Mechanics Of Material

Submitted by:-FAISAL MEHRBAN

Submitted to:- SIR ALI AKBER

Roll NO:-2021-ME-435
Department:-Mechanical Engineering

Lab Session # 1
Objective:
How to use measuring tools (Vernier caliper, Micrometer, and Dial Gauge).

(1)Vernier caliper:-
A vernier scale is visual aid to take an accurate measurement reading between two
graduation markings on a linear scale by using mechanical interpolation; thereby
increasing resolution and reducing measurement uncertainty by using Vernier
acuity to reduce human estimation error.
Purpose: Measuring more precisely than could be done unaided when reading a
uniformly divided straight or circular measurement scale.
A Vernier scale is an additional scale which allows a distance or angle
measurement to be read more precisely than directly reading a uniformly-divided
straight or circular measurement scale. Vernier Caliper can be used to measure
diameter, thickness very accurately.
It can be more easily understand by the figure given below.
The Vernier caliper is an instrument that allows you measure lengths much more
accurate than the metric ruler. The smallest increment in the vernier caliper you
will be using is (1/50)mm = 0.02mm = 0.002cm. Thus, the uncertainty is ∆x =
(1/2)0.002 cm = 0.001 cm.
Parts of Vernier caliper:
 Internal jawsExternal jawsDepth measuring scale
 Locking screwVernier scaleMetric scale

Procedure for using Vernier Caliper:

 First of all I picked a workpiece.
 Then hold the workpiece in the jaws of vernier caliper.
 I found the main scale reading on the vernier caliper.
 And then found the vernier scale reading on the small scale of
vernier caliper.
 Then we multiplying the vernier scale reading to 0.02 and find the
least count.
 This process repeat five times.
count of Vernier scale:
Least count = Smallest division on main scale/Total no. of divisions on Vernier scale
Least Count of vernier calipers = 0.02mm = 0.001inch

Observations and calculations:

Sr. # Main scale Vernier scale V.S Result
reading reading (mm) A+B
A (mm) B (division) LC
(mm) *( division)
12.66
1 12 33 0.66
0.46 12.46
2 12 23
12.72
 3 12 36 0.72
4 12 26 0.52 12.52
5 12 29 0.58 12.58

COMMENTS:
 Digital vernier caliper has better accuracy.
 We have a need to find the exact values by extrude the zero error.
 Least count also find when we working on the vernier caliper.

(2)Micrometer/Screw-Gauge:-
Micrometer/screw-gauge is another instrument used for measuring accurately the diameter
of a thin wire or the thickness of a sheet of metal. It consists of a U-shaped frame fitted with a
screwed spindle which is attached to a thimble.
A micrometer, sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device incorporating a
calibrated screw widely used for accurate measurement of components in mechanical
engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades, along with other meteorological
instruments such as dial, vernier, and digital calipers.
Operation supported: Component measurement

Purpose: Precision measurement of a component

Variant: Digital mics, Bench micrometer, Limit mics, Digit mics, MORE

Component: Screw, Spindle, Ratchet stop, Anvil, Frame, Barrel, Thimble lock, Thimble

Application: Mechanical Engineering, Machining

Principle: The screw gauge works on the principle of screw.

Parts of Screw Gauge:
 Sleeve
 Lock Nut
 Spindle
 Anvil
 Frame
 Thimble
Procedure for using Micrometer Screw Gauge:
 First of all we hold the workpiece in the jaws of screw gauge.
 Then I had found the values of main scale on the screw gauge.
 And also find the Vernier scale division on the screw gauge.
 And then multiply the no of divisions to the least count by 0.01.
 This process also repeat by five times.
Least count of Micrometer Screw Gauge:
Least count = Smallest division on main scale/Total no. of divisions on thimble scale
Least count =1/100 =0.01mm

Observations and calculations:

No. of Main scale Circular scale S=LC*D Result
observations reading reading(D) R=S+M.S
A B
(mm) (mm)
1 9 08 0.08 9.08
2 9 2 0.02 9.02
3 9 09 0.09 9.09
4 9 9 0.09 9.09
5 9 9 0.09 9.09

Comments:
 Value of the least count of screw gauge is 0.1.
 We should use digital Vernier caliper for accurate value.
(3) Dial Gauge:-
Dial indicators, also known as dial gauges and probe indicators, are instruments used to
accurately measure small linear distances, and are frequently used in industrial and mechanical
processes. They are named so because the measurement results are displayed in a magnified way
by means of a dial.
When dial indicator is used as essential part in the mechanism of any set-up for
'comparison' measurement purposes, it is referred to as dial gauge. Most of the dial
indicators take the form of a circular or semicircular scale upon which a pointer gives a direct
indication of the movements of a contact arm or spindle.

