Diseño de Maquinas - Estabilidad 2

ME 331: Design of Machine Elements
H. Hirani
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Lecture Tutorials Distribution

July: 23, 25, 30 10% T
August: 1, 6, 13, 20, 22, 27, 29 22 10% Q
September: 17, 19, 24 5, 26 (7 Oct. 7:00 pm)
October: 1, 3, 8, 10, 15, 22, 24, 31 17 (8.30 am) (4 Nov 6.30 pm)
30% M
November: 5, 7, 12 14
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EXTRA CLASS: 11/10 (9.30:11.00), 16/10 (2:00-3.30 pm)
Contact Time: 16.30 to 17.30 Hours --- Monday to Friday.

Topics
1. Introduction to machine elements design.
2. Strength and rigidity
3. Failure criteria
Basics
4. Factors of safety
5. Design of shafts REFERENCES:
6. Design of couplings 1. Mechanical Engineering Design.
7. Design of belt drives Shigley and Mischke..
8. Design of springs
2. Machine Design: An Integrated
9. Design of weldments Approach.. R. L. Norton
10. Design of fasteners
11. Gear design
12. Bearing selection Applications
13. Design of bearings
http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/DANotes/intro/contents.html 2
Introduction to machine elements
design
Machine design: Process of applying
scientific principles and techniques to
create machinery that works reliably
and safely.
Free body diagrams, ME 201: Solid Mechanics
deformation under axial ME 202: Strength of Materials
loading, simple shear, ME 203: Fluid Mechanics
bending, stress, elastic
and plastic strains,
thermal strains, torsion
of circular shaft, Properties of fluids, Navier Stokes equations
deflection of helical and their solutions.
spring, theories of failure
3
Introduction to machine elements design…..
Machine: Structure + Mechanisms

Combination of rigid • Slider crank mechanism
bodies which do not have • Cam and follower mech.
any relative motion among • Gear train
themselves
• Automobile chassis
• Machine tool bed
• Machine columns
Shafts, couplings, springs, bearings, belt and gear

drives, fasteners, and joints are basic elements
of machines….. Logic?
Gear box…
Designing a complete
machine will be
impossible if we are
unaware of individual
elements. In this course
we will design individual
element in isolation…
5
Scientific procedure to design
machine elements
Ultimate goal is to size and shape the
element so that elements perform
expected function without failure.
1. Predict mode & conditions of failure.
2. Force/Moment/Torque analysis.
3. Stress and deflection analysis.
4. Selection of appropriate material.
Thorough understanding of material prop.. essential
Iterations… Interrelated parts

6
Strength, Young’s modulus,
Shear modulus, Fatigue
strength, resilience, toughness
Material Properties
Generally determined through destructive
testing of samples under controlled loading
conditions.
Tensile test (ME 329) l − l0
ε= , l > l0
Apply load & measure deflection l0
Plotting of stress & strain
P
σ=
A0
7
Young' s modulus
σ
E=
ε
Stress-strain Diagram for

Metals
ε elastic > ε proportional

Ductile E compressio n = E tensile
Brittle E compressio > E tensile
ε yield > ε elastic
n
8
Ultimate strength: Largest stress that
a material can sustain before fracture
True stress ≥ Engineering stress
Ductility: Material elongation > 5%.

A significant plastic region on the stress-
strain curve
Necking down or reduction in area.
Even materials.
Brittleness: Absence of noticeable
deformation before fracture.
NOTE: Same material can be either ductile or brittle depending
the way it is manufactured (casting), worked, and heat treated
(quenched, tempered).
Material E (GPa) Sy (MPa) Su (MPa) Ductility (% EL)
Iron 207 130 260 45

Nodular cast iron 165 265 415 18
Malleable cast iron 172 220 345 10
Low carbon steel 207 295 395 37
Medium carbon steel 207 350 520 30
High carbon steel 207 380 615 25
Ferrite SS 200 345 552 20
Austenite SS 193 207 552 60
Martensitic SS 200 275 483 30
Ex: A flat SS plate is rolled into a cylinder with inner radius of

100mm and a wall thickness of 60 mm. Determine which of the
three SS cannot be formed cold to the cylinder?
l0 = 2 π (ri + 0.5 t ) = 2 π (100 + 30 ) = 816.8mm
l fr = 2 π (ro ) = 2 π (160 ) = 1005
ANS: Ferrite SS
⎛ l fr − l0 ⎞ cannot be formed
% EL = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(100 ) = 23.1% to the cylinder.
⎝ l0 ⎠
Torsion Test (ME 329)
Stress strain relation for pure torsion is defined
by Radius of specimen
G rθ Angular twist in radians
τ =
l0
E
G = → G ≤ 0 .5 E
2 (1 + υ )
Material υ Material υ
Aluminum 0.34 Steel 0.28
Copper 0.35 Magnesium 0.33
Iron 0.28 Titanium 0.34
11
Tensile & torsion tests apply loads slowly and only once to specimen. Static
Fatigue strength
Time varying loads
Wohler’s strength-
life (S-N) diagram
NOTE: Strength at 106 cycles tend to be about 50-60% of static strength 12

Impact resistance
If the load is suddenly applied, the energy
absorption capacity (strain energy)
ε
U = ∫ σ dε
0
Resilience: Strain energy present in the
material at the elastic limit.
Toughness: Strain energy present in the
material at the fracture point.
13
Resilience (energy per unit volume)
ε el ε el Ex: In mining operation the iron

U R = ∫ σ dε = ∫ E ε dε ore is dumped into a funnel for
0 0 further transport by train. The
2 ε el inside of the funnel wear rapidly
ε
=E because of impact of the ore.
2 0 Which is the most efficient
choice of funnel surface
1 S y2
UR = material: steel (E=207 GPa,
2 E Sy=380 MPa) or rubber (E=4
MPa, Sy=30 MPa) ?
14
Toughness (energy per unit volume)
εf
U T = ∫ σ dε
0
Since analytical expression for stress and strain curve is seldom
available for actual intergration, an approximation of toughness
UT
1
[ ]
= S y + Sut ε f
2
15
AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute
Carbon steel 2
Carbon steel 3
Carbon steel 4
Carbon steel 5
Stainless steel 2
Stainless steel 3
Stainless steel 4
Stainless steel 5
Stainless steel 6
STRESS
P
σ t ,c , s =
A
My
σb =
I
Ty
τ=
J
(a) Normal, tensile (b) normal, compressive; (c) shear;
(d) bending; (e) torsion; (f) combined
Elementary equations. No discontinuity in cross-section. Holes, shoulders, 30
keyways, etc.
MODELO DE ELEMENTOS FINITOS
Concentracion de Esfuerzos
Carga Axial en Placa con Orificio

P
σ avg =
(b − d ) h
Placa de Seccion Transversal Plana
Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzo

σ max
Kt = (Teorico)
σ avg
Distribucion de Esfuerzos
33
DISCONTINUIDADES TIPICAS
EX: Ancho Placa 50mm
Altura 5mm
Diametro del orificio
central = 5mm
Esfuerzo Admisible 300
MPa. Encontrar la max.
fuerza extensora que
puede aplicarse.
Ans: d/b = 0.1; Kt=2.7
A = (50-5)×5
P = 25 kN
Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzo para Placa

con Orificio Central
EJ: Suponer
H=45mm,
h=25mm, y
radio de filete
r=5mm. Encontar
Factor de
concentracion
de Esfuerzos.
Res: ~1.8
Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzo para Placa

rectangular con entalla
Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzos para Paca
rectangular con entallas solicitada a la Traccion
Factor de Concentracióon de Esfuerzos para Barra Cilindrica
con Acordamiento solicitada a la Traccion
Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzos para
Barra Circular con Entalla sometida a la Traccióon
Ex: Suponer 80 MPa de Esfuerzo Admisible.
Determinar el espesor de la placa
Maximo Esfuerzo
cerca del filete
⎛ 5000 ⎞ 300
σ fillet = 1.8⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ 30 b ⎠ b
Maximo Esfuerzo
Kt=2.1
cerca del orificio Kt=1.8
⎛ 5000 ⎞ 700
σ hole = 2.1⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ (30 − 15)b ⎠ b
Admisible: σ admisible = 80 b=8.75 mm
40
EX: Suponer
H=45mm,
h=25mm, y
radio filete
r=5mm. Encontrar
Factor de
concentracion
de Esfuerzos.
Res.: ~1.5
Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzos para Placa Rectangular

con filete, solicitada a la Flexion
Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzos para placa rectangular con
orificio central sometida a la Flexion
Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzos para placa rectangular
con entalla sometida a la Flexion
Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzos para barra cilindrica
con acordamiento solicitada a la Flexion
con entalla, solicitada a la Flexion
Ex:Suponer 100MPa como esfuerzo admisible
Determinar el diametro del eje, d.
Por la simetria,
Fuerza de Reaccion
en cada apoyo=
1250 N.
Concentracion de
esfuerzos ocurrira
en la zona de filetes. σ = 32 M 32 (1250 × 350 )
=
π (d )3
avg
Kt=1.6 π d 3
51.2 (1250 × 350 )

