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Elastic-plastic work-hardening deformation under combined bending and

torsion and residual stresses in helical springs

Article  in  International Journal of Material Forming · April 2010

DOI: 10.1007/s12289-010-0908-8

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 ELASTIC-PLASTIC WORK-HARDENING DEFORMATION AND
RESIDUAL STRESSES IN HELICAL SPRINGS

V. Kobelev 1
1
Muhr und Bender KG, Germany

ABSTRACT: Residual stress plays an important role with respect to the operating performance of helical springs. Its
effect on the different properties of a material (fatigue, fracture, corrosion, friction, wear, etc.) can be considerable. In
the modern design of springs, residual stress has therefore to be taken into account. In the Article, the mathematical
theory of residual stresses and strains in helical springs is introduced. The theory of residual stresses in helical springs
allows calculating the stresses on all steps of manufacturing process, particularly during the coiling and presetting.

KEYWORDS: Helical Springs, Residual Stresses, Coiling, Presetting

a mandrel that rapidly forms the coil. The formed coil is

1 INTRODUCTION
Residual stress is the stress that remains after the original
cause of the stress (in-service forces, heat gradient) has
been removed. Residual stress also exists in the bulk of a
material without application of an in-service load (ap-
plied force, displacement of thermal gradient). General-
ly, compressive residual stress has a beneficial effect on
the fatigue life and stress corrosion because it delays
crack initiation and propagation. Tensile stress on the
contrary reduces the mechanical performance of materi-
als. In the elastic range, the residual stress can just be
added to the applied stress as a static load. For this rea-
son, compression allows the reduction the stress level of
the layers where the applied load is the highest. Depend-
ing on the scale at which the matter is analyzed, different
kinds of stresses are classically defined. Three kinds of
residual stresses are therefore usually defined: the macro
stresses (or stresses of first kind) over a few grains, the
stresses of second kind over one particular grain and the
stresses of third kind across sub-microscopic areas, say
several atomic distances within a grain. The stresses of
second and third kind are also called micro stresses.
In this Article we study an important practical problem
of residual stresses in helical springs. We demonstrate
the possibility of the creation of residual stress on the
surface of helical springs. We compare the theoretically
optimal distribution of stresses and the residual stresses,
admitted by the modern manufacturing technology.
Helical compression springs for automotive suspensions
are formed either by coiling wire at ambient conditions
(cold coil) or by coiling wire that is at red heat (hot coil)
[1,2,3].
In hot coiling, cut wire segments of steel are heated
above the austenitizing temperature and fed directly onto
____________________
• Muhr und Bender KG, P.O. 360, D-57427, Attendorn, Germany, +49.2722.629503, Vladimir.Kobelev@mubea.com
quenched and later tempered well below the austenitiz-
ing temperature. The primary disadvantages of the hot
coiling process are a risk of decarburization and scaling
of the wire surface. Scaling is detrimental to the fatigue
performance of the spring, since it results in crack initia-
tion sites on the surface.
In cold coiling, wire is fed from a spool onto a mandrel
at room-temperature to form the coil. The springs are
preset with torsion residual stress by compression to
solid height (bulldozing) and shot peened. Since stress
relieving is done at temperatures well below the austen-
itizing temperature, decarburization and surface scaling
are avoided.
Stress management in springs is therefore an optimiza-
tion of factors including the stress relief temperature,
wire strength, shot peening intensity, and presetting
conditions. Knowledge of how individual processing
steps influence the residual coiling stresses is a necessary
step toward achieving a proper optimization of residual
stresses.
2 THE ISOTROPIC WORK-
HARDENING STRESS-STRAIN LAW
One possible case of proportional or “radial” loading
with fixed stress-axes and principal strain ratios is con-
sidered in this Article. The simplification of the solutions
of boundary value problems through the use of stress-
strain relations instead of stress-strain-rate relations is
considerable. The use of stress-strain relations instead of
the stress-strain-rate relations is theoretically admissible,
if the former can be obtained from the latter by path-
independent integration [4]. From the physical point of
view is seems preferable to obtain an analytic solution in
closed form rather than a rigorous that can be evaluated The results of the elastic-plastic analysis for combined
for specific conditions by elaborate numerical methods. loading are summarized in the book [5].
For a compressible isotropic work-hardening material,
without the distinct yielding point, as observed in the 3 ELASTIC-PLASTIC COMBINED
behaviour of deformation, the following stress strain BENDING AND TORSION OF NATU-
expressions are used RALLY CURVED AND TWISTED
sij = 2Gs eij ,  = 3K . BAR
Here 3.1 STRESS AND STRAIN IN CURVED BAR

