Metal Extrusion Lab

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Abstract
Al 1000 series metal extrusion simulations were performed. The maximum pressure divided by
the average flow rate was plotted against the natural logarithm of the extrusion ratio. Relating to
the Johnson extrusion equation, values for the constants a and b were found to be 0.66 and 0.17
respectively. The maximum extrusion pressure was found to be linearly related to the natural
logarithm of the extrusion strain rate. From observation of microstructures of extrudates at
different strain rates, the ductility is predicted to be proportional to the strain rate.

Introduction
Metal extrusion is a solid bulk deformation process. It deforms a solid billet of a given cross-
sectional area by forcing it through a die, or opening, with a smaller cross-section. The result is a
new shape with a constant cross-section or profile (Francis, Materials Processing 2016). This
experiment was simulated using an application. The metal simulated was an aluminum 1000
series alloy. Extrusion can be performed under cold working conditions (i.e. without heating).
This method of extrusion is useful for obtaining work-hardening effects on metals. Extrusion can
also be performed under hot working conditions. This may be necessary for extrusions pertaining
to large cross-section reductions. This experiment covers the method of direct extrusion. The
metal piece to be extruded is called the billet. Force is applied to it using a piece called a ram,
which moves forward to push the billet through the opening. For this to happen the metal must
yield and deform plastically. The stress at which this occurs is called the flow stress
(sciencedirect.com). It is important to note that due to work hardening of metals the flow stress
as extrusion occurs is not constant. The billet and the ram are enclosed in a chamber. At the end
of the chamber there is a piece with a reduced cross-sectional area (called the die) equal to the
cross-sectional area of the extruded material, also known as the extrudate. A metal extrusion
schematic is shown below.

Figure 1: Direct extrusion schematic (RPI MTLE 4400, Spring 2022)

The compressive force that pushes the billet is called the extrusion pressure by convention. It is
made up of three components; ideal pressure, redundant pressure and pressure due to friction.
The ideal pressure is the pressure that actually causes the extrusion. The redundant pressure is
pressure used to overcome the metal sliding past itself in zones where metal accumulates and
cannot move. The pressure due to friction arises from the frictional forces between the metal and
the extrusion chamber. This frictional pressure therefore reduces as the contact area between
metal and chamber reduces (as the extrusion process completes). The characteristic graph
relating to pressure for direct extrusion is shown below.

Figure 2: Direct extrusion pressure against ram travel distance (Francis, Materials Processing 2016)

In portion 1 of the graph, the extrusion pressure rises as the billet is being compressed. Just as the
billet first enters the die the pressure reaches a maximum at portion 2 and begins to drop due to
the reduction in contact area between the billet and the chamber, as the billet is successfully
extruded outwards from the die. This occurs during portion 3. The rise in pressure at portion 4 is
due to small remnants of metal being forced out of the dead metal zone, portions at the extreme
ends of the chamber where metal collects. The process must be stopped at this point because the
pressure will rise too high otherwise.
The Johnson extrusion equation provides a theoretical relation for the total extrusion pressure. It
is shown below
2 σL
Ptotal=σ ( a+b ∙ lnR ) +
Dc
Equation 1: Johnson extrusion equation

In equation 1, “σ ” is the average flow stress. There are two constants, “a ” and “b ”. The ratio of
the square of the diameter of the billet to the square of the diameter of the die is known as the
extrusion ratio, or “ R ”. The instantaneous length of the billet is known as “ L” and “ D c ” is the
diameter of the chamber.
The microstructure of a metal refers to its structural features as seen on a microscopic level.
These features significantly affect its macroscopic properties such as strength and ductility. On
the microscopic level metals are made up of grains, individual crystalline areas of distinct
orientation. Grains of different orientations are separated by grain boundaries. Metals contain
numerous dislocations, which are defects in the crystal structure around which atoms are
misaligned (Callister, 2001). It is through the motion of these dislocations that metals are able to
deform permanently in a process such as extrusion. The size of these grains is inversely related
to the strength of a metal. This relationship is shown in the Hall-Petch equation below
k
σ y =σ 0+
√d
Hall-Petch relation
The yield stress (stress at which yielding occurs) is “σ y”. “σ 0” is the stress required for
dislocation motion. “k ” is the strengthening coefficient, a constant different for every metal.
Lastly “d ” is the average grain diameter.