σ max = 1.6 σ avg = = 100 Diametro d=41.5 mm
π (d )3
46
con acordamiento, solicitada a la Torsion
con entalla, solicitada a la Torsion
Contact Stresses
Two rolling surfaces under
compressive load experience
“contact stresses”.
Ball and roller bearings
Cams with roller follower
Spur or helical gear tooth contact
Compressive load causes elastic deformation of surface

of solids over a region surrounding the initial point of
contact, thereby bringing two bodies into contact over a
small area in neighborhood of initial point of contact.
Stresses are highly dependent on geometry of the
surfaces in contact as well as loading and material
properties.
49
Contact stresses…
As a ball passes over
another surface, the
theoretical contact
patch is point of zero
dimension. Roller
against cylindrical/flat
surface Æ line of zero
width.
Zero areas Æ Infinite
stress. Material will
elastically deform and
contact geometry will
change.
Deformation b will be
small compared to
dimensions of two
bodies.
Contact stresses …..
Two special geometry cases are of
practical interest and are also simpler
to analyze are: sphere-on-sphere &
cylinder-on-cylinder.
By varying radii of curvature
of curvature of one mating
surface, sphere-plane,
sphere-in-cup, cylinder-on-
plane, and cylinder-in-trough
can be modeled.
Radii of curvature of one
element infinite to obtain
“a plane”.
Negative radii of
curvature define a
concave cup or concave
trough surface.
Spherical contact
⎡ ⎛ r ⎞2 ⎤
p = pmax ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎥⎦
b 2π
Total applied load on contact patch is F = ∫ ∫ p rdθ dr
0 0
b ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞2 ⎤
Total applied load on contact patch is F = 2π ∫ pmax ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ r dr
0 ⎢⎣ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎥⎦
or F=
2π pmax b
b
2
[
∫ b − r r dr
2
]
0
2π pmax 0
on assuming b 2 − r 2 = t 2 F= ∫ t (− t dt )
b b
2π pmax b 3
or F=
b 3
2
or F = πb 2 pmax
3
For axi-symmetric point load
Timoshenko & Goodier suggested:
F ⎧⎪ ⎛ 1 z ⎞ 3 z r 2 ⎫⎪
σr = ⎨(1 − 2ν )⎜⎜ 2 − ⎟− 5 ⎬
2 ⎟
2π ⎪⎩ ⎝r ρ r ⎠ ρ ⎪⎭
F ⎧ ⎫
σθ = − (1 − 2ν )⎨ 12 − z 2 − z3 ⎬
2π ⎩r ρr ρ ⎭
3
Ref: S. Timoshenko and
3F z J.N.Goodier, Theory of
σz = − ρ = x2 + y2 + z2
2π ρ 5 elasticity, 2nd Edition,
McGraw Hill.
3F r z 2
τ rz = −
2π ρ 5
b 2π
F ⎧r z ρ − z⎫ E
δr = ⎨ 3 − (1 − 2ν ) ⎬ G= F = ∫ ∫ p rdθ dr
4π G ⎩ ρ ρr ⎭ 2 (1 +ν ) 0 0
F ⎧ z 2 (1 −ν ) ⎫
δz = ⎨ + ⎬ At surface z = 0, displacements???
4π G ⎩ ρ 3 ρ ⎭
53
Deflection of sphere 1
1 −ν 12 b 2π pmax 1 − (r / b )
2
in polar coordinates δ1 (r ,θ ) = ∫ ∫ rdθ dr
2π E1 0 0 r
1 − (r / b )
2
1 −ν 12 b p
or δ1 = 2π ∫ max r dr
2π E1 0 r
or δ1 =
(1 −ν ) p 2
1
b
1 − (r / b )2 dr
max ∫
E1 0
on assuming r = b sinθ δ1 =
(1 −ν ) p 2
1
π
2
∫ cos θ (b cos θ dθ )
max
E1 0
or δ1 =
(
b 1 −ν 12 2 ) π
pmax ∫ (cos 2θ + 1) dθ
2 E1 0
or δ1 =
b (
1 −ν 12 )p ⎡ sin 2θ
+ θ
⎤ 2
π
max ⎢ ⎥
2 E1 ⎣ 2 ⎦0
δ1 =
(
b 1 −ν 12 π )
or
2 E1
pmax
2 similarly δ2 =
(
b 1 −ν 22
pmax
)π
E2 4
Total deflection δ =
π
pmax b⎢
( ) (
⎡ 1 −ν 12
+
)
1 −ν 22 ⎤
⎥
4 ⎣ E1 E 2 ⎦
Total deflection can be presented in terms of geometric radii, such as :
b2 b2
δ= +
2 R1 2 R2 Example: A ball thrust bearing with
or
b2
+
b2 π
= pmax b⎢
(
⎡ 1 −ν 12
+
) (
1 −ν 22 ⎤
⎥
) 7 balls is loaded with 700N across
its races through the balls.
2 R1 2 R2 4 ⎣ E1 E 2 ⎦ Diameter of spherical balls is
or b=
π pmax
⎢
(
⎡ 1 −ν 12 ) (
+
1 −ν 22 ) ⎤⎥ 10mm. Assume load is equally
shared by all balls, and race is a
4⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎣ E1 E2 ⎦ flat surface (R2=∞). Determine the
+
⎢ 2R 2R ⎥
⎣ 1 2⎦ size of contact patch on the race.
Assume Poisson’s ratio = 0.28 and
1.5 F
or b=
π
⎢
(
π b 2 ⎡ 1 −ν 12 ) (
+
1 −ν 22 ) ⎤⎥ E=207 GPa.
4⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎣ E1 E2 ⎦ Ans: b=147 microns. Size=2*b
+
⎢ 2R 2R ⎥
⎣ 1 2⎦
or 3
b =
0.75 F ⎡ 1 −ν 12
⎢
(
+
) (
1 −ν 22 ⎤
⎥
)
⎡1 ⎤
1 ⎣ E1 E 2 ⎦
+
⎢R R ⎥
⎣ 1 2⎦
Example: A ball thrust
Static stress distribution bearing with 7 balls is
loaded with 700N across its
in spherical contact races through the balls.
Diameter of spherical balls
⎡ ⎤ is 10mm. Assume load is
z3
σ z = pmax ⎢−1 + ⎥ equally shared by all balls,
⎢⎣ 2
(
b +z 2 1.5
)⎥⎦ and race is a flat surface
(R2=∞). Determine the
⎡ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z
3⎤
⎞ stresses developed in balls
σ x = σ y = 0.5 pmax − (1 + 2ν ) + 2(1 +ν )⎜⎜
⎢ ⎟ −⎜
⎟ ⎜ 2 2
⎟
⎟
⎥
⎢ 2
+ 2 ⎥ and races. Assume
⎣ ⎝ b z ⎠ ⎝ b +z ⎠ ⎦ Poisson’s ratio = 0.28 and
⎡ ⎛ z ⎞ ⎛ z
3⎤
⎞ E=207 GPa.
τ = 0.5 pmax ⎢0.5 (1 − 2ν ) + (1 +ν )⎜⎜ ⎟ −1.5 ⎜
⎟ ⎜ 2 2
⎟
⎟
⎥
⎢ 2
+ 2 ⎥ Ans: pmax=2.137 GPa.
⎣ ⎝ b z ⎠ ⎝ b +z ⎠ ⎦ Maximum stress at z=0,
2.137 GPa
Prob 1: What will happen if
Prob 2: What will happen if Poisson’s ratio of one poisson’s ratio of one body
body is increased to 0.32 and Young’s modulus is is reduced to 0.22.
reduced to 180 GPa.
NOTE: All the stresses diminish to < 10% of pmax within z = 5*b. 56
Example: An overhead crane
wheel runs slowly on a steel
rail. What is the size of the
Cylindrical Contact contact path between wheel
and rail? What are the
stresses? What is the depth of
2
⎛r⎞ max shear stress?
p = pmax 1− ⎜ ⎟
⎝b⎠ Given: Diameter of wheel and
π length are 150 mm and 20mm
F= b L pmax respectively. Assume radial
2
load is 10000N. Assume steel
F 1 ⎛ 1 −ν 12 1 −ν 22 ⎞ rail is a flat surface (R2=∞).
b= ⎜ + ⎟
π L ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎝ E1⎜ E2 ⎟⎠ Assume Poisson’s ratio = 0.28
⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ and E=207 GPa.
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
σ x = σ z = − pmax Ans: b=326 μm, size of contact
patch = , pmax=0.9764 GPa,
σ y = −2ν pmax Maximum stress -976. MPa,
τ max = 0.304 pmax depth of shear stress = 256
z@τ max = 0.786 b μm
Prob 1: What will happen if
poisson’s ratio of one body is
reduced to 0.22. 57
4.59,4.34,4.5796,4.50, 4.582,4.5847……………4.5948
∑ d i − (∑ d i ) / N
2 2
σd =
N −1
EX. NOMINAL SHAFT DIA. 4.5mm
NUMBER OF SPECIMEN 34 6
d 4.58mm 4.5294
σd 0.0097 0.0987
58
Stress concentration factor, surface finish factor, size factor, etc.
Design Factors: “Factor of Safety”