Least count of Dial Gauge:

Least count = Smallest division on main scale/Total no. of divisions on vernier scale
Least count =1/100=0.01 mm

Parts:
 Contact point
 Embedded clock & needle
 Plunger
 Needle

Procedure for Dial Gauge:

 Dial gauge is used to convert the linear motion into circular
motion.
 Iset the hanger with the dial gauge.
 Then I put the weight on the hanger. weight pulled the plunger of
the dial gauge downward.
 By moving down the plunger the needles of the dial gauge rotate.
  There are the two needles in the dial gauge.
 Small needle measured the values of main scale and big needle
measured the values of vs(divisions).
 Then least count of the dial gauge id 0.1.
 I repeat this procedure five times.

Observations and calculations:

No of MAIN Dial gauge S=LC*B RESULT

observation SCALE reading R=S+A
reading B (mm)
A (mm)
1 1 27 0.027 1.027
2 1 28 0.028 1.028
3 1 29 0.029 1.029
4 1 29 0.029 1.029
5 1 29 0.029 1.029

Comments:
 There are some errors in dial gauge.
 Dial gauge is precise instrument to measure the readings.
  Lab Session # 2
Objective:
Verification of Hook’s law for various type of materials by the use of Hook’s law Apparatus
and draw the load deflection curve.

Apparatus:
 Hooke’s law Apparatus
Picture:

Theory:
Hooke’s law:
Hooke’s Law states that the amount of deformation of an elastic object is proportional to
the force applied to deform it.

F x

F=-kx
The concept of Hooke’s Law is that the amount of force applied to a spring or elastic object
is proportional to the amount of deformation (length of stretch or compression). The greater the
force applied to an elastic object, the more deformation (stretch or compression) there is. With
less force applied, there will be less deformation in the spring. The formula for Hooke’s Law is
F=kx where “F” is the force applied, “k” is the force constant of the spring, and “x” is the
amount of deformation in meters. To determine whether there is a stretch or compression in the
spring, we use a method of signs. If the spring is compressed, both “x” and “F” are negative (-)
and when stretched both are positive (+).

Hook’s law apparatus consists of following parts:

1. Main Frame 2.Zero Adjuster 3.Dial Gauge (load
gauge)
 4. Tensile Spring 5.Meter Rod 6.Scale site

Procedure:
 First of all I found the error and then remove it.
 And then rotate the nut of the apparatus that is used to put the
weight.
 We note the weight on the dial gauge.
 By adding weight deformation produce. And find forward
deflection.
 So I reverse the nut that shows the removal of weight.
 I find the values of reverse deflection.
Observations and calculations:
Least count of Dial gauge=0.2N
Least count of scale=1mm
Initial position=145mm
Sr.no Load Deflection Average deflection
(P) ∆l (mm) (mm)
(N) Forward Reverse
L1-l2=∆la L1-l2=∆lb ∆l=∆l1+∆l2/2
1 1 143-147=4 171-166=5 4.5
2 2 143-151=8 171-162=9 8.5
3 3 143-155=12 171-158=13 12.5
4 4 143-159=16 171-154=17 16.5
5 5 143-163=20 171-150=21 20.5
6 6 143-167=24 171-147=24 24
7 7 143-171=28 171-143=28 28

Comments:
 The value of spring constant does not remain exactly constant but
almost nearly constant.
 These variations can be produced to the knocking of dial gauge.
 By knocking on the dial gauge reading are not taken perfectly.

Lab Session # 3
Objective:
To determine the spring constant (K) for a spring of various materials using Hook’s law
Apparatus.

