
(Continued)
6Wt L
σ=
bt 2
t 2 L
=
x t 2
t2
x=
4L
Lewis Equation
(Continued)
& Wt #& 1 #& 1 #
σ=$ !$$ 2 !!$$ !!
% b "% t 4L "% 4 6 "
t2
x= p ≡ circular pitch
4L
2x Lewis Form
y=
3p Factor
Wt
σ=
bpy
Lewis Equation
(Continued)
2x
y=
3p
Wt
σ=
bpy
P ≡ Diametral Pitch = π p
Y ≡ πy
Most
commonly
Wt P
σ= used form of
bY
Lewis
Y can be determined graphically Equation
or by a computer.
Lewis Form Factor
(Example Values)
Wt P
σ=
bY
Grade 1 is the
basic or standard
material
classification.
Grade 2 requires
better than normal
microstructure
control.
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Pitting In Gear Teeth
! Pitting ñ phenomenon in which
small particles are removed from the
surface of the tooth because of the
high contact forces that are present
between mating teeth.
www.xteknic.com/products/gearproducts
Contact Stress Between
F Two Cylinders
Contact Zone
x
2b
d1 p ≡ Contact
L Pressure
y y
z
d2
Contact Force
b
F = 2L ! p(y)dy
0
F=total contact force
z
Hertz Contact Stress
Equations
Contact Zone Contact Width
2b
p max
b=
( ) (
2F 1 − ν12 E1 + 1 − ν 22 E 2 )
πL 1 d1 + 1 d 2
y
Maximum Contact Pressure
2F
z p max =
πbL
− p max
σz =
z2
1+ 2
b
Hertz Contact Stress Equations
(Continued)
Line of Contact
Base Circle
r1
!
W r2
!
W
Base Circle
Equivalent
Equivalent Cylinder # 2
Cylinder # 1
Radii of Equivalent Cylinders
Contact Zone
Contact Width
2b
p max ( ) ( )
2F 1 − ν12 E1 + 1 − ν 22 E 2
b=
πL 1 d1 + 1 d 2
y
Maximum Contact Pressure
2F
z p max =
πbL
Contact Stress
2F Elastic Coefficient
p max =− 1
πbL & # 2
$ !
$ 1 !
Cp = $
, 1 − ν 2p 1 − ν g2 ) !
b=
( ) ( )
2F 1 − ν12 E1 + 1 − ν 22 E 2 $ π* + '!
$ *+ E p E '!
("
πL 1 d1 + 1 d 2 % g
b=
(
F 1 & 1 − ν12
+
) (
1 − ν 22 #) 4
$ ! 1 1 & F , 1 1 )#
1
2
L π % E1 E2 " + p max = −Cp $ ** + ''!
r1 r2 % L + r1 r2 ("
Contact Stress
(Continued)
1 dg
& F , 1 1 )# 2 m g ≡ speed ratio = (external gears)
p max = −Cp $ ** + ''! dp
% L + r1 r2 ("
1 1 2 ,* m g + 1 )'
F = Wn = Wt cosφ + =
r1 r2 d p sinφ *+ m g '(
1
& Wt , 1 1 )# 2
1
σ c = −C p $ ** + ''! & Wt # 2
% L cos(φ ) + r1 r2 (" σ c = −C p $ !
$% d p LI !"
1 1 2 &$ 1 1 #!
+ = +
r1 r2 sinφ % d p d g !"
$ cosφ ⋅ sinφ m g + 1
I=
2 mg
Contact Stress Summary
1
& Wt # 2
σ c = −C p $ ! Elastic Coefficient
$% d p LI !" 1
& # 2
Form Factor $ !
cosφ ⋅ sinφ m g + 1 $ 1 !
I= Cp = $
2 mg , 1 − ν 2p 1 − ν g2 ) !
$ π* + '!
$ *+ E p E '!
("
% g
dg
mg = (external gears) L ≡ face width
dp
d g ≡ gear pitch diameter Wt ≡ tangential force
d p ≡ pinion pitch diameter
φ ≡ pressure angle
AGMA Contact Stress Formulas
1
& Wt C a Cs C m C f # 2 Sc C L C H
σ c = C p $$ !! σ c,all =
% C v Fd I " CT C R
http://hghouston.com/case012.html
1. A speed reducer has 20 degree full-depth teeth and consists of a
22-tooth steel spur pinion driving a 60-tooth cast-iron gear. The
horsepower transmitted is 15 at a pinion speed of 1200 rev/min.