Necessary to calculate one or more factors
of safety to estimate likelihood of failure.
Stress
Deformation
Wear
FOS is a ratio of two quantities that have
same units:
Strength/stress ; Critical load/applied load
Load to fail part/expected service load
Maximum cycles/applied cycles
Maximum safe speed/operating speed.
NOTE: FOS is deterministic. Often data are statistical and there is 59

a need to use Probabilistic approach.
Probabilistic Approach to Design
Ex: Tensile tests on 9
pieces of hot rolled steel μ s = 468.67 MPa
were performed and σ s = 24.34 MPa
measured ultimate tensile
strength data are: 433 σs
Coeff. of variation = = 0.05194
MPa, 444, 454, 457, 470, μs
476, 481, 493, and 510
2
MPa. Find the values of 1 ⎛ x − 468.67 ⎞
− ⎜ ⎟
1
mean, std. dev., and f (x ) = e 2 ⎝ 24.34 ⎠
coefficient of variation. 24.34 2 π
Assuming normal
+∞
distribution find the
probability density ∫ f ( x ) dx = 1
−∞
function.
NOTE: Reliability is probability that machine element will perform 60
intended function satisfactorily.
Ex: Consider a structural member subjected to
a static load that develops a stress σ
Variation in load !!!!! F , F , SF
Probability of failurePf = P(Q < 0)
Variation in Area !!! σ,σ, s Reliability R = 1 − Pf
Margin
Q = S −σ
NOTE: Addition or
subtraction of
normal
distribution
provides normal
distribution.
61
2
1 ⎛⎜ Q −Q ⎞
⎟
−
1 2 ⎜⎝ SQ ⎟
f (Q ) = e ⎠
SQ 2π
Q −Q
Let normal variable Z =
SQ
1
1 +∞ − 2 Z 2 1 z0 − 1 z 2
R= ∫ e dZ
2π Z 0 F= ∫ e 2 dZ
2π −∞
Q
where Z 0 = −
SQ ALGEBRAIC MEAN STD. DEVIATION
FUNCTIONS Q
Q = 40 − 30 = 10 C
Q=C 0
Cx Cσ x
sQ = 6 2 + 82 = 10 Q = Cx
σx
Q=C+x C+x
σ x2 + σ y2
at Q = 0 Q = x± y x±y
Q = xy xy y 2σ x + x 2σ y
2 2
0 − 10
Z = = −1 Q=x y x y y 2σ x + x 2σ y
2 2
y2
10 Q =1 x 1x σ x x2
Z-Table
provides
probability
of failure
63
Value of normal variable provide the probability of
failure.
Z AREA
-3 0.0013
-2 0.0228
-1 0.1587
-0.5 0.3085
0 0.5000
0
0.5 0.6915
1 0.8413
2 0.9772
3 0.9987
In the present case Probability of failure is 0.1587 & reliability is
.8413.
Selecting stronger material (mean value of strength = 50 units!!!!)
64
Ex : Strength and Stress of a tensile bar are :
S y = (270, 32 ) MPa & σ = (184,15) MPa
− 2.43 1 −z2 2
Reliability of design R = 1 − ∫−∞ e dz
2π
R = 1-0.0075 ???? Ref: Probabilistic Mechanical

Design, Edward B. Haugen, 1980.
Prob: A steel bar is subjected to compressive load. Statistics of load are (6500,
420) N. Statistics of area are (0.64, 0.06) m2. Estimate the statistics of
stress.
Ans: (10156, 1156.4) Pa.
65
Example: Stress developed in a machine element is given by:
(
σ = P / 4kd 3 )( 4 L12 + 3L22 )
Given P = (1500, 50) N, Strength = (129, 3) MPa, L1=(150, 3)
mm, L2=(100, 2) mm. Assume std. dev. of d is 1.5% mean
value of d. k = 0.003811.
Determine distribution of d if the maximum probability
of machine-element-failure is 0.001
2
⎛ ∂φ ⎞ 2
Standard deviation of a complex function is expressed by : σ φ = ∑in=1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ σ xi
⎝ ∂xi ⎠ μ
1/ 2
⎡⎛ ∂σ ⎞ 2 ⎛
2
∂σ ⎞ 2 ⎛ ∂σ ⎞
2
⎛ ∂σ ⎞
2 ⎤
σ σ = ⎢⎜ ⎟ σP +⎜
2
⎟ σ d + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ σ L1 + ⎜⎜
2
⎟⎟ σ L2 ⎥
2
Statistically independent
⎢⎣⎝ ∂P ⎠ ⎝ ∂d ⎠ ⎝ ∂L1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂L2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
1/ 2
⎡⎛ 22724 ⎞ 2 2 2 2 ⎤
⎟ (0.015 d ) + ⎜
2 ⎛ 13635e 4 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 170430 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 85216 ⎞
σ σ = ⎢⎜ 3 ⎟
(50) + ⎜ 4 3 ⎟ (0.003) + ⎜ 3 ⎟
(0.002) ⎥
2
⎢⎣⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎥⎦
1
σ σ = 3 [1.291e12 + 41830 + 261420 + 29047]1 / 2
d
1136200
σσ =
d3
(
σ = P / 4kd 3 )( 4 L12 + 3L22 )
34087000
σ =
d3
Z = −3.09 =
(
0 − 129e6 − 34087000 d 3 )
1
⎡ 2 ⎛ 1136200 ⎞ 2⎤ 2
⎢3e6 + ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎥⎦
2 2
2 ⎛ 1136.2 ⎞ ⎛ 11031⎞
(3000) + ⎜ 3 ⎟ = ⎜ 41748 − 3 ⎟
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠
d = 0.6686 m
σ σ = 0.001 m
Tolerances
Machine elements are manufactured /
fabricated with some tolerance on
their basic (normal size, i.e. φ 20mm)
dimensions.
Tolerance: “permissible variation in the
dimensions of a component”.
Tolerance: Unilateral or bilateral.
+0.04 0.00 +0.04
20 0.00 20 −0.04 20 −0.02 20 ± 0.03

68
Ex: A shaft resists a torque of (10000, 1100) N.mm at
location B shown in Figure. If ends of shaft are fixed
against rotation, estimate the statistics of torque
reactions T1 and T2. Tolerance on location B is ±0.375mm
Eq. 1: Summation
of torques
Eq. 2: Deflection at T1
15
location B.
24
B
T2
69
ALGEBRAIC MEAN STD. DEVIATION
FUNCTIONS Q
(T1,σ T )+ (T2 ,σ T ) = (10000,1100)

1 2
Q=C C
Cx
0
Cσ x
Q = Cx
T1 + T2 = 10000 Q=C+x C+x σx
σ x2 + σ y2
σ T21 + σ T22 = 1100 2 Q = x± y x±y
Q = xy xy y 2σ x + x 2σ y
2 2
Q=x y x y y 2σ x + x 2σ y
2 2
y2
Q =1 x 1x σ x x2
(L1,σ L )(T1,σ T ) = (L2 ,σ L )(T2 ,σ T )

1 1 2 2
JG JG
( )( ) (
⇒ L1 , σ L1 T1 , σ T1 = L2 , σ L2 T2 , σ T2 )( ) T1 = 6153.8 N .mm
( )(
⇒ L1 T1 , T1 2 σ L21 + L12 σ T21 = L2 T2 , T22 σ L22 + L22 σ T22 ) T2 = 3846.2 N .mm
σ T1 = 933 N .mm
L1 T1 = L2 T2
σ T2 = 582.7 N .mm
T1 σ L21
2
+ L12 σ T21 = T22 σ L22 + L22 σ T22
Fits
Careful decision on tolerance is important
for assembling two components.
Relationship resulting from the difference
between sizes of components before assembly is
called a “Fit”.
Clearance fit: positive gap between hole and
shaft. Relative movement is possible.
Interference fit: Negative gap. Relative
movement is restricted.
Transition fit: border case. Either a clearance or
interference fit, depending upon actual values of
dimensions of mating components.
71
+0.013 −0.040
0.000 − 0.061
Prob : A bearing (20 ) and a crank - pin (20 ) are
assembled. Calculate : Known as 20H6-e7
• Maximum and minimum diameters of the crank-pin and

bearing.
• Maximum and minimum clearance between crank-pin and
bearing.
+0.048 +0.021
Prob : A valve seat (20 + 0.035 ) is inserted in a housing (20 0.000 ).