Apparatus:
Hooke’s law Apparatus

Theory:
Hooke’s law:
In mechanics, and physics, Hooke's law of elasticity states that the extension of a
spring is in direct proportion with the load applied to it.
Many materials obey this law as long as the load does not exceed the material's elastic limit.
Materials for which Hooke's law is a useful approximation are known as linear-elastic or
"Hookean" materials. Hooke's law in simple terms says that strain is directly proportional to
stress.
Mathematically, Hooke's law states that

X=Displacement (units ‘m’) K=Constant

F=Restoring force (units ‘N’)

Procedure:
 First of all I found the error and then remove it.
  Then I rotate the nut and set the position the scale and then
find the change in position.
 By setting the position I find the forward readings of the
load.
 Then rotate the nut in the reverse direction and find the
values of reverse load.
 This process repeat six times.
Observations and calculations:
Least count of Dial gauge=0.2N

Least count of Scale=1mm

Initial position=150mm
Sr.no Position Change in Resistive force Average K=P/∆x
(x) position (P) force N/mm
(mm) (∆x) (N) (N)
(mm)
Forward Reverse P=(P1+P2)/2
P1 P2
1 147-143 4 1 1.4 1.2 0.3
2 152-143 9 2 2.4 2.2 0.24
3 156 -143 13 3 3.4 3.2 0.24
4 159-143 16 4 4.2 4.9 0.25
5 162 -143 19 5 5 5 0.26
6 166-143 23 6 6 6 0.26

Comments:
 The value of spring constant does not remain exactly constant but
almost nearly constant.
 These variations can be produced to the knocking of dial gauge.By
knocking on the dial gauge reading are not taken perfect.
 Lab Session # 4
Determine the modulus of rigidity (G) of a rubber material using shear stress
apparatus.

Apparatus:
 Shear stress apparatusHanger with weightVernier
caliper
 Dial gauge

Theory:
Rubber blocks in shear force are often used on engine and
in equipment mounting to isolate vibrations. They do this by absorbing shock
energy by deforming. This deformation leads to a decrease in cross-section as the
block lengthens, an effect described by Poisson's Ratio.Rubber is interesting in
that the lay person regards it as an 'elastic' material. In engineering terms it is not
as 'elastic' as steel and often exhibits a high degree of hysteresis.
Shear modulus:
The shear modulus is one of several quantities for measuring the stiffness of
materials. All of them arise in the generalized Hooke's law:
The Young's modulus describes the material's response to linear strain (like
pulling on the ends of a wire).
The bulk modulus describes the material's response to uniform pressure.
The shear modulus describes the material's response to shearing strains.

The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when it

experiences a force parallel to one of its surfaces while its opposite face
experiences an opposing force (such as friction). In the case of an object that's
shaped like a rectangular prism, it will deform into a parallelepiped. Anisotropic
materials such as wood and paper exhibit differing material response to stress or
strain when tested in different directions. In this case, when the deformation is
small enough so that the deformation is linear, the elastic moduli, including the
shear modulus, will then be a tensor, rather than a single scalar value.
Shear stress:
It is defined as;
“when a section is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially
across the resisting section as a result of which the body tends to shear off across
the section as shown in figure; is called shear stress. It is represented with the
symbol “τ” (tau).
Mathematically,
τ = P/A
Where,
P = Shearing load
A= Cross-section area upon which load acts

Shear Strain:
“The strain produced as a result of shear stress is called shear strain”.

It is represented with the symbol “ϓ”.

Generally it has no unit but when it is measured in angle it has unit of radian.
Hooke’s law for shearing stress and strain:
Hooke’s law for shearing stress and strain states that shear stress is
directly proportional to shear strain up to the proportional limit.
Mathematically,
τ = Gϓ
Where, G = modulus of rigidity
Modulus of Rigidity (G):
It may be defined as “it is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. “It
is represented with the letter “G”
Mathematically,
G = τ/ϓ
Derivation:
B

ΔI
Δl

As we know that
Tan (ϓ) =Δl/b
For small ϓ,
Tan (ϓ) = ϓ
So.
ϓ = Δl/b
Now,
Shear Stress=P/Ar
But we have
G= τ/ϓ
Putting value we have
 G = P.b/ (A.Δl)
Procedure:
 First of all I set the shear stress apparatus.
 Then I applied the load on the hanger who is attached with the dial gauge.
 And then putting the weight on hanger that pulled down the plates and rotate the
needles of the dial guage.
 And then find the vales of average deformation.
 And then find the modulus of rigidity by the formula.