For a diametral pitch of 6 teeth/in and a face width of 2 in, find
the contact stress.
2. A gearset has a diametral pitch of 5 teeth/in, a 20 degree pressure
angle, and a 24-tooth cast iron spur pinion driving a 48-tooth cast
iron gear. The pinion is to rotate at 50 rev/min. What horsepower
input can be used with this gearset if the contact stress is limited
to 100 kpsi? and F=2.5 in?
Rolling Contact Bearings
Lecture 23
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Why Rolling Contact
Bearings?
Typical applications
include supporting
shafts.
Bearing Nomenclature
Retainer
or Cage
Rolling Element
Outside
(Ball)
Diameter Bore
Inner Race
Outer Race
Inner and outer races are typically pressed onto the shaft or
hub with a slight interference fit to make them move with the
shaft (inner race) or remain stationary (outer race).
Ball Bearings
Thrust
Force
Radial
Force
Radial Ball Angular Ball
www.torrington.com/products
Roller Bearings
www.torrington.com/products
Needle Bearings
Heavy Duty
Drawn Cup
Thrust
Gage
Needle bearings have very high load
ratings and require less space.
www.torrington.com/products
Other Types of Bearings
Sperical
Polymer
Bearings
www.igus.com/iglide/iglide.htm
Bronze Bushings
Rolling Contact Bearing
Materials
k
L 2 & F1 # Bearing manufacturers
= $$ !! provide one set of data
L1 % F2 " relating load and life.
k
&C# This equation is used to
L 2 = $$ !! ×10 Revolutions find the life at different
6
% F2 " loads.
Example Bearing Data
SKF Catalog
Outer Race Rotation
Manufacturerís data is normally based on a rotating
inner race and a stationary outer race.
A rotating outer race and a stationary inner race
will have a lower life.
The Anti-Friction Bearing Manufacturerís
Association (AFBMA) has developed a standard
equation for computing an equivalent radial load
that takes this into account.
Fe = XVFr
Fe = XVFr + YFa
Fr
F α
V = 1.0 Rotating Inner Race
V = 1.2 Rotating Outer Race
T1 T2 T3 T4
Fe,i ≡ Equivalent radial load for ith event
n i ≡ Speed of the ith event
Ti ≡ Time period of the ith event
1k
& j
k #
T n (F
$ ! i i e,i ! )
Fe ≡ $ i =1 j !
$ !
$ ! T n
i i !
% i =1 "
Mounting Bearings
Most manufacturerís catalogs specify the limiting
dimensions for the shaft and housing bore. These are
generally controlled to within a few thousands of an
inch.
4. Read www.timken.com/bearings/fundamen/
Plane Surface Bearings
Lecture 24
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Examples of Plain Surface
Bearings
In plain surface bearings the shaft moves relative to the
stationary bearing surface ñ there is sliding contact versus
rolling contact.
Bronze Bearings
Journal bearings
usually employ a
lubricating fluid
between the bearing
and the journal.
Coefficient of Friction
Contact between
journal and bearing
Mixed-film Lubrication
Intermittent contact
Aluminum
Polymers (plastics)
Manufacture of Powdered
Metals
www.mpif.org
P/M Compaction Cycle
PV ≤ (PV )all.
dω
V = rω =
2 V
r
& rads # & rev #& 2 ⋅ π rads #
$ω ! = $n !$ !
% min " % min "% rev " ω
V = π⋅d⋅n
12
Temperature Adjustments
Lecture 25
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Lubrication Zones
Boundary Mixed-film Hydrodynamic
Boundary Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication Lubrication
Coefficient of Friction
Contact between
journal and bearing
Mixed-film Lubrication
Intermittent contact
du
µ=τ
dy
Units
ips SI
lbf N
lbf − sec m2 N − sec
in 2 = = reyn =
in 2 m m2
in
sec sec
in m
β is equal to 2π for a
full bearing
We will only be
considering the full
bearing case.