Calculate : Known as 20H7-s6
• Maximum and minimum diameters of the valve seat and

housing-hole.
• Maximum and minimum interference between the seat and its
housing.
B.I.S. (Bureau of Indian Standards) System
of Tolerances
As per B.I.S. tolerance is specified by
two parts (i.e. H6, e7). :
Fundamental deviation: Location of
tolerance zone w. r. t. “Zero line”.
Represented by an alphabet (capital or small).
Capital letters describe tolerances on hole, while
small letters describe tolerance on shaft.
Magnitude: by a number, often called “grade”.
There are eighteen grades of tolerance with
designations – IT1, IT2,…, IT17 and IT 18.
IT stands for International Tolerance.
73
H6-e7
H7-s6
Letter Symbols for Tolerances

75
76
Nominal Sizes (mm)
over 1 3 6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250
inc. 3 6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250 315
IT
Grade
1 0.8 1 1 1.2 1.5 1.5 2 2.5 3.5 4.5 6

2 1.2 1.5 1.5 2 2.5 2.5 3 4 5 7 8
3 2 2.5 2.5 3 4 4 5 6 8 10 12
4 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16
5 4 5 6 8 9 11 13 15 18 20 23
6 6 8 9 11 13 16 19 22 25 29 32
7 10 12 15 18 21 25 30 35 40 46 52
8 14 18 22 27 33 39 46 54 63 72 81
9 25 30 36 43 52 62 74 87 100 115 130
10 40 48 58 70 84 100 120 140 160 185 210
11 60 75 90 110 130 160 190 220 250 290 320
12 100 120 150 180 210 250 300 350 400 460 520
13 140 180 220 270 330 390 460 540 630 720 810
77
14 250 300 360 430 520 620 740 870 1000 1150 1300
Examples
Hole 110H11
Minimum = 110mm + 0mm = 110.000mm ...
Maximum = 110mm + (0+0.220) = 110.220mm
Resulting limits 110.000/110.220
Tolerance of hub, tlh=220μm
Shaft 110e9...
Maximum = 110mm – 0.072=109.928mm...
Minimum = 110mm - (0.072 +0.087) = 109.841mm
Resulting limits 109.841/ 109.928
Tolerance of shaft, tls=87μm
78
Examples:
Clearance Fit: In hydrodynamic bearings a critical
design parameter is radial clearance between
shaft and bearing. Typical value is 0.1% of shaft
radius. Tolerances cause additional or smaller
clearance. Too small a clearance could cause
failure; too large a clearance would reduce load
capacity.
Interference Fit: Rolling-element bearings are
generally designed to be installed on a shaft with
an interference fit. Slightly higher interference
would require significant force to press bearing
on shaft, thus imposing significant stresses on
both the shaft and the bearing.
79
Interference Fit
Wringing δ=0.00 mm Require light pressure.

Suitable for stationary parts
Light δ=0.00025d mm Suitable for low speed and

light duty joints
Medium δ=0.0005d mm Considerable pressure is

required to assemble
/disassemble joints.
Heavy δ=0.001d mm Semi-permanent joint
For 20mm shaft dia,
interference = 20 microns
Press Fit Base-
line δrs δrs
Pressure pf is caused by
interference between δrh δrh
shaft & hub. Pressure rf
increases radius of hole
and decreases radius of
shaft.
pf rf
rf
rf
pf
81
Circumferential strain ε θ =
(r + δ r )dθ − r dθ = δ r = (σ θ −ν σ r )
r dθ r E
∂δ r
δr + dr − δ r
∂δ (σ −ν σ θ )
Radial strain ε r = ∂r = r = r
dr ∂r E
⎛ dθ ⎞
Force balance = (σ r + dσ r )(r + dr ) dθ dz − σ r rdθ dz − 2 σ θ sin ⎜ ⎟dr dz = 0
⎝ 2 ⎠
82
pi ri2 − po ro2 − (ri ro r )2 ( po − pi )
Circumferential stress σθ = rf
ro2 − ri2
pi ri2 − po ro2 + (ri ro r )2 ( po − pi )
Radial stress σ r =
ro2 − ri2
CASE I: Internally Pressurized (Hub)-
Circumferential stress σθ =
(
p f r f2 1 + (ro r )
2
) (
p f r f2 + ro2 )
ro2 − r f2 σθ ,max =
ro2 − r f2
Radial stress σ r =
(
p f r f2 1 − (ro r )2 ) σ r ,max = − p f
ro2 − r f2
δ rh (σ −ν h σ r )
= θ ε θ ,max =
p f ⎛ r f2 + ro2
⎜ + ν
⎞ δr
⎟= h
rf E E ⎜⎝ ro2 − r f2 ⎟ rf
⎠
CASE II: Externally Pressurized (shaft)-
Circumferential stress σθ =
⎛ (
1+ r r
− p f r f2 ⎜ 2 i 2
)2 ⎞
⎟ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ r f − ri ⎟ σθ ,max = − p f r f2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ r f − ri ⎟
2 2
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1 − (r
Radial stress σ r = − p f r f2 ⎜ 2 i 2 ⎟
r )2 ⎞
σ r ,max = − p f
⎜ r f − ri ⎟
⎝ ⎠
rf
δ rs (σ −ν s σ r )
= θ ε θ ,max =−
p f ⎛ ri2 + r f2
⎜ − ν
⎞ δr
⎟= s
Es ⎜⎝ r f2 − ri2 ⎟ rf
s
rf E ⎠
Total interference δ r = δ rh − δ rs
⎡ ro2 + r f2 νh ri
2
+ r 2
f νs ⎤
or δ r = r f p f ⎢ + + − ⎥
2
( 2
⎢⎣ Eh ro − r f ) 2
Eh Es r f − ri 2
(
Es ⎥⎦ )
Ex: A wheel hub is press fitted on a 105 mm diameter solid shaft. The
hub and shaft material is AISI 1080 steel (E = 207 GPa). The hub’s
outer diameter is 160mm. The radial interference between shaft and
hub is 65 microns. Determine the pressure exercised on the interface of
shaft and wheel hub.
r f p f ⎡ ro2 + r f2 ri2 + r f2 ⎤
If hub and shaft are made of same materials : δ r = ⎢ 2 2 + 2 2 ⎥
(
E ⎢⎣ ro − r f ) (
r f − ri )
⎥⎦
r f p f ⎡ 2 ro2 ⎤
If shaft is solid : δ r = ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
( )
E ⎢⎣ ro − r f ⎥⎦ ANS: pf =73 MPa
IT Grade 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Lapping
Honing
Super finishing
Cylindrical grinding
Diamond turning
Plan grinding
Broaching
Reaming
Boring, Turning
Sawing
Milling
Planning, Shaping
Extruding
Cold Rolling, Drawing
Drilling
Die Casting
Forging
Sand Casting
Hot rolling, Flame cutting

Rankine published “Causes of unexpected breakage of railway axles” in
1843, postulating that materials experience brittleness under fluctuating
stresses.
Fatigue Failure
Catastrophic, occurs suddenly. Designers must
consider possibility of fatigue in every design.
Fatigue failure looks brittle even in ductile metals.
Parts often fail at stresses well below the ultimate
strength of mat.
?sufficient time for strain to fully develop.
Aloha Airlines flight 243, a Boeing

737-200, lost about 1/3 of its cabin top
while in flight at 8.5 km. This failure,
which happened in 1988, was caused
by corrosion assisted fatigue.
87
• Fatigue Failure
Machine parts subject to time varying
loading
σ max + σ min
σm =
2
σ − σ min
σ a = max
2
Ex: A particular fiber on
surface of shaft subjected to
bending loads undergoes both
tension & compression for
each revolution of shaft. If • Stresses repeat a large
shaft is part of electric motor number of times, hence
rotating at 1440 rpm, the fiber failure is named as “Fatigue
is stressed in tension & failure”.
compression 1440 times each
minute.
•Fatigue Failure
appearance similar to brittle fracture:
fractured surfaces are flat.
Absence of necking
Damage accumulating phenomenon. Initial flaws
have a great effect on performance.
• Crack initiation,
propagation, and fracture.
• Fatigue is a concern whenever
cyclic loading is present.
Loading may be axial (tensile or
compressive), flexural (bending)
or torsional.
90
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
Method
Assumption: Cracks exist in parts even before
service begins.
Focus: Predict crack growth and remove parts
from service before crack reaches its critical length.
91
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method…..
Linear Elastic Fracture
Mechanics Method…..
A 2a B
d
2b
σ
Linear Elastic Fracture
Mechanics Method…..
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method…..
Life Prediction
Paris equation (for region II)
da
= A(ΔK )n A & n are mat. constants
dN
ac
N da
∫ dN = ∫
ai A(ΔK )
Ni
n Ex: Aluminum alloy square plate
(width= 25mm), having internal
1 ac da crack of size 0.125 mm at center, is
N − Ni = ∫
( )
A ai β π Δσ n a n / 2 subjected to repeatedly tensile
stress of 130 MPa. Crack growth
ac
1 da rate is 2.54 microns/cycle at stress
N − Ni = ∫ n/2
(
A β π Δσ )
n
ai a
intensity range = 22 MPa(m)0.5.
Crack growth rate at stress
n ac intensity range = 3.3 MPa(m)0.5 is
− +1
a 2 0.254 nm/cycle. How many cycles
are required to increase the crack
1 ai
N − Ni = size to 7.5mm?
(
A β π Δσ )
n
(− n / 2 + 1)
ANS: 24509 cycles.
Fatigue Regimes
Low cycle fatigue (≤ 103 cycles)
Latches on automobile glove compartment
Studs on truck wheels
Sl′ = 0.9 Sut bending ; Sl′ = 0.75 Sut axial

Since static design often uses Yield strength (< Sut) in
defining allowable stresses, therefore static
approaches are acceptable for designing low cycle
component.
High cycle fatigue (> 103 cycles)
Car door hinges Aircraft body panels
96
Fatigue Strength
Measured by testing idealized (R. R. Moore)
standard specimen on rotating beam machine.
Highly polished surface.
If specimen breaks into two equal halves, test is
indicative of mat. Fatigue strength. Otherwise, it is
indicative that material or surface flaw has skewed
results.
Test specimen is subjected to completely reversed
bending stress cycling at 66% Sut and cycles to
fatigue are counted.
Procedure is repeated on other identical specimens
subjected to progressively decreasing stress
amplitude.
97
Strength - Cycles German engineer
S-N (Wohler) diagram