Observation & Calculation:

 Diameter of cylinder (d) = 25.80mm

Length of cylinder (L) = 30.38mm

Least count=L.C. = 0.1mm
Number of cylinders (n) = 4
Area of cylinders (A) =n (π/4) d2= 2090.1096mm2

Sr. Load Deflection Modulus of

# Rigidity
(N) (∆L) (mm)
P Loading Unloading Average P.L
G=
∆L1(mm) ∆L2(mm) ∆L=(∆L1+∆L2)/2(mm) ∆ L. A

(N/mm2)
1 10 0.09 0.13 0.11 18.68
2 20 0.19 0.24 0.215 19.32
3 30 0.31 0.34 0.325 19.52
4 40 0.43 0.47 0.45 19.66
5 50 0.56 0.56 0.56 19.73
Conclusion:
In this experiment we concluded that modulus of rigidity (G) of rubber is the
material property of rubber and is independent of the shear force.
Comments:
  Some hanger of the apparatus are not perfectly stable that make the
cause of not perfectly reading.
 Add the weight on the hanger carefully because sometime it fell
down on the feets.

Lab Session # 5
Objective:
To verify the torsion formula by using the torsion of bars apparatus.
Apparatus:
 Torsion of bars apparatus.
 Bar of known material
 Weights and hanger
 Meter rod
 Vernier caliper

Apparatus Diagram:

Theory:

Torsion:
Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque.
Torsion is expressed in newton per square meter (Pa) or
pound per square inch (psi) while torque is expressed in
Newton meters (Nm.) or foot pound force (ft·lbf).
T = ∫ pdf
T = ∫ p . τ . dA
Consider the triangle OAA’, for small angle ϓ,
 AA’ = ϓL
But, on the other hand, we have
AA’ = ρφ
Comparing both equations we have
ϓL = ρφ
ϓ = ρφ/L (1)
Where ϓ and φ both are measured in radian
Shearing strain is maximum on the surface of the shaft, where ρ = c, we
have
ϓmax= cφ/L (2)
From (1) and (2), we have
ϓ = ρ ϓmax/c
From Hook/s law for shearing stress and strain, we have
τ = G ρ ϓmax/c
τ = ρτmax/c
We now recall from that the sum of the moments of the elementary forces
exerted on any cross section of the shaft must be equal to the magnitude T of
the torque exerted on the shaft:

Substituting τ in above equation, we have

Twisting Angle:
The angle of twist φ and the maximum shearing strain ϓmax are related as follows

In elastic range Hook’s law applies, we have

Comparing ϓmax , we have

Procedure:
 First of all, measured the diameter of shaft and pulley with the help of
vernier caliper.
  And then fix one end of the shaft at a distance of 300mm and attach the
other end with pulley.
 Which could rotate when the load is applied.
 Then, attached the gauge to the shaft at the point where the angle of twist is
to be determined.
 Then, applied load with hanger and thread, to the pulley to produce torque in
the pulley which is transferred to the shaft.
 I noted the angle of twist from gauge which rotates as the shaft is twisted.
Observations And Calculations:
Gsteel = 77GPa
Diameter of pulley = 68.2mm
Position of indicator from fixed point = 300 mm

Load Torque Twisting couple Φexperimental Twisting couple

Theoretical Difference
Sr. # P T Increasing Decreasing Avg. Φth=TL/JG (Degree)
(N) (N.mm) Degree Degree Degree (Degree)

1. 5 170.5 3 3.5 3.25 3.10 0.15

2. 10 341 4 5 4.5 4.32 0.18

3. 15 511.5 6 6.5 6.25 6.19 0.06

4. 20 682 9 9 9 8.9 0.1

Comments:
 Zero error is necessary to remove for the exact measurement.
 Digital vernier caliper is better to measure the diameter.
 Needs to find the exact readings.

 Lab Session # 6:
Objective:

To find the Centre of gravity (C.G) of the different shapes.

Apparatus:

 Wooden Triangular Shape

 Wooden Circular Shape
 Wooden Rectangular Shape
 Plumb Line
Theory:
Centre of Gravity:
“The point in a body of matter where the total weight of the body may be
thought to be concentrated.”
Centroid:
The word centroid means the geometric centre of the object’s shape.
Location Of Center Of Gravity:
The location of a body’s Centre of gravity may coincide with the geometric Centre of the
body, especially in a symmetrically shaped object composed of homogeneous material. For
example, the Moon’s Centre of gravity is very close to its geometric Centre (it is not exact
because the Moon is not a perfect uniform sphere), but its Centre of gravity is slightly displaced
toward the Earth because of the stronger gravitational force on the Moon’s near side. The Centre
of gravity of anybody can be determined by a simple physical procedure. When an object is
suspended from any single point, it’s Centre of gravity lies directly beneath that point.