Analysis Assumptions
& dp # & ∂τ #
! Fx = 0 = $% p + dx dx !"dydz + τdxdz − $$ τ + ∂y dy !!dxdz − pdydz
% "
dp ∂τ ∂u dp ∂ 2u
= τ=µ =µ 2
dx ∂y ∂y dx ∂y
X-Momentum Equation
(Continued)
X-Momentum Eq.
dp ∂ 2u
=µ 2
dx ∂y
General Solution
∂ 2 u 1 dp
2
=
∂y µ dx
∂u 1 dp Boundary Conditions
= y + C1 (x )
∂y µ dx y = 0, u = 0
1 dp 2 y = h(x), u = -U
u= y + C1 (x )y + C2 (x )
2µ dx
X-Momentum Equation
(Continued)
1 dp 2
u= y + C1 (x )y + C2 (x )
2µ dx
y = 0, u = 0 C2 (x ) = 0
U h (x ) dp
y = h(x), u = -U C1 (x ) = − −
h (x ) 2µ dx
h (x )
! = ρ ! udy
m
0
h (x )
, 1 dp 2 U )
m
! =ρ ! ** ( )
y − h (x )y − y ''dy
h (x ) (
0 + 2µ dx
& h (x )3 dp Uh (x )#
m
! = ρ $− − !
% 12µ dx 2 "
Conservation of Mass
& h (x )3 dp Uh (x ) #
m
! = ρ $− − !
% 12µ dx 2 "
d h (x ) dp #
& 3
dh
$ ! = −6 U
dx % µ dx !"
$ dx Reynold’s Equation
h(x) Relationship
cr = radial clearance
θ
e
ε=
cr
h (θ ) = c r (1 + ε ⋅ cos θ )
e h min = c r (1 − ε )
h max = c r (1 + ε )
& & 2x # #
h (x ) = c r $$1 + ε ⋅ cos $ ! !!
% % D ""
Sommerfeld Solution
A. Sommerfeld solved these
d h (x ) dp #
& 3
dh equations in 1904 to find the
$ ! = −6 U pressure distribution around the
dx % µ dx !"
$ dx bearing.
∂ & h (x ) dp # ∂ & h (x ) dp #
3 3
∂h Governing
$ !− $ ! = −6U
∂x $% µ dx !" ∂z $% µ dz !" ∂x Equation
µU & l2 2# 3ε ⋅ sinθ
p = 2 $$ − z !! 3 0≤θ≤π
rcr % 4 " (1 + ε ⋅ cosθ )
Short-Bearing Pressure Distributions
%
Assignment
Engineering 471
Heat Transfer
Computational Methods in Heat
Transfer
http://www-heat.uta.edu
Computational Methods in Heat
Transfer
Computational Methods in Heat
Transfer
The most frequently
used computational
method used to solve
multi-dimensional
heat conduction
problems is known as
the ìFinite Element
Methodî.
q! gen Adx
q! cond A (Rate at which heat is internally
generated within the differential
volume)
(Rate at which heat
is conducted into P => perimeter
the cross section) h=> convection coefficient
dx A=> cross sectional area
Governing Differential Equation
(Derivation Continued)
q! conv = hP(T − T∞ )dx
&! dq! cond # 1st Law of Thermodynamics
$ q cond + dx !A
% dx "
The governing differential
equation is obtained by
applying the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics
q! gen Adx
E! cv = E! in − E! out
q! cond A
dx
∂T ∂q! cond
CA dx = q! cond A + q! gen Adx - q! cond A − dxA − hP(T − T∞ )dx
∂t ∂x
Governing Differential Equation
(Derivation Continued)
∂T ∂q! cond
CA dx = q! cond A + q! gen Adx - q! cond A − dxA − hP(T − T∞ )dx
∂t ∂x
∂T ∂q! cond
CA dx = q! gen Adx − dxA − hP(T − T∞ )dx
∂t ∂x
x=L
T(L ) = TR
ài or
nà k
∂T à
i ⋅ nà + h (T − T∞ ) = 0
∂x
x=0
T(0 ) = TL
or
Each end can have either a
∂T à specified temperature or
k i ⋅ nà + h (T − T∞ ) = 0
∂x convection boundary condition.