Plot of fatigue strength (S) vs
logarithm of number of cycles (N)
Indicate whether material has endurance
limit (possibility of infinite life) or not.
98
Endurance Limit ( Se′ )
For Steel
Se′ = 0.5 Sut bending
Se′ = 0.45Sut Axial
Se′ = 0.29 Sut Torsion
Magnesium alloys (108 cycles) S e′ = 0.35 Sut
NOTE: It is always good
Copper alloys (108 cycles) S e′ = 0.38 Sut
engineering practice to
conduct a testing Nickel alloys (108 cycles) S e′ = 0.42 Sut
program on materials to
Titanium alloys (107 cycles) S e′ = 0.55 Sut
be employed in design.
Aluminum alloys (5 *108 cycles) S e′ = 0.45 Sut
99
Fatigue strength S ′f can be expressed by
log S ′f = k1 log N + k 2
Example: The ultimate tensile strength of an axial

loaded steel member is 1080 MPa. Find out fatigue
strength as a function of number of cycles (103<N<106).
′ 3
Fatigue strength S f at 10 cycle
′ ( )
3
( )
3
log Sl = k1 log 10 + k 2 ⇒ log(0.75 Sut ) = k1 log 10 + k 2
′ 6
Fatigue strength S f at 10 cycle
′ ( )
6
( )
6
log Sl = k1 log 10 + k 2 ⇒ log(0.45 Sut ) = k1 log 10 + k 2
K1=-0.07395 k2=3.13 (stress in MPa)
Design factors
Endurance limit modification factors

Endurance strength is measured
under best circumstances, which
cannot be guaranteed for design
applications.
Component’s endurance limit must be
modified or reduced from material’s
best-case endurance limit.
Stress concentration factor, surface finish
factor, size factor, reliability factor,
temperature factor, etc.
101
Reliability Factor
Reliability factor Probability of Reliability
survival, % factor, kr
obtained from Table can
be considered only as a 50 1.0
guide (academic) 90 0.897
because actual 95 0.868
99 0.814
distribution varies
99.9 0.753
from one material to
99.99 0.702
other. For practical
99.999 0.659
applications, originally 99.9999 0.620
determined data are
required.
102
Surface Finish
Factor
103
Surface Finish Factor K finish = a(Sut in MPa )
b
Finishing Constant a Exponent b

method
Ground 1.58 -0.085
Machined or cold drawn 4.51 -0.265
Hot rolled 57.7 -0.718
Forged 272 -0.995
Ex: A steel has Sut = 520 MPa. Estimate Kfinish for a machined surface.
ANS: 0.86
104
Temperature Factor
Temperature Ktemp Temperature Ktemp
20°C 1.00 300°C 0.975

50°C 1.01 350°C 0.943
100°C 1.02 400°C 0.900
150°C 1.025 450°C 0.843
200°C 1.02 500°C 0.768
250°C 1.0 550°C 0.672
105
Stress Concentration Factor
SCF is slightly lesser than SCF under
static loading.
Many mat. Relieve stress near a crack tip
through plastic flow.
Notch sensitivity factor (range between
zero and unity).
NSF is a function of notch radius.
To avoid complexity in the present
course assume, SCF under fatigue
loading = SCF under static loading.
106
Size factor, Ksize
⎧1.24 d −0.107 2.79 ≤ d ≤ 51 mm Applicable only

K size =⎨ − 0.157
for cylindrical
⎩ 1 . 51 d 51 < d ≤ 254 mm components.
NOTE: A 7.5mm diameter beam specimen is used for

testing fatigue strength. Larger the machine part, greater
is the probability that a flaw exit somewhere in larger
volume. Fatigue failure tendency ↑
Necessary to define “effective diameter” based on

equivalent circular cross section for components having
non-circular cross-section.
107
Effective dimension is
obtained by equating the
volume of material
stressed at and above
95% of maximum stress
to the same volume in the
rotating beam specimen.
Lengths will cancel out,
so only areas are
considered.
For a rotating round

section, the 95% stress
area is the area in a ring Effective diameter for non-
having outside diameter rotating cross sections
d and inside diameter of
0.95, so
A0.95σ =
π
4
[d 2
]
− (0.95d )2 = 0.0766 d 2
Example: A hot rolled steel plate (Sut=400 MPa) at room
temperature is subjected to completely reversed axial load of 30
kN. Assume size factor and expected reliability as 0.85 and 95%
respectively. Determine the thickness of plate for infinite life.
STEP 1: Estimate endurance limit of mat. ±30 kN

STEP 2: Estimate endurance limit of plate.
Find modification (i.e reliability, finish,
temp., stress concentration and size)
factors. 5
0.45*400
0.868
50
0.7
1.0
2.5 Æ 1/2.5 =0.4
0.85
±30 kN
Thickness = 20.2
Example: A rod of steel (Sut=600 MPa) at room temperature
is subjected to reversed axial load of 100 kN. The rod is
machined on lathe and expected reliability is 95%. There is no
stress concentration. Determine the diameter of rod for an
infinite life.
STEP 1: Estimate endurance limit of

mat. Æ 0.45*600 = 270 MPa.
STEP 2: Estimate endurance limit of
plate.
Find modification (i.e
reliability, finish, temp., stress
concentration and size)
factors.
0.868, 0.77, 1, 1, 1.24 d-0.107
ANS: Diameter = 19.3 mm

Example: A rotating bar made of steel (Sut=600 MPa) is
subjected to a completely reversed bending stress. The
corrected endurance limit of component is 300 MPa. Calculate
the fatigue strength of bar for a life of 80,000 rotations.

( )
log(300 ) = k1 log 10 + k 2
6
log(0.9 * 600 ) = k log(10 ) + k

1
3
2
log S ′f = (− 0.0851) log N + 2.9877
⇒ S ′f = 372 MPa
Cumulative Fatigue Damage
Suppose a machine
part is subjected to: ni
Fully reversed stress σ1
∑ =1
Ni
for n1 cycles.
Fully reversed stress σ2 where n i = cycles at stress σ i
for n2 cycles.
N i = cycles to fail at stress σ i
Fully reversed stress σ3
for n3 cycles.
if α1 , α 2 ,... are proportions of the
……
Palmgren-Miner cycle total fatigue life (N)
ratio summation rule.. αi 1
Miner’s rule ∑ =
Ni N
112
Example: A component is made of steel having ultimate
strength of 600 MPa and endurance limit of 300 MPa.
Component is subjected to completely reversed bending stresses
of:
• ± 350 MPa for 75% of time;
N1 = 163333
N 2 = 34010
Determine the life of the component. N 3 = 2471
( )
log(300 ) = k1 log 106 + k 2
log(0.9 * 600 ) = k log(10 ) + k
1
3
2
log S ′f = (− 0.0851) log N + 2.9877
ANS: 20214 cycles

Tutorial I
+0.032
Question 1: A coupling hub (bore φ 309.168 ) 0. 0
is shrink fitted on a solid shaft of 310h6. The

hub’s outer diameter is 500 mm. Determine
the minimum and maximum pressure
exercise on the interface of shaft and
coupling. Assume .(ν h = ν s = 0.29; Eh = Es = 210 GPa )
Answer: Min dia of coupling hole : 309.168
Max dia of coupling hole : 309.200
Min dia of shaft : 309.968
Max dia of shaft : 310.00
114
NOTE: Refer slide 77 to find tolerance for h6.
Minimum interference = Minimum shaft dia - Max. dia of hole
= 309.968 - 309.2
= 0.768 mm
Maximum interference = Maximum shaft dia - Min. dia of hole

= 310.00 - 309.168
= 0.832 mm
As hub and shaft are made of same materials, and shaft is solid (refer to slide 85)
r f p f ⎡ 2 ro2
⎤
Interference = ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
(
E ⎢⎣ ro − r f
⎥⎦ )
in the present problem E = 210 GPa, ro = 0.25m, r f = 0.155 (approx.)
Minimum pressure = 160.14 MPa

Maximum pressure= 173.48 MPa
Tutorial I
Question 2: A component is made of AISI 1008 cold drawn
steel. Assume there is no stress concentration, size factor =
0.87, and expected reliability is 99%. The component at
temperature of 100°C is subjected to completely reversed
bending stress of:
± 140 MPa for 60% life
Determine the life of component.
ANS: Refer slide 16 to determine Sut=340MPa. Determine
Ktemp=1.02 (from slide 105), Kfinish=0.9624 (from slide 104)
and Kr=0.814 (from slide 102).
Corrected endurance strength for 103 cycles = 212.7 MPa
Corrected endurance strength for 106 cycles = 118.2 MPa
Refer slide no.100 to express Fatigue strength S ′f
3 6
Using calculated strengths for 10 and 10
k1 = −0.0851 & k 2 = 2.583
Using fatigue strength equation:

N1 cycles to fail component at stress ±140 MPa = 136200
Using Palmgren Miner rule (refer slide 112)