Locating the centroid:

It can be measured by using Plumb line method and by geometric method.
Plumb Line Method:
When an object is suspended from any single point, its centroid and centre
of gravity of symmetrical body lies directly beneath that point. A line is usually
drawn at by the help of plumb liner. The point where the line drawn from two to
different points by plumb liner meet is the centroid of that body.
Geometric Method:
The centroid of a plane figure X can be computed by dividing it into a finite
number of simpler figures X1, X2, X3,……,Xn computing the centroid Ci and
area Ai of each part, and then computing

Procedure:
  First of all I was selected the shaped as T shaped and I
shaped.
 There are some holes on the corner of the T shaped and I
shaped.
 And then holes are meet to each other with the line.
 And all lines all meets to that point is called a Centre of
Gravity.
For T SHAPE :-

For I Shape

Comments:
In this experiment, Centre of Gravity is different on the different shaped

Result:
  The plumb line method that we have used in this experiment is very suitable and
accurate, so result that we obtained are very fine.
 The holes that we made in the shape were not at the accurate placing so a little
error may have occurred due to that reason.

 Lab Session #7:

Objective:
To determine the reactions of simply supported beam for different
loading conditions.
Apparatus:

Simply supported beam apparatus,

Apparatus diagram:

Theory:
Beam:
Beams are the structural members which support the lateral or
transversely applied loads.
Types of beam:
Beams are classified on the basis of type of support, related to this
following are the types of beam.
1. Simply Supported Beams:
The beam which contains two pin or rolling support at its ends..

2. Cantilever Beam:
The beam which is fixed from one end and free from other end.

3. Overhanging Beam:
The beam which contains one pin and one
rolling support between the ends and free
from one end is overhanging beam.
 4. Built-in Beam:
The beam which is fixed from both the ends.

5. Continuous Beam:
That type of beam which has three or more than three supports is known as
continuous beam.
Load:
The load is a force which causes or tends to deformation or bending
or deflection in a body which apply on it. A load can be classified as:
 Point load or concentrated Load:
A type of load which applied on a single point at the beam which is shown in
figure “a”.
 Uniformly Distributed Load:
A load that is spread along the axis of the beam as shown in figure “b” .
Distributed loads are measured by their intensity, which is expressed in force per
unit distance e.g. kN/m.
 Uniformly Varying Load:
“That type of loading which is uniformly varying throughout the beam.” This type
of loading is shown in figure “c”

(a) (b)
(C)

Reaction of simply supported beam:

Supports in the simply supported beam which is either a pin support or a
rolling support applies reaction on the beam against the load. A pin support has
only one reaction while rolling support has two, one in vertical and other is
horizontal.
Reactions of a beam are determined theoretically by considering the beam in
equilibrium and applying equations of static. That is,
∑Fx =0
∑FY =0
∑ MA=0
Procedure:-
 First of all I set the simply supported beam.
 The total length of the beam was 102cm.
 I was taken the three different lengths and put the hanger on those
lengths.
 And apply the weight on the hangers.
 And find the distance between the hangers.
 And then find the experimental and theoretical values of RA and
RB.

Observation and calculations:

Experimental Theoretical
Load Distance Difference
Reaction Reaction
Sr.# (N) (mm) (N)
(N) (N)
’
L1 L2 L3 D1 D2 D3 RA RB RA R’B ∆RA ∆RB
5 - - 14 - - 2 0 3.6 1.4 1.6 1.4
01 20 - - 14 - - 13 3 14.4 5.6 1.4 1.6
30 - - 14 - - 20 5 21.6 8.4 1.6 3.4
10 10 - 14 34 - 9 8 10.4 9.6 1.4 0.6
02 15 20 - 14 34 - 16 16 7.2 17.8 1.3 1.8
27 25 - 14 34 - 26 23 27.4 24.56 1.4 1.44
10 05 10 14 34 48 8 15 9.2 15.8 1.2 0.8
03 17 15 20 14 34 48 17 33 12.80 34.16 4.2 1.16
19 20 30 14 34 48 21 39 20.99 40.06 0.2 1.06

Comments:

 There are not huge difference between the theoretical and

experimental values.
 Different distance between the hangers produce the different values
of RA and RB.
Lab Session #8:
OBJECTIVE:
Determine the reaction of overhanging beam for different loading
conditions.
APPARATUS:
 Overhanging Beam Apparatus

INTRODUCTION / THEORY:
 Overhanging Beam:

It is defined as a beam that has its one or both ends stretching out past its
supports. It can have any number of supports. In other words, it is a
beam when a cantilever portion is hanging out of a simply supported
beam.
PROCEDURE:
 Frist of all I set the apparatus of the over hanged supported beam.
 The total length of the beam was 102cm.
 And apply the weight on the hangers.
 And find the distance between the hangers.
 And then find the experimental and theoretical values of RA and RB.
z
 And also find the average theoretical values of the reactions.