Galerkin Finite Element Process
(Assumed Solution)
T(x, t ) ≈ θ(x, t )
When the approximate solution is substituted into the
governing differential equation, there will be an error
∂θ ∂ 2θ
E(x, t ) = CA − Aq! gen − kA 2 + hP(θ − T∞ )
∂t ∂x
Galerkin Finite Element Process
(Assumed Solution)
∂θ(0, t ) ∂θ(L, t )
e(t ) = − kA + h (θ(0 ) − T∞ ) + kA + h (θ(L ) − T∞ )
∂x ∂x
L L L 2 L
∂θ ∂ θ
!0 θCA ∂t dx − !0 q gen Aθ ⋅ dx − !0 θKA ∂x 2 dx + !0 θhP (θ − T∞ )dx
!
∂θ (0 ) Governing
− θ (0 )kA + θ (0 )hA (θ (0 ) − T∞ )
∂x Integral
∂θ (L ) Equation
+ θ (L )kA − θ (L )hA (θ (L ) − T∞ ) = 0
∂x
Galerkin Finite Element Process
(Similification of Integral Eq.)
∂θ (0 )
− θ (0 )kA + θ (0 )hA (θ (0 ) − T∞ ) Governing
∂x Integral
∂θ (L ) Equation
+ θ (L )kA − θ (L )hA (θ (L ) − T∞ ) = 0
∂x
L
∂ 2θ
!0 θKA ∂x 2 dx
L
∂θ (L ) ∂θ (0 ) ∂θ ∂θ
= θ (L )kA − θ (0 )kA − ! kA dx
∂x ∂x 0
∂x ∂x
Galerkin Finite Element Process
(Simplified Integral Equation)
+ θ (0 )hA (θ (0 ) − T∞ ) − θ (L )hA (θ (L ) − T∞ ) = 0
Engineering 471
Heat Transfer
Boundary Conditions
nà
x
x=L
T(L ) = TR
ài or
nà k
∂T à
i ⋅ nà + h (T − T∞ ) = 0
∂x
x=0
T(0 ) = TL
or
Each end can have either a
∂T à specified temperature or
k i ⋅ nà + h (T − T∞ ) = 0
∂x convection boundary condition.
Galerkin Finite Element Process
(Simplified Integral Equation)
+ θ (0 )hA (θ (0 ) − T∞ ) − θ (L )hA (θ (L ) − T∞ ) = 0
Nodes k
j
2 i
3 L xj
1
1
2
Elements " F(x )dx = ! " F(x )dx
0 elem x i
Element Geometry
x
k
j
2 i
3 L xj
1
1
2
" F(x )dx = ! " F(x )dx
0 elem x i
k
ξ ξ = x − xi
xj !
j
i
! " F(x )dx = ! " f (ξ )dx
elem x i elem 0
!
Interpolation Functions
θ(ξ ) = N i (ξ )θi + N j (ξ )θ j
& ξ# Ni (ξ ) and N j (ξ )are
N i (ξ ) = $1 − !
% !" called interpolation
ξ functions.
N j (ξ ) =
!
They can be used to find
N(ξ ) Ni (ξ ) N j (ξ ) the value of θ at any ξ
if the values of θ at the
1.0
node points are known.
! ξ
Thermal Conductivity Integral
L L L L
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
!0 θCA ∂t dx − !0 q gen Aθ ⋅ dx − !0 ∂x KA ∂x dx + !0 θhP (θ − T∞ )dx
!
+ θ (0 )hA (θ (0 ) − T∞ ) − θ (L )hA (θ (L ) − T∞ ) = 0
L !
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
! " ∂ξ KA ∂ξ dξ
"0 ∂x KA ∂x dx = elem 0
! !
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
!0 ∂ξ KA ∂ξ dξ = KA !0 ∂ξ ∂ξ dξ
Thermal Conductivity Integral
(Continued)
θ(ξ ) = N i (ξ )θi + N j (ξ )θ j ∂θ 1 1
= − θi + θ j
& ξ# ∂ξ ! !
N i (ξ ) = $1 − !
% !" 1 1 &θi #
= − % "
ξ ! ! $θ j !
N j (ξ ) =
!
& 1#
!
∂θ ∂θ
!
'− ! ' 1 1 &θ i #
KA ! dξ = KA ! θ i θj % " − % "dξ
∂ξ ∂ξ 1 ! $θ j !
0 0 ' ' !
$ ! !
Thermal Conductivity Integral
(Continued)
& 1#
!
- − ! - 1 1 &θ i #
KA ! θ i θ j % " − % " dξ
1
0 - - ! ! $θ j !
$ ! !
, 1 1)
!