Life of component, N = 8893 cycles
Fluctuating Stresses
Fatigue failure criteria

for fluctuating stresses
???
118
Fatigue failure criteria for
fluctuating stresses
When alternating stress
=0, load is purely static.
Criterion of failure will
be Syt or Sut.
When mean stress=0,
stress is completely
reversing. Criterion of
failure will be endurance
limit.
When component is
subjected to mean as
well alternating stress,
different criterions are
available to construct
borderline dividing safe
zone and failure zone.
Remark: Gerber parabola fits failure points of test data. Soderberg line 119
is conservative.
Goodman line… Failure criterion
Widely used, because
• It is completely inside failure Area OABC
points of test data, therefore it Syt represents
is safe. region of safety.
• Equation of straight line is Se A
simple compared to equation of
parabola.
σa
σm σa
+ =1 σa =
r Sut S e B
Sut Se r Sut + S e
σa σa θ
tan θ = =r σm = O
C
σm r σm Syt Sut
NOTE: Equations are applicable for θ > θ’ 120

σm σa
σm =
(
Sut S y − S e )
+ =1 Syt
Sut Se Sut − S e
σm σa σ a = Sy −σ m
+ =1 σ Se A
Sy Sy tan θ ′ = a
σm
Example: A cantilever beam is made

of steel having Sut=600 MPa, Sy =350 σa B
MPa and Se =130 MPa. The moment
acting on beam varies from – 5 N.m
θ’
to 15 N.m. Determine the diameter of C
O σm Syt Sut
the beam.
Moment range M a = 0.5 * [15 − (−5)]
σm σa
+ =1 σa =
r Sut S e ⇒ M a = 10 N.m
Sut Se r Sut + S e Moment mean M m = 0.5 * [15 + (−5)]
σa σa
tan θ = =r σm = ⇒ M m = 5 N.m
σm r 10
tanθ = ⇒r=2 σ a = 117.3 MPa
5
d = 9.54 mm
Shafts
Rotating machine
element, circular in cross-
section, that supports
gears, pulleys, sprockets,
etc. and transmits power.
Steps on shaft provide shoulders for
positioning gears, pulleys, bearings, etc.
Fillet between two cross-sections of different
diameters is provided to reduce the effect of
stress-concentration (refer slide 47 & 48).
122
Torsion of circular shaft
Stress in a circular shaft of uniform cross section loaded at the ends
by Torque T, Example: A hollow shaft must carry
torque of 3400 N.m at shearing
φ G r1
τ r1 = stress of 55 MPa. Assume di=0.65 do.
L Calculate value of outside diameter.
T r 16 T ANS: 75.7 mm
⇒ τ max = =
J π d3
Example: Design a shaft so that
16 T d o angular deformation should not
or, τ max =
(
π d o4 − d i4 ) exceed 1° in a length of 1.8 m.
Permissible shear stress = 83 MPa
and modulus of rigidity = 77 GPa.
ANS: d=222.4 mm
NOTE: Design of shaft consists of determining correct shaft 123
diameter from strength and rigidity considerations.
Maximum static stress
2
⎛σ ⎞
Often shafts carry τ max = ⎜ ⎟ + τ 2
⎝2⎠
combined loads of
2 2
bending and or τ max
⎛ 32 M ⎞ ⎛ 16 T ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
3⎟ ⎜ 3⎟
torque. ⎝ 2π d ⎠ ⎝ π d ⎠
16
σ ⎛σ ⎞
2 or τ max = ( M )2
+ (T )2
σ max = + ⎜ ⎟ +τ 2 π d3
2 ⎝2⎠
2 2
32 M ⎛ 32 M ⎞ ⎛ 16 T ⎞
or σ max = + ⎜⎜ 3⎟
⎟ +⎜
⎜
⎟
3⎟ Maximum shear stress theory
2π d 3
⎝ 2π d ⎠ ⎝ π d ⎠
Maximum normal stress theory
16 ⎡ 2⎤
or σ max = M + (M )2
+ (T )
π d 3 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
124
Design of shafts for fluctuating loads
Ta r Tm r
τ a = K fs τ m = K fsm
J J
where K fs and K fsm are torsional fatigue stress concentration factors.
If shaft is subjected to fluctuatin g moment
Ma r Mm r
σa = K f σ m = K fm
I I
where K f and K fm are bending fatigue stress concentrat ion factors.
If shaft is subjected to fluctuating axial load
F F
σ a = Kt a σ m = Kt m
A A
Theory of failure ???? Total strain energy theory

Distortion energy (von-Mises) theory
Important design guidelines
To minimize both deflections and stresses,
shaft length should be kept as short as
possible and overhangs minimized.
Simply supported arrangement is preferred
over cantilever arrangement.
Hollow shaft has better stiffness/mass ratio
and higher natural frequencies than a
comparably stiff or strong solid shaft, but
will be more expensive and larger in
diameter.
126
Design (ASME method) for fully
reversed bending and steady torsion
Introduce a factor of safety, N f
2 2
⎛ σ ⎞ ⎛ τ ⎞
⎜⎜ N f a ⎟⎟ + ⎜ N f m ⎟ = 1
⎝ S e ⎠ ⎜⎝ S ys ⎟⎠
Sy
we know S ys =
3
2 2
⎛ σa ⎞ ⎛ τ m ⎞⎟
⎜
⇒⎜Nf ⎟ ⎜
S ⎟ + 3⎜ N f S ⎟ = 1
⎝ e ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠
substitute expressions for σ a & τ m for solid shaft

2 2
⎛ 32 M a ⎞ ⎛ 16 Tm ⎞⎟
⎜Nf Kf ⎟ ⎜
+ 3 N f K fsm =1
⎜ π d S e ⎟⎠
3 ⎜ π d Sy ⎠
3 ⎟
⎝ ⎝
1
⎡⎛ 2
⎛
2⎤6
⎢ 32 M ⎞
⎜ 16 Tm ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎜
d = ⎜Nf Kf a ⎟
+ 3 N f K fsm
⎢⎝ π S e ⎟⎠ ⎜
⎝ π S y ⎟⎠ ⎥ 127
⎣ ⎦
Example: Design a shaft that must transmit 2 hp at 1725 rpm. Shaft is loaded
with a spur gear and a sheave. Assume stress concentration for 2.25 for step
radii in bending, 1.57 for step radii in torsion, and 2.5 at keyways. Assume
corrected endurance strength = 50 MPa and yield strength is 150 MPa.
Ref: Machine Design:
An Integrated
Approach.. R. L. Norton
Fg
Fr
∑ M A = R2 b + Fg p + Fs q = 0 ⇒ R2 = −0.4 Fg − 1.35 Fs
∑ F =R1 + Fg + R2 + Fs = 0 ⇒ R1 = −0.6 Fg + 0.35 Fs 128
M xzB = 1.2426 N .m
R2 x = −0.4 (40) − 1.35(162 ) ⇒ R2 x = −234.7 N M xzC = 7.2329 N .m
R2 y = −0.4 (− 110 ) − 1.35(0 ) ⇒ R2 y = 44 N M xzD = 1.0769 N .m
R1x = −0.6(40 ) + 0.35(162) ⇒ R1x = 32.7 N M yzB = 2.508 N .m
R1 y = −0.6(− 110 ) + 0.35(0) ⇒ R1 y = 66 N M yzC = −0.088 N .m
M yzD = −0.088 N .m
Moment function in xz plane at various sections
M xz = R1x 〈 z − 0〉1 + Fgx 〈 z − 50〉1 + R2 x 〈 z − 127〉1 + Fsx 〈 z − 172〉1
M xz = (32.7 )〈 z − 0〉1 + (40 )〈 z − 50〉1 + (− 234.7 )〈 z − 127〉1 + (162 )〈 z − 172〉1
Moment function in yz plane at various sections
M yz = R1 y 〈 z − 0〉1 + Fgy 〈 z − 50〉1 + R2 y 〈 z − 127〉1 + Fsy 〈 z − 172〉1
M yz = (66 )〈 z − 0〉1 + (− 110)〈 z − 50〉1 + (44)〈 z − 127〉1
Calculate moment M B = 2.7989; M C = 7.2334; M D = 1.0805
Using ASMEmethod
1
⎡⎛ ⎞
2
⎛
2⎤6
⎞
d1 = ⎢⎜⎜ N f K f
32 M B ⎟
+ 3 ⎜ N f K fsm 16 Tm ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ π S e ⎟⎠ ⎜
⎝ π S y ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1
⎡⎛ 2
⎛
2⎤6
⎢ 32 M ⎞
⎜ 16 Tm ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎜
d2 = ⎜ N f K f C ⎟
+ 3 N f K fsm
⎢⎝ π S e ⎟⎠ ⎜
⎝ π S y ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1
⎡⎛ 2
⎛
2⎤6
⎢ 32 M ⎞
⎜ 16 Tm ⎞⎟ ⎥
d 3 = ⎜⎜ N f K f D ⎟⎟ + 3 N f K fsm
⎢⎝ π Se ⎠ ⎜ π S y ⎟⎠ ⎥ 2 * 746
⎣ ⎝ ⎦ Tm =
⎛ 2 π ⎞(1725)
⎜ 60 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ANS: d1=11.7 mm Tm = 8.3 N .m
d2=15.0 mm
d3=09.8 mm
As per available drawing d1>d2.
Therefore select d3=10mm,
d2=17mm, and d1=20 mm.
Design for fluctuating bending,
fluctuating axial & fluctuating torsion
von - Mises stresses
σ a′ = (σ a + σ a _ axial )2 + 3τ a2
σ m′ = (σ m + σ m _ axial )2 + 3τ m2
Ta r T r
τ a = K fs τ m = K fsm m
J J
where K fs and K fsm are torsional fatigue stress concentration factors.
If shaft is subjected to fluctuatin g moment
M r M r
σa = K f a σ m = K fm m
I I
where K f and K fm are bending fatigue stress concentrat ion factors.
If shaft is subjected to fluctuating axial load
Fa Fm 131
σ a _ axial = K t σ m _ axial = K t
A A
Design for fluctuating bending &
fluctuating torsion
Using factor of safety N f in modified Goodman line
1 σ a′ σ m′
= +
N f S e Sut
1
⎡
⎢ 32 N f ⎧
⎪ (K f M a )2 + 0.75 (K fsTa )2 (K fm M m )2 + 0.75 (K fsmTm )
2 ⎫⎤ 3
⎪⎥
d= ⎨ + ⎬⎥
⎢ π Se Sut
⎢⎣ ⎪⎩ ⎪⎭⎥
⎦
132
Example: Design a shaft to support attachments shown in Figure. Torque &
moment on shaft are both varying with time in repeated fashion, i.e., their
alternating & mean components are of equal magnitude. Mean & alternating
components of torque are both 17 N.m. There is no axial loads. Assume stress
concentration for 2.25 for step radii in bending, 1.57 for step radii in torsion, and
2.5 at keyways. Assume corrected endurance strength = 50 MPa and ultimate
strength is 250 MPa.
1 M B = 2.8 N .m
⎡ 32 ⎧1 ⎫⎤ 3
d =⎢ (K f M ) 2
( )
+ 0.75 K fsT ⎨ +
21
⎬⎥ M C = 7.3 N .m
⎢⎣ π S
⎩ e S ut ⎭⎥
⎦ M D = 1.1 N .m
[(
d = 0.0063 K f M ) 2
(
+ 0.75 K fsT )]
2 1/ 6
T = 17 N .m
S e = 50 MPa
Sut = 250 MPa
ANS: d1=18.2 mm
d2=19.2 mm
d3=18.0 mm
Keys: ASME defines a key “demountable element which
when assembled into keyways, provides a positive means for
transmitting torque between shaft and hub.
Keyways
Gib-
head
Square Rectangular taper
Keys
Primary function: Transmit torque from
shaft to hub of mating element and vice-
versa.
Prevent relative rotation between shaft &
joining element.
A recess or slot machine on shaft and/or
hub to accommodate key is called
“Keyway”.
Keyway results in stress concentration
(~2.5) in shaft and hub.
136
Standard keys NOTES: Parallel key
Shaft diameter Key width* Height is placed with half of
(mm) (mm) its height in the
shaft and half in
8<d≤10 3*3 hub.
10<d ≤12 4*4 Parallel keys are
typically “negatively
12<d ≤17 5*5 toleranced”.
17<d ≤22 6*6 Key-fit (backlashÆ
22<d ≤30 8*7 impact & high
stresses) can be of
30<d ≤38 10*8 concern when
38<d ≤44 12*8 torque loading is
alternating from
44<d ≤50 14*9 positive to negative
50<d ≤58 16*10 each cycle.
58<d ≤65 18*11 Length of kept