Observation and calculation:-

L.Hoverhang R.Hoverhange L1 L2 L3 W1 W2 W3 RATh RBTh RAExp RBExp
ed d
25 25 1 2 6 5 5 5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7
0 5 0
25 25 1 2 6 7 7 710. 10. 11 10.5
0 5 0 5 5
25 25 1 2 6 10 10 10 15 15 15 14.5
0 5 0
25 25 1 2 6 12 12 12 18 18 17.5 18
0 5 0
25 25 1 2 6 15 15 15 22. 22. 22 22.5
0 5 0 5 5
25 25 1 2 6 17 17 17 25. 25. 25 25.5
0 5 0 5 5
25 25 1 2 6 19 19 19 28. 28. 28 28.5
0 5 0 5 5

Comments:-

 There are not huge difference between the theoretical and

experimental values.
 Different distance between the hangers produce the different values
of RA and RB.
 Lab Session # 9
Objective:
To draw the Shear force &Bending Momentdiagram for a cantilever beam by using
B.M & S.F Apparatus.

Apparatus:
 Bending moment & Shear force apparatus
 Hanger with weights

Theory:
Beam:
A beam is a Horizontal structural member which supports the lateral loads or structural
element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending.
Beams has traditional descriptions in building or civil Engineering structural elements, but
smaller structures such as truck or automobile frames, machine frames, and other mechanical or
structural systems contain beam structures that are designed and analyzed in a similar fashion.
Types of Beams:
There are different types of beams
 Simply supported beam
 Over hanging beam
 Fixed beams
 Cantilever beams
Cantilever Beam:
A cantilever is a beam anchored at only one end. The beam carries the load to the support where
it is forced against by moment and shear stress. Cantilever construction allows for overhanging
structures without external bracing. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs.

A cantilever beam is used in many Construction zones like bridges, balconies etc.

Shear Force:
A force that acts on a body tangentially across the resistive area as a result of which the body
tends to shear off this force is called as shear force.
In case of beams vertical shear forces are generated in a beam by the applied loads and by the
support reaction. The reactions push up while the load pushes down. In most cases the maximum value of
shear occurs close to the supports.
A schematic view of shear forces is given as,

Bending Moment:
This term is specially related with beams.It is a reactive moment offered by beam which comes
into play when an external lateral load is applied on beam.Its axis is perpendicular to the central axis.

Mathematically,
 Where
M=Bending moment
C=Maximum distance from the central axis to other boundary of the beam
I=momemt of inertia
To avoid the confusion of C we can use S
Where,
S=Elastic Section Modulus
And given as

It is fixed for particular beams so we can write above equation as

Shear force & bending Moment Diagram:

When the whole beam is solved by evaluating shear force and bending moment we draw a graph which is
the bending moment diagram of that beam. Actually it is the graphical representation of both B.M & S.F.

Procedure:
 First of all we set the apparatus in equilibrium state.
 Then we started to hang the weights on the cantilever beam
 Since the beam is calibrated with the distance of 25 mm
 So each load is mounted on the beam with this distance
 After loading we set it in equilibrium and note the readings
 And by some formulas we calculated its theoretical value.

Observations & Calculations:

C.G=25mm L=15.8 h=10cm
 Sr.no. External Position Practical Theoretical Fm Experimental Theoretical
load of load shear shear force (N) bending bending
(N) (mm) force (N) (N) moment moment
(Nmm) (Nmm)

1- 12 158 17 16.8 20 2.016 2

2- 14 158 18 18.8 2.332 2.3

23

3- 10 158 14 14.8 15 1.7 1.5

Lab Session # 10
Observation:
To determine the deflection of a simply supported beam by using Beam Deflection Apparatus.