* !2 − 2 ' &θ #
! i
= KA ! θ i θ j * ' %θ "
1 1 $ j!
0 *− 2 '
+ ! !2 (
, 1 1)
* ! − ' &θ #
! i
= KA θ i θ j *
1 1 ' %$θ j "!
*− '
+ ! ! (
Convection Integral
L L L L
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
!0 θCA ∂t dx − !0 q gen Aθ ⋅ dx − !0 ∂x KA ∂x dx + !0 θhP (θ − T∞ )dx
!
+ θ (0 )hA (θ (0 ) − T∞ ) − θ (L )hA (θ (L ) − T∞ ) = 0
L !
! !
= ! " θhPθdξ − ! " θhPT dξ
elem 0 elem 0
∞
θ(ξ ) = N i (ξ )θi + N j (ξ )θ j
, ξ)
N i (ξ ) = *1 − '
+ !(
ξ
N j (ξ ) =
!
ξ ξ &θi #
θ(ξ ) = 1 − % "
! ! $θ j !
Convection Integral
(First Integral)
& ξ#
! !
31 - ! 3 ξ ξ &θ i #
! θhPθdξ = hP ! θi θj %
ξ " 1-
!
% "dξ
! $θ j !
0 0 3 3
$ ! !
, 2 ξ /2 2 ξ/ξ)
! * 01 − - 0 1 − - ' &θ #
= hP ! θ i θj * 1 !. 1 ! . ! ' i dξ
2 % "
0
*2 ξ / ξ 2 ξ / ' $θ j !
*0 1 − - 0 - '
+1 ! . ! 1!. (
Convection Integral
(First Integral)
,! !)
!
*3 6 ' & θ i #
! θhPθdξ = hP θi θj *
! ! ' %$θ j "!
0 * '
+6 3(
Second Integral
'! $
!
!2!
! θhPT dξ = hPT
∞ ∞ θi θj & #
!
0 ! !
%2"
Heat Capacity Integral
L L L L
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
!0 θCA ∂t dx − !0 q! gen Aθ ⋅ dx − !0 ∂x KA ∂x dx + !0 θhP (θ − T∞ )dx
+ θ (0 )hA (θ (0 ) − T∞ ) − θ (L )hA (θ (L ) − T∞ ) = 0
-" "*
L
∂θ +3 6 ( '
! ! $!
θ
! CA θ i
"0 θCA ∂t dx = elem θj +
"
i
" ( &!θ! j #!
+ (% "
,6 3)
Internal Heat Generation Integral
L L L L
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
!0 θCA ∂t dx − !0 q! gen Aθ ⋅ dx − !0 ∂x KA ∂x dx + !0 θhP (θ − T∞ )dx
+ θ (0 )hA (θ (0 ) − T∞ ) − θ (L )hA (θ (L ) − T∞ ) = 0
'!$
!
!2!
! " θq" gen Adξ = ! q" gen A θi θj & #
!
elems 0 elems ! !
%2"
Mechanical Fasteners –
Tension Connections
Lecture 29
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Tension Connection
! A threaded fastener
connection has clearance gaps
that are used to assemble the
connection.
grip
to create a clamping force.
Fi
δd =
kd
Ld kd
grip
Fi
δt =
kt
Lt kt
kdk t
Fi = δ
kd + kt
Fi = k b δ
Clamped Part Stiffness
Fi = k m δ
L1
1 1 1 1
= + +
L2 k m k1 k 2 k 3
L3
k1 = A1E L1
k 2 = A2E L2
k 3 = A 3E L3
Pressure-Cone Equations
k bP
& kb # Fb = + Fi
Pb = Pm $$ !! kb + km
% km "
k mP
P = Pb + Pm Fm = − Fi
kb + km
k bP Fm < 0
Pb =
kb + km
Shigley, Fig. 8-12
External Load Interaction –
Preloaded Connection
kb
Let C=
kb + km
Fb = CP + Fi
Fm = (1 − C )P − Fi
Mlb/in
Bolt Grip
(in) kb kp C 1-C
2 2.57 12.69 0.168 0.832
3 1.79 11.33 0.136 0.864
4 1.37 10.63 0.114 0.886
Permanent Connection
These recommendations assume
Fi = 0.90 ⋅ Fp that the nut or threaded part has
sufficient shear strength in the
threads (i.e. steel bolts and steel
nuts).
Bolt Failure Criteria
Fb = CP + Fi n ≡ Load Factor
Sp ≡ Proof Stress
kb
C= Sp A t − Fi
kb + km n=
CP
CP Fi
σb = +
At At
CnP Fi
Sp = +
At At
Connection Separation
Criteria
Fm = (1 − C )P − Fi Let Po = nP, where
n is a load factor, then
At separation, Fm = 0
Fi
n=
0 = (1 − C )Po − Fi P(1 − C )
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Tension Connection
! A threaded fastener connection
has clearance gaps that are used
to facilitate assembly of the
connection.
Fb
kb
Fm=0
Fi kb
kb + km
kb
δ
In the previous lecture, it was shown that a high
preload is a very desirable in a tension connection.
Torque-Preload Relationship
Fi D p , l + µπD psecα ) Fi µ n d n
Nut Surface T= * '+
2 *+ πD p − µl ⋅ secα '( 2
Friction Torque
Bolt Condition k
Black oxide finish 0.3
Zinc-plated 0.2
Lubricated 0.18
Lecture 31
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Fasteners Loaded
in Shear
Connections may be designed to resist tension,
shear, or combined tension and shear loads.
Contact
Area F = ! σ c dA τ ave
F
τ ave = n ≡ number of fasteners
n ⋅ As
It is standard practice to assume that each fastener
carries an equal amount of the total load.
Deutschman, Fig. 16-10
Friction
t Static Failure
!The stress formula does not include stress Criteria
concentration factors, and local yielding S yt
may occur around the holes. Stress σ ave ≤
concentration factors are required if fatigue N fs
is a concern.
!The total net area is used if multiple
fasteners are used in the connection. Deutschman, Fig. 16-6
Bearing Failure of Plate
Stress Formula
F
σb =
dt
Static Failure
Criteria
!The bearing stress is based on the projected 0.9S yt
bolt area normal to the load direction. σb ≤
N fs
!The triaxial nature of the actual stress in the
material (Hertz Contact Stress) results in high
allowable values for the contact stress. Deutschman, Fig. 16-7
Shear Tear Out at Edge
of Plate
Stress Formula
F
τt =
2at
Prevention
This type of failure is normally controlled by specifying
minimum edge distances. An edge distance greater than
1.5d is commonly used.
Deutschman, Fig. 16-8
Eccentric Loads
F4
The force resisted by each
F1 fastener is assumed to be
d1
c.g. of bolt d 4 M=Pa inversely proportional to
d2 d F3 the distance from the bolt
group 3
group c.g.
F2
Pa = F1d1 + F2 d 2 + F3d 3 + F4 d 4 d2 d3
F2 = F1 F3 = F1
d1 d1
F1 F2 F3 F4 d4
= = = F4 = F1
d1 d 2 d 3 d 4 d1
Load Lying in Shear Plane
(Continued)
F4
Pad i
F1 Fi = n
d1 2
d 4 M=Pa
d
! j
c.g. of bolt j=1
d2 d F3
group 3
Force resisted
F2 by the ith bolt.
1 n
x y = ! yi
n i =1
Assignment
Choose a threaded
fastener that will support
the eccentric load lying
in the shear plane of the
connection. Use a safety
factor of 2.0. Determine
the minimum edge
distances and plate
thickness based on the
fastener design criteria.
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Eccentric Loads
f a = f b − Pj
!Prying in a connection
fa fb increases the bolt force.
a !Prying is a joint
b separation phenomena.
Exaggerated Deformation Free-Body Diagram
in Joint
Finite Element Analysis
Showing Joint Deformation
http://river.tay.ac.uk
Separation Example
y
(x1 , y1 ) P
P A1 A4
a
A2 A5
A3 A6
x
Preload is not sufficient to prevent separation.
Connections With
Separation
n
M = Pa = ! f i d i
P i =1
a f1 f 2 f i
= =
d1 d 2 d i Md1
f1 = n
2
d
! i
fi =
(d i ) f i =1
1
d1
di
f1 n 2
M = ! di
d1 i =1
P Md i
fi =
a I
n
I = ! d 2j
j=1
di
Note that assumptions about the stiffness
of the connection plate are required to
estimate the location of the pry point.