should be lesser
65<d ≤75 20*12 than 1.5 times shaft
dia to avoid
75<d ≤85 22*14
excessive twisting.
85<d ≤95 25*14
Flat Key Assembly
NOTE: Key is inexpensive and relatively
easy to replace if keyway is undamaged.
Therefore, soft ductile material, having
lower strength that that of shaft material
is used for the key.
Stress concentration in Keyways

Torque
=
h Radius
Area subject to compressive force Ac = l
2
Area subject to shear force As = w l
Example: Design a key for fixing a

gear on a shaft of 25mm diameter.
Shaft transmits 15 kW power at 720
rpm to the gear. Assume yield
strength of key material is 150 MPa.
Referring to Table of standard keys, width of key = 8mm and

height is 7 mm.
Torque = 199 N.m
Tangential force = 15920 N
Length to avoid crushing failure: 30.3 mm
Length to avoid shear failure: 23 mm
Example: Design a key to transmit 475 N.m torque from the shaft to
hub. Shaft diameter is 50 mm. Assume yield strength of key material is
100 MPa.
Referring to Table of standard keys, width of key = 14mm and

height is 9 mm.
Tangential force = 19000 N
Length to avoid crushing failure: 42.2 mm
Length to avoid shear failure: 23.5 mm
140
Couplings
Coupling is an element (a device)
that joins two rotating shafts to each
other.
141
Couplings
Most common application is joining 2-shafts
of 2-separately (modular) built or purchased
units so that a new assembly can be formed
Motor-pump
Motor-gearbox
“Oldham’s coupling
(parallel offset shafts),
Hooke’s coupling
(shafts having
intersecting axes) and
rigid/flexible 142
parallel coupling
Objectives of coupling are:
Should be capable of transmitting torque
from driving shaft to driven shaft.
Should keep two shafts in proper
alignment.
Should be easy to assemble and
disassemble.
Maintain zero relative motion between
parallel shafts… Sleeve coupling
144
Design of Sleeve coupling
Also known as “Muff coupling” and “box
coupling”. +ve drive
Uses “sunk key”, grab-screw” or Low power

Fluctuating
interference fit. torque
⎧ D = (2 d + 13) mm
In practice For d ≤ 70 mm ⎨
⎩ L = 3.5 d
Torsional shear 16 T D
τ=
stress (
π D4 − d 4 )
Iterations!!
145
Example: Design a muff coupling to connect two steel shafts
transmitting 25 kW power at 360 rpm. Maximum allowable
compression/tensile stresses in shaft and key are 100 MPa. Coupling
is made of grey cast iron, which should not be stressed beyond 35
MPa (tensile strength).
25000
Torque, T = ⇒ T = 663.15 N .m
⎛ 360 ⎞
2π ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 60 ⎠
1
⎡ 16 T ⎤ 3
Shaft diameter d = ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ d = 38.8 mm or d = 40 mm
⎣ π (.577 * 100e 6 ) ⎦
⎧ D = (2 d + 13) mm ⇒ D = 93 mm
as d < 70 mm ⎨
⎩ L = 3.5 d ⇒ L = 140 mm
Coupling is safe
16 T D
shear stress τ = ⇒ τ = 4.35 MPa
π D −d
4
(4
) Design of key??
Standard keys
Shaft diameter (mm) Key width* Height (mm) Choosing
38<d ≤44 12*8 key of 12*8
mm.
44<d ≤50 14*9
50<d ≤58 16*10
Minimum diameter of coupling is = Shaft dia +

height of key
Dmin = 40+8 Î 48 mm.
Assuming stress concentration due to keyway = 2.5

25000
Torque, T = ⇒ T = 663.15 N .m
⎛ 360 ⎞ Choosing key of 16*10 mm.
2π ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 60 ⎠
1
⎡ 16 (2.5 T ) ⎤ 3 Dmin = 53+10 Î 63 mm.
Shaft diameter d = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ π (.577 *100 e 6 ) ⎦
⇒ d = 52.7 mm or d = 53 mm
allowable shear stress for coupling