Apparatus:
1. Beam deflection apparatus
2. Simply supported beam
3. Weight and hanger
4. Meter rod
5. Vernier caliper
Theory:
Deflection in a simply supported beam:
The deflection of a simply supported beam supporting a point load at the mid of
its span can be calculate by the procedure as

Using equations of static, we have

RA = P/2
RB = P/2
Using the free-body diagram of the portion AD of the beam, where D is located at a distance x
from end A, we find
M = P .x/2
Substituting M in general elastic equation, we have
(EI) d2y/dx2 = P .x/2
Integrating with x we obtain,
(EI) dy/dx = P. x2/4 + c1
We now observe that at the point C, we have x = L/2 and ϴ = dy/dx = 0. Substituting these
values and solving for C1, we have
C1 = -PL2/16
Putting in above equation, we have
(EI) dy/dx = P. x2/4 - PL2/16
Again, integrating the above equation, we have
(EI) y = P. x3/12 - PL2x/16 + c2
But, at A we have x = 0, y = 0. Substituting in above equation, we have
C2 = 0
 Carrying the value of C2 back into above equation, we obtain the equation of the elastic curve
(EI) y = P. x3/12 - PL2x/16
Deflection at point C will be obtained by putting x = L/2 in above equation, we have
y = -PL3/48EI
We can find the theoretical deflection in the simply supported beam supporting a
concentrated load P at the Centre of its length by the above formula.

Procedure:
1. First of all, measure the length of simply supported beam of known material with help
of a meter rod.
2. Measure the width and the thickness of the bar which is used as beam with help of
Vernier caliper to determine the moment of inertia.
3. Mount the beam on the beam deflection apparatus and set the apparatus such that the
base of the dial gauge touches the beam at the Centre of the beam.
4. Set the dial gauge at zero.
5. Apply load at the Centre with help of a hanger.
6. Gradually increase the load and note the corresponding deflection in the beam by the
rotation of the dial gauge.
7. Note the deflection first by increasing the load gradually and then decreasing and then
take average.
8. Calculate the theoretical deformation by the formulas derived for the beam and note
the difference in values.

Observations & Calculations:

Width of beam = b = 9.91mm,Thickness of beam = d = 3.35mm
Moment of inertia = I = bd3/12 = 36.17mm3
Modulus of elasticity = E =70GPa , Length of simply supported beam = L =450 mm
Least count of dial gauge = 0.01mm
Sr Load Deflection Deflection Error
# P y theoretical
 (N) Increasing Decreasing Average Yth=PL3/48EI (%)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 1 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.750 -29.33
2 2 1.90 1.92 1.91 1.5 -27.3
3 3 2.84 2.87 2.85 2.25 -26.6
4 4 3.77 3.82 3.79 3 -32.33
5 5 4.69 4.69 4.69 3.75 -25.06

Comments:
 There is a lot error in the apparatus.
 The plunger of dial gauge is not pointed well on beam.
 These errors are also due the weight of beam.

Conclusion:
After doing this experiment, we concluded that beam deflect linearly when we apply weigh. We
observed the deflection of beam practically and we measured the value of deflection for different
loads.

Lab Session # 11
Objective:
To determine the deflection of cantilever beam by using Beam Deflection Apparatus.

Apparatus:
 Bending of bars apparatus.
 Cantilever beam
 Weight and hanger
 Meter rod
 Vernier caliper
Picture:
Theory:
Deflection:
Measure of deformation due to transverse loading is called deflection or Vertical
deformation from initial point due to external load is called deflection. It is denoted by y.

 Deformation of a beam under transverse loading:

Reciprocal of radius is called radius is called curvature
1/ϕ = curvature
Its unit is m-1
The relation between the curvature of neutral surface and bending moment M is given as

Where,
E = Modulus of elasticity
I = Moment of inertia
Bending moment depends on the external load and distance x. Thus both the
bending moment and the curvature of the neutral surface will vary from section to section
depending on x. Bending moment is maximum where the curvature is maximum. From
elementary calculus the curvature of a plane curve can be expressed as
But the slope of deflection of beam is very small and its square is very very small so neglecting it
we have,

Substituting 1/ϕ from above equation

This equation is the general elastic curve equation

The slope ϴ = dy/dx and the deflection y at any point of the beam may be obtained through two
successive integrations. So

Slope is zero at the point where the deflection is maximum.

The constants C1 and C2 are determined from the boundary conditions or, more precisely, from
the conditions imposed on the beam by its supports.