sij =  ij −  / 3 , eij =  ij −  / 3 The residual stresses due to coiling and presetting of

helical compression spring could be determined analyti-
are the deviators of stress  ij and strain tensors  ij cally with the application of plasticity theory of com-
bined torsion and bending of the naturally curved rod.
respectively,
The preset is applied to helical compression spring by
 = Sp( ij ) ,  = Sp( ij ) , means of axial preset force and to helical torsion spring
by means of preset moment.
K = 2G (1 + ν )/ (3 − 6ν ) is bulk modulus and G is the The wire (in its initial state before coiling of the helical
shear modulus in linear elastic region. The Poisson’s spring) is straight. The end sections are z = 0 and
ratio  is assumed to be constant over the deformation z = L . After coiling, the wire turns into a naturally
history. curved and naturally twisted solid bar with circular
The secant modulus cross-section  of length L . One coil of the cylindrical
Gs = Gs I 2e ( ) helical spring is shown on the Fig. 1.
During coiling the straight wire is loaded from a stress-
is the function of the second invariant of deviatory strain free state by terminal bending moment M and the ter-
I 2e = eij eij . minal twist moment T . Similarly, during preset the
helical wire is loaded from a stress-free state by terminal
We perform the plastic analysis of the combined bending bending moment M and the terminal twist moment T .
and torsion with the following stress-strain law: The origin of coordinates is chosen at the centroid of

 zz ( zz ,  rz ) = E zz +
(E − E ) zz cross-section. The distribution of strain and stress due to

1 + ( ) 
, above combined loading is independent of the varia-
2 k
+  2 rz
2 2
zz p ble z . Let the curvature of the axis of cylinder in pure
bending is  . The strain component  zz for the natural-
 rz ( zz ,  rz ) = G rz +
(G − G ) rz
1 + ( ) 
. ly curved solid bar can be written as follows
2 k
+  2 rz
 zz = (R −1 − RA−1 )x = ( −  A )x ,
2 2
zz p

with the plastic yield strain  p , plastic yield stress
 p = E p , hardening exponent k and Young modulus
E = 2 (1 + )G . For the considered stress state of com-
bined bending and torsion of the rod we have
 2 = 3 /(1 + )2 .The magnitude of shear in this equation
is  rz =  xz2 +  yz2 .
The Poisson coefficient is assumed to be constant during
the deformation history.
We approximate the determined piecewise linear approx-
imation of the stress-strain law by the functional law.
The least square approximation with functional law
delivers the following values:
G = 81.52 GPa, E = 204.45 GPa,
 p = 3.205 GPa,  = 0.254, G = 0, k = 0.5
With these values the following functional stress-strain
law was obtained:
99947  rz
 rz (0,  rz ) = .
1 + 7426  rz2
From this shear-strain law we deduce immediately the
functional stress-strain law.
where R = 1 /  is radius of curvature of the bar during
bending. We neglect the curvature effects on the stress
and strain.
The non vanishing strain components in pure torsion of
naturally curved solid bar with circular cross-section of
radius r are the shearing strains
 xz = 2 xz = −( −  A ) y ,  yz = 2 yz = ( −  A ) x
where  is the angle of twist per unit length of the bar.
We use these relations for description of strains for both
straight and initially twisted bars. The only difference
between the straight bar and the helical bar is the follow-
ing. The curvature and the angle of twist of the straight
wire vanish, such that k A = 0 ,  A = 0 .
The in-plane cross-sectional shear strain  xy = 2 xy = 0
and transversal stress components  xx =  yy = 0 van-
ish. With these formulas the deformation of the rod is
uniquely defined.
The axial and shear deformations in the points
x =  sin  , y =  cos 
of cross-section for the circular rod are respectively
  zz ( , ) = ( −  A )  sin , with J p = 2 J =  r 4 2 and  = r .