16 (2.5 × 663.15) D
0.577 × 35e6 =
(
π D − (0.053)
4 4
)
Dmin = 53+10 Î 63 mm.
D − (0.053) = 4.181×10 −4 D
4 4
Iteration 1: 0.0765
Iteration 2: 0.0795
Iteration 3: 0.0801
Final dimensions of coupling are :
D = 81 mm , d = 53 mm , and L = 185 mm
Flange coupling
Consists of two
flanges: one on driving
shaft & other to driven
shaft.
Flanges are connected
together by means of
bolts arranged on
circle concentric with
axes of shafts.
149
Proportions of
flange coupling
dh = 2 d
lh = 1.5 d
t = 0.5 d
D = 3d
d r = 1.5 d
t1 = 0.25 d Torsional shear stress in hub
Do = 4 d + 2 t
16 T d h
τ=
⎧N = 3
⎪
Number of bolts = ⎨ N = 4
d ≤ 40mm
40 < d ≤ 100mm
(
π d h4 − d 4 )
⎪N = 6
⎩ 100 < d ≤ 180 mm Area under direct shear = (π d h )t h
⎛ S ys ⎞⎛ d h ⎞
Resisting torque = (π d h t h )⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜Kf ⎟⎝ 2 ⎠
⎝ ⎠
150
Example: Input shaft transmits 37.5 kW power at 180 rpm to output
shaft through a flange coupling. The service factor for the application is
1.5, i.e. design torque is 1.5 times of rated torque. Assume yield
strength of shaft is 150 MPa and yield tensile strength of hub is 50 MPa.
Design a flange coupling.
37500
Torque T = 1.5 ⇒ T = 2984.2 N .m
180
2π
60
1
⎛ 16 × 2984.2 ⎞ 3
Shaft diameter d = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⇒ d = 56 mm
⎝ π (0.577 ×150e6) ⎠
d h = 112 mm
16 (2984.2 )(0.112)
Torsional shear stress in hub τ =
lh = 84 mm
t = 28 mm
( )
π 0.112 4 − 0.056 4
⇒ τ = 11.54 MPa
D = 168 mm
d r = 84 mm
t1 = 14 mm ⎛ 50e6 * 0.577 ⎞⎛ 0.112 ⎞
Resisting torque = (π × 0.112 × 0.028)⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
Do = 280 mm ⎝ 2 .5 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
Number of bolts, N = 4 Resisting torque = 6366.8 N.m
Standard keys
Shaft diameter (mm) Key width* Height (mm)
44<d ≤50 14*9
50<d ≤58 16*10
58<d ≤65 18*11
Stress concentration
factor for shaft with
keyway
K = 1/V
Ex: In previous example final
diameter of shaft was 56 mm,
height of key= 10 mm and
width=16mm. In other word R
= 28 mm, B = 5 mm and A =
8 mm. Î V = 0.68 Î K = 1.5
??? What next ???
Fasteners
Objective: To hold two or more machine
elements together.
Threaded fasteners (bolts, screws, etc.)
Rivets
Weldments
Adhesives (chemical)
Snap-fit
153
Threaded
fasteners
Adv: Elements can be
dismantled, if required,
without any damage to For single thread l=p
machine parts. For double threads l=2*p
Pitch (p): distance from
a point on one thread to
same point on adjacent
thread.
Lead (l): distance that
screw would advance
relative to nut in one
revolution
154
Thread profiles
Thread is basic feature of
threaded fasteners.
ACME threads are often used ACME
for power screws.
UN & metric threads are
employed for fastening
purposes.
Eight constant pitch UN threads
series are: 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 20,
28, 32 threads per inch.
UN
155
UN profile
Coarseness designation is
followed by crest diameter in
inches & number of threads per
inch
for example: UNF ½ × 16
0 .5 p
• C-coarse pitch threads ht = o
• F-Fine pitch threads tan 30
• EF-Extra fine pitch thread Three fits:
Letter A for external threads 1. Loose Æ Dirty environment

Letter B for internal threads 2. Normal
3. Tight Æ Very clean environment
Ex: UNC 2× 8 – 1B
156
M profile
Coarseness designation is usually
considered only as coarse or fine,
omitting extra fine designation.
Instead of using threads per inch,
M thread series simply use pitch 0.5 p
ht =
distance between two threads in tan 30 o
mm.
for example: MF 6 × 1 G-e loose fit. Greatest clearance.
H-h zero allowance. No deviation
G & H for external threads
Seven tolerance grades “3 to 9”.
e, f, g, h for internal threads
9 = loosest fit
EXAMPLE: MF 8 × 2-G6 3 = tightest fit
Metric fine thread with 8 mm as crest diameter having 2 mm pitch. Normal 157
Internal thread
M thread Coarse series M thread Fine series
M 4 × 0.7 M 6 × 0.75
M5 × 0.8 M8×1
M6 × 1 M 10 × 1
M8 × 1.25 M 10 × 1.25
M10 × 1.5 M 12 × 1.25
M12 × 1.75, M14× 2 M 12 × 1.5
M16 × 2 M 14 × 1.5
M20× 2.5 M 16 × 1
M24 × 3 M 16 × 1.5 d c = d r + 1.25 ht
M30 × 3.5 M 20 × 1.5
M36 × 4 M 20 × 2 0.625 p
M42 × 4.5 M 24 × 1.5
or d c = d r +
tan(30)
M48 × 5 M 24 × 2
M56 × 5.5 M 30 × 2
M8 means crest
M64 × 6 M 30 × 3 diameter is 8 mm.
M72× 6 M 36 × 3, M 36 × 2
M80, M90, M100 M 42 × 3, M 42 × 4
Types of Threaded Fasteners
head nut
shank
threads
Bolt and nut Cap screw Stud
• low to medium thickness parts. • thick parts.
• too weak material to make durable • no place or arrangement to

threads. accommodate nut.
• frequent dismantling and • Parts that are seldom

reassembly. dismantled.
Bolt/screw heads
160
Bolt/screw heads
161
Example: Electric motor weighing 10 kN
is lifted by means of eye bolt as shown in
Fig. Eye bolt is made of steel having
permissible yield strength of 50 MPa.
Determine the size of bolt.
Bolt will be subjected to tension.

10000
Tensile stress σ t =
π d r2
4
4 × 10000
⇒ dr =
50e6 × π
⇒ d r = 16 mm
dr
Bolt size d c = d c = d r + 1.25 ht
0 .8
0.625 p
⇒ d c = 20 or d c = d r +
tan(30)
We can choose M20 thread.
Tutorial II
Question: A 18mm diameter shaft of 2 hp
motor needs to be coupled with 22mm
diameter shaft of a brake using a rigid
flange coupling. Assume that rated rpm of
motor is 1440 rpm and motor delivers
maximum torque at 70% of rated rotational
speed. Assume keys and bolts can tolerate
100 MPa tensile stress, while flange can
bear tensile stress of 50 MPa. Design
Keys (5)
Flanges (10)
Bolts (assume shear failure). (5)
163
Standard keys
Tutorial II – Key Shaft Key width*
Design (refer Table on slide 137) diameter Height (mm)
(mm)
Choosing 6*6 mm2 17<d ≤22 6*6
cross-section of keys
for 18mm and 2 × 746
22mm shaft. Torque = = 14.1345
1440 × 0.7
2π
h 60
Key area subject to compressive force Ac = l
2 For design purpose assume max.
Key area subject to shear force As = w l applied torque T = 15 N .m
Tangential force on motor shaft = 1667 N
Tangential force on brake shaft = 1364 N
Key length for motor shaft to avoid crushing failure: 5.6 mm
Key length for motor shaft to avoid shear failure: 4.8 mm
Key length for brake shaft to avoid crushing failure: 4.5 mm
Key length for brake shaft to avoid shear failure: 3.9 mm
ANSWER: We can select key length > 6 mm.
Tutorial II – Flange Design (refer slide 150)
dh = 2 d Torsional shear stress in hub
lh = 1.5 d Pitch circle
16 T d h dia for
τ=
t = 0.5 d
D = 3d
(
π dh − d
4 4
) motor shaft
flange &
d r = 1 .5 d Area under direct shear = (π d h )t
brake shaft
t1 = 0.25 d ⎛ S ys ⎞⎛ d h ⎞ flange need
Do = 4 d + 2 t Resisting torque = (π d h t )⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ to be same.
⎜ ⎟
Number of bolts, N = 3 as d ≤ 40mm ⎝ K f ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
For motor shaft (d = 18 mm) For brake shaft (d = 22 mm) Let us choose
d h = 36 mm d h = 44 mm flange as per
lh = 27 mm lh = 33 mm motor shaft
t = 9 mm t = 11 mm dia & increase
D = 54 mm D = 66 mm bore size for
d r = 27 mm d r = 33 mm
brake shaft.
t1 = 4.5 mm t1 = 5.5 mm
Do = 72 + 18 ⇒ Do = 90 mm Do = 88 + 22 ⇒ Do = 110 mm
Number of bolts, N = 3 as d ≤ 40mm Number of bolts, N = 3 as d ≤ 40mm
Tutorial II – Flange Design
Torsional shear stress in flange for brake shaft
16 (T K s ) d h 16 ×15 × 2.5 × 0.036
τ= ⇒
(
π dh − d
4 4
) (
π 0.036 4 − 0.022 4 ) Design is safe.
For better design, consider
⇒ τ = 4.76 MPa
min required value of flange
⎛ S ys ⎞⎛ d h ⎞ bore for brake shaft
Resisting torque = (π d h t )⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ K s ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ dhmin=22 + 6 Î dhmin=28
= 211.43 N.m
Iterations Final flange dimensions
Using torsional shear stress formula d h = 32 mm
1. 25.5 mm
16 ×15 × 2.5 × d h lh = 24 mm
0.577 × 50e6 = As this dim. is less than
(
π d h4 − 0.022 4 ) 28mm, therefore we
t = 8 mm
D = 48 mm
( )
d h4 = 0.022 4 + 6.62 ×10 −6 × d h
dh=28+4mm
assuming 2mm as d r = 24 mm
wall thickness t1 = 4 mm
We can choose flange having hub diameter = 32. Do = 64 + 16
Number of bolts, N = 3
Resisting torque = 148. 5 N.m
Tutorial II – Bolt Design
Shear force on three bolts = Torque/(pitch circle radius)
= 15/(0.024)
= 625 N
Shear force on each bolts = 625/3
= 209 N
Shear strength = Shear stress

209 4 × 209
0.577 ×100e6 = ⇒ dr =
π dr2
57.7e6 × π
4
⇒ d r = 2.1 mm
dr
Bolt size d c = ⇒ d c = 2.625
0.8
We can choose M4 × 0.7 threaded bolt.
Mid-Sem Solution
Question 1: Figure 1 shows a
rolling milling that reduces the
thickness of a rectangular sheet.
This figure indicates that velocity
of outgoing material (Vout) is
greater than velocity of ingoing
(Vin) material. Assume ideal
automatic (adaptable pressure
and velocity variation in work
roll) cold rolling operation and no
change in width of rectangular
sheet. Determine which