 Deflection in a cantilever beam:

The deflection of a cantilever beam supporting a point load at its free end can be
calculate by the procedure as

Using the free-body diagram of the portion AC of the beam, where C is located at a distance x
from end A, we find
M = -P. x
Substituting M in general elastic equation, we have
Integrating with x we obtain,

We now observe that at the fixed end B we have x = L and ϴ = dy/dx = 0. Substituting these
values and solving for C1, we have

Putting in above equation, we have

Again integrating the above equation, we have

But, at B we have x = L, y = 0. Substituting in above equation, we have

Carrying the value of C2 back into above equation, we obtain the equation of the elastic curve

or

The deflection at A is obtained by putting x = 0, we have

Procedure:
 First of all, measure the length of cantilever beam of known material with help of a meter
rod.
 Measure the width and the thickness of the bar which is used as beam with help of
Vernier caliper to determine the moment of inertia.
 Mount the beam on the beam deflection apparatus and set the apparatus such that the
base of the dial gauge touches the beam at its free end.
  Set the dial gauge at zero and apply load at the free end with help of a hanger.
 Gradually increase the load and note the corresponding deflection in the beam by the
rotation of the dial gauge.
 Note the deflection first by increasing the load gradually and then decreasing and then
take average.
 Calculate the theoretical deformation by the formulas derived for the beam and note the
difference in values.
Observations & Calculations:
Width of beam = b = 9.91mm Thickness of beam = d = 3.35mm
Moment of inertia = I = bd3/12 = 34.19mm3
Modulus of elasticity = E = 70GPa, Length of cantilever beam = L = 288 mm
Least count of dial gauge = 0.01mm
Sr. Load Deflection Deflection Error
# P y theoretical
(N) Increasing Decreasing Average Yth=PL3/3EI (%)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 1.5 6.7 5.9 6.3 5.0 -26.6

2 2.5 7.8 7.7 7.75 8.3 6.6

3 3.5 9.2 9.2 9.2 11.6 20

Comments:
 First of all remove the zero error of dial gauge.
 Make sure to not to make the table vibrate as the vibrations add into the readings
measured from a dial gauge.
 Self-weight of beam also affects the readings.
 There is error produced due to the friction from the gears.

Lab Session # 12

Objective:
To visualize the necking effect in tension using Universal Tensile Machine (UTM).

Apparatus:

 Universal testing machine (UTM)

 Specimen of different materials
 Vernier caliper

Picture:

Theory:

Universal Testing Machine:

A universal testing machine, also known as a universal tester is used to test the tensile stress and
compressive strength of materials. It is named after the fact that it can perform many standard
tensile and compression tests on materials, components, and structures.

Parts of universal testing machine:

 Load frame:
Load frame usually consist of two strong supports for the machine. Some small machines have a
single support.

 Load cell:

A force transducer or other means of measuring the load.

 Cross head:

A movable cross head (crosshead) is controlled to move up or down. Usually this is at a constant
speed: sometimes called a constant rate of extension (CRE) machine. Some machines can
program the crosshead speed or conduct cyclical testing, testing at constant force, testing at
constant deformation, etc. Electromechanical, servo-hydraulic, linear drive and resonance drive
are used.

 Means of measuring deformation:

Many tests require a measure of the response of the test specimen to the movement of the cross
head. Extensometer is sometimes used.

 Output device

A means of providing the test result is needed. Some older machines have dial or digital displays
and chart recorder. Many newer machines have a computer interface for analysis and printing.

 Uses:

A universal testing machine can perform tensile and compressive tests as well as for the
bending test of structural members.

 Necking:

At a certain maximum value of the load the diameter of a portion of the specimen begins
to decrease, because of local instability. This phenomenon is known as necking.

This phenomenon depends on the mechanical properties of the material. For example,
steel shows more necking than aluminum.To visualize the necking effect of a material, a tensile
test is conducted on a specimen of the material. The test specimen is placed in a testing machine
which is used to apply a centric load P. As the load P increases, the specimen deforms and length
L between the gauge marks is increased. At a certain maximum stress, the diameter of a portion
of the specimen start to decrease at the weaker point and the material shows necking effect as
shown in figure.

Procedure:

1) First of all, length and of a

specimen is measured by a vernier caliper.

2) Fix the specimen between jaws of

UTM.
3) Apply tensile load on the specimen by the hydraulic system.

4) Increase load gradually up to the point at which the specimen deforms and shows necking

5) Visualize the necking effect in the specimen.

Observation & Calculation:

For Steel:

For mild steel: D = 13.95mm, Gauge length=L= 73.63

Increase in length=∆l=82mm

Comments:

 The necking effect does not occur at the midpoint of work piece.
 The dimensioning of the work piece is not accurate.
 Necking was not good because of impurities in the material.