Experimental Procedure
Firstly, the Altair Inspire Extrude Metal program was started. The bearing stp file was loaded.
This file contains information pertaining to the diameter of the extrudate. Next the settings for
the billet were configured by chosing its diameter and length. The chamber diameter must also
be chosen. Next the material (aluminum alloy) was selected and assigned to the billet. The
process data including the speed of the ram, billet preheat temperature and the ram acceleration
were specified into the program next. Once all parameters are correctly configured, the
simulation can be run. The setup must be completed for variations in diameter and speed.

Results

Figure 3: Maximum reached extrusion pressure divided by average flow stress plotted against the natural logarithm of
the extrusion ratio
Figure 4: Maximum pressure reached plotted against the strain rate

Figure 5: Maximum pressure reached plotted against the natural logarithm of the strain rate
Figure 6: Strain rate = 0.2 microstructures

Figure 7: Strain rate = 0.5 microstructures

Figure 8: Strain rate = 0.7 microstructures

Discussion
From equation 1, it can be seen that both terms on the right hand side are multiplied by a factor
of flow stress. Dividing both sides of the equation by flow stress yield the equation below.
P 2L
=a+b ∙ lnR+
σ Dc

Ignoring the frictional pressures, the equation can be simplified to the following equation below.
P
This equation has the form of a straight line where the independent variable, y= . The gradient
σ
is the constant “b ” and the y-intercept is the constant “a ”.
P
=a+b ∙ lnR
σ
Equation 2: Linear extrusion relation

Figure 3 is the maximum pressure divided by the average flow stress plotted against the natural
logarithm of the extrusion ratio. This graph has a straight line of best fit with an R2 value of
0.9902 indicating a strong correlation. Figure 3 is therefore the experimental form of the relation
in equation 2. The gradient and intercept in figure 3 can be used to approximate the Johnson
extrusion equation constants. However, there will be error due to ignoring frictional pressures.
The experimentally obtained value for a is 0.66 and for b it is 0.17. The theoretical values for the
constants a and b are 0.8 and from 1.2-1.5 respectively. These experimentally determined values
are different from the theoretical values most likely due to approximations necessary for the
simulation of a real-world process in the application.

Observing the microstructures for extrusion at different strain rates from figures 6-8, trends
relating to physical properties can be noticed. The grains appear to get coarser as the strain rate
increases. The grains go from long, thin shapes to thicker shapes. At the highest strain rate, in
figure 8, circular grains are even observed. From the Hall-Petch equation the inverse relationship
between grain size and yield stress is shown. Therefore, metal samples extruded at higher speeds
with be more ductile (Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 2020). This is an important application
of extrusion strain rate, controlling the strength and ductility of the extrudate.

Conclusion
The simulation experiment confirms the increase in pressure as the extrusion ratio increases. This
is consistent with the idea that forcing a given billet through a smaller diameter die would take
more pressure. The maximum pressure increases with strain rate and has been shown to have a
logarithmic relationship. Higher strain rates result in more ductile extrudates (Journal of
Magnesium and Alloys, 2020) and evidence for this can be seen in the changes in microstructure
from the microscope images in figures 6-8.
References
1. Francis, Lorraine F.. Materials Processing. Academic Press, 2016.

2. “Flow Stress.” Flow Stress - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. Accessed March 2,

2022. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/flow-stress.
3. Callister, William D., and William D. Callister. Fundamentals of Materials Science and
Engineering: An Interactive Etext. New York: Wiley, 2001.
4. Li, Jingren, Aiyue Zhang, Hucheng Pan, Yuping Ren, Zhuoran Zeng, Qiuyan Huang,
Changlin Yang, Lifeng Ma, and Gaowu Qin. “Effect of Extrusion Speed on
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of the Mg-Ca Binary Alloy.” Journal of
Magnesium and Alloys, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2020.05.011.
5. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) MTLE 4400 Course, Spring 2022