 rz ( , ) =  xz2 +  yz2 = ( −  A ) .
The following dimensionless parameters are used:
2
1  
2
1   −A  1
Since the strain components are independent of the vari- = 1 +    , 2 = 2 +  p  .
2

able z , the strains, stresses and also secant modules are  2

 −A      
the function of  ,  (or x, y ) only.
The dimensionless functions P (k ) ( ,  ) , Q(k ) ( ,  ) for
the integrable cases are listed below.
y 3.2 HARDENING EXPONENT k=1/2
The function P(1/ 2 ) (,  ) reads

T P (1 / 2 ) ( ,  ) = p K(1 / 2 )K ( ) +
z
M
(
p E(1 / 2 )E( ) + p (1 / 2 ) Π  2 ,  + p 0(1 / 2 ) , )
 2 − 2 (4 −  2 ) (1/ 2 )   2 − 2
R R p K(1/ 2 ) = , pE = ,
4 4

p(1/ 2 ) = −
( 2
− 2 ) 5/ 2
, p0(1/ 2 ) =  ( −  ) .
2 2 2

4 4 2
2 1 − 
Here
1
K ( ) = 
1
dt
Figure 1: Torsion and bending moments in the cross-section of
the spring wire 0 (1 −  t )(1 − t )
2 2 2

is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind,

The bending moment M = M p ( −  A , −  A ) and
1 − 2t 2
1

torque T = T p ( −  A , −  A ) increase proportionally E( ) =  dt

0
1− t2
to a single parameter, such that their ratio keeps constant
is the complete elliptic integral of the second kind,
during the plastic deformation. Using the expression for

( )
1
strains in the cross-section, we can calculate stresses 1
Π  , = 
2
dt
during the deformation history.
The bending and torque moments applied to the end 0 (1 −  t ) (1 −  t )(1 − t )
2 2 2 2 2

sections of the rod are is the complete elliptic integral of the third kind.
2 r
The dimensionless function Q(1 / 2 ) ( ,  ) possess the
Mp =    ( ,  )xdd ,
0 0
zz
following expression
2 r Q (1 / 2 ) ( ,  ) =
T p =    rz ( ,  )  d d .
(
= q K(1 / 2 ) K ( ) + q E(1 / 2 ) E( ) + q (1 / 2 ) Π  2 ,  + q 0(1 / 2 ) ,)
2

0 0

Thus, the bending and torque moments could be derived  2 − 2 (24 − 4  2 − 22  2 +  4 ) ,
as the functions of curvature  −  A and twist  −  A qK(1/ 2 ) =
 2 4 1 −  2
changes of the rod during the plastic deformation.
( ) , q(1 / 2 ) = ( − 2)( −  )
5/ 2
− 2
The integrals of bending moment and of torsion moment 2 3/ 2 2 2 2
(1 / 2 )
for the cases k = 1/ 2 and k = 1 are expressed in analyt- qE =− ,
ical form: 4 1 −  2 4  2 1 −  2
M p ( −  A , −  A ) = (2 −  )( −  )2 2 2 2
(1 / 2 )
= .
2 (1 −  )
q0
( −  A ) E + 16 (E − E )P (k ) ( ,  ) J ,
2 4