Connections With
Significant Preload
c.g. of
fastener
group
f i = f i,ext + f i,pre
www.boltcouncil.org/guide1.htm
Assignment
Lecture 34
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Eccentrically Loaded
Welds
a
P
M = Pa
d τ M = c ! d 2 ⋅ (1) ⋅ dl
0
c.g. M = Pa x
M
c= L
Polar Moment of
! ⋅ (1)⋅ dl
2
Inertia of Weld d
0
Line
L
( )
J = ! x 2 + y 2 (1) ⋅ dl
τ=
M ⋅d
0
J
Eccentrically Loaded Welds
(Continued)
τ τy Moment Contribution
d y My
x τx = − τ = −
d J
y
τx y x Mx
τy = τ =
d J
Py d Component Totals
y
My Px
τx = − +
J L
M Px Mx Py
c.g. x x
τy = +
J L
Note sign convention
Eccentrically Loaded Welds
(Continued)
Component Totals
Design Criteria
My Px τ Sys
τx = − + ≤
J L 0.7071 ⋅ h N fs
Mx Py or
τy = +
J L τ ⋅N fs
h≥
0.7071 ⋅ Sys
Total Shear Stress
where
Sys ≈ 0.6 ⋅ Syt
τ = τ 2x + τ 2y
h is the minimum leg
τ is the shear stress per unit length
length of the fillet weld
and unit throat width.
Example
y Weld C.G. Location ~
x ⋅L
x=
!
!L
=
(2 in )(4 in ) + (0 in )(6 in )
(4 in ) + (6 in )
= 0.8 in
~y ⋅ L
y=
!
!L
=
(6 in )(4 in ) + (3 in )(6 in )
x (4 in ) + (6 in )
= 4.2 in
Example
Weld Polar Moment of Inertia
y J = I xx + I yy
21 3 2
I xx = 4(1)(1.8) + (1)(6) + 6(1)(1.2 )
12
x = 39.6 in 4
1 3 2 2
I yy = (1)(4) + 4(1)(1.18) + 6(1)(0.82 )
12
= 14.9 in 4
2 2
τ= (- 2,310) + (− 49.5) h≥
τ ⋅N fs
= 2.31 ksi 0.7071 ⋅ Sys
N fs = 2.0 h=
(2.31 ksi )(2 )
(0.7071)(36.0 ksi )
Syt = 60.0 ksi
h = 0.181 in
Lecture 35
Engineering 473
Machine Design
Types of Helical Springs
Extension Springs ñ
oppose extension
Compression Springs ñ
oppose compression
Torsional Springs ñ
oppose rotational motion
Compression Spring Terminology
Spring Internal Forces
8FD 4F
F τ max = 3
+ 2
τ= πd πd
A
π 4 π 2 d FD
J = 2I = d A= d r= T=
32 4 2 2
Stresses in Helical Springs
(Continued)
D 2C + 1
Let C = , then Ks =
d 2C
Curvature Stress Concentration
Factor
A stress concentration occurs on the inside of a helical
spring due to the curvature of the wire.
2C(4C + 2) 8FD
Kc = τ max = K cKs
(4C − 3)(2C + 1) πd3
Curvature Stress Concentration
Factor
(Continued)
D
C=
d
Kc
C
Note that for large C, Kc approaches 1.
Kc is important for fatigue calculations.
Deflection/Stiffness
Strain energy from a spring
Strain Energy/Unit Volume
comes from two sources: 1)
torsion, and 2) shear loading.
σ
Torsion Strain Energy
1
U T = ! τ ⋅ γ ⋅ dvol
2 vol
Tr τ
ε τ= ,γ=
J G
1 1 & Tr # & Tr #
U = ! σ ⋅ ε ⋅ dvol UT = ! $ ! ⋅ $ ! ⋅ dvol
2 vol 2 vol% J " % JG "
Deflection/Stiffness
(Continued)
2 2 2
y => spring deflection due to
1FDL 1FL load F
U= +
2 4JG 2 AG
Deflection/Stiffness
(Continued)
2
FD L FL 3
8FD N & 1 #
y= + y= 4
4JG AG $1 + 2 !
d G % 2C "
π 4
J = 2I = d
32 8FD3 N
π 2 y≈ 4
A= d dG
4
D d 4G Equation for
C= k= stiffness of a
d 8D N3
spring.
Extension Spring Ends
www.acxesspring.com/properties.htm