 3  3.3 HARDENING EXPONENT k=1

T p ( −  A ,  −  A ) = ( −  A )(J p /  ) The expression P(1) ( ,  ) reduces to
 1−  2  P (1) ( ,  ) = p1(1) ( ,  ) − (0,  ) + p0(1) ,
3 G +
8
(G − G  )Q (k ) ( ,  )
  3 
  2 − 2 +  2  ( ) (
 O = RO RO 2 + H O 2 , wO = H O RO + H O .
2 2
)
( ,  ) = arctan ,
 2 1 +  2 1 + 2  The angle of twist per unit length in terms of geometrical
 
torsion of curve is  O = (2 ) wO .
−1

p1(1) = −
3  2 + 2 , ( )
2
In the moment, which follows immediately after coiling,
84 1 +  2 the wire unloads elastically and forms the helical spring
with unloaded curvature  A and torsion w A . With these
p0(1)
3
(
= 4 1 + 2 − 1  2 + 2
4
)( ) values, we calculate finally the unloaded radius R A ,
pitch H A and the stresses of the spring “as coiled”.
The dimensionless function Q(1) ( ,  ) is
Maximal axial strain  =  zz (r ,  / 2)  ( −  A )r and
Q(1) ( ,  ) = q1(1) ( ,  ) − (0,  ) + q0(1) , the maximal shear strain  =  rz (r , )  ( −  A )r attain

q1(1) =
(
3 2 −  2  2 − 2 )( )
2
,
on the contour of the circular cross-section.

( )
The simulated profiles of equivalent, shear and bending
84 1 +  2 stresses along the y = 0 (also − r  x  r ) are plotted

q0(1) =
(
3  2 −  2 1 + 2 − 2  2 − 2 .
4 1 +  2 4
A cylindrical solid bar with circular cross-section of
length L is loaded during the spring coiling from a
stress-free state by terminal bending moment and termi-
nal twisting moment. The plastic stresses during the
manufacturing and residual stresses in helical springs are
calculated using the above analytical formulas.
Equivalent Stress
 zz2 + 3 rz2
)( ) on the Fig. 2. For comparison, acquired values for axial
normal stress [3] are shown on this figure.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The method of this Article allows simulating analytically
two essential steps of spring manufacturing, namely the
coiling and preset of the helical spring.
The coiling process is the deformation of the initially
straight rod to the helix. During this forming process the
material flows plastically. Immediately after the moment
of coiling the spring-back occurs. The residual stresses
Acquired values appear namely in the moment of elastic spring-back,
for axial normal which follows the plastic coiling of the spring. The
stress  zz [3] formed coils are then stress relieved in a furnace, such
that the relaxation process occurs and residual stresses
disappear. Presetting a spring is the process of bulldoz-
ing and causes twist yielding. During this forming pro-
cess the material flows plastically once again. On re-
lease, the spring-back of wire happens. The surface is
left with residual shear stresses site in sign to the in-
service load stress, thus clearly improving fatigue prop-
erties.

Axial normal stress
due to bending  zz
. Spiral Springs SAE HS-795, SAE International,
Figure 2. Residual stresses along the positive axis − r  x  r
immediately after coiling (spring “as coiled”)
The spring wire undergoes in the moment of coiling the
simultaneous bending and torsion. Consider a helical
spring with the constant coiling radius and pitch. At the
moment of coiling, when the ultimate plasticization
occurs, the coiling radius is assumed to be RO . The
pitch of one coil at the moment of coiling is H O . The
local shape of the spring at the moment of coiling is a
circular helix:
X (t ) = RO cos t , Y (t ) = RO sin t , Z (t ) = H Ot .
The immediate curvature  O and geometrical torsion of
curve wO of the helix at the moment of coiling is
REFERENCES
Shear stress due
to torsion  rz [1] Manual on Design and Application of Helical and
Warrendale, PA, 1997
[2] Wahl A.M. Mechanical Springs, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1963
[3] Matejicek J. et al. Residual stresses in cold-coiled
helical compression springs for automotive suspen-
sions measured by neutron diffraction. Materials
Science and Engineering A 367, 306–311, 2004
[4] Freudenthal A.M., Geiringer H. The mathematical
theories for inelastic continuum, In: Encyclopedia of
Physics, Ed. S. Flügge, VI, 1958
[5] Życzkowski M.: Combined Loadings in the Theory of
Plasticity, Springer , 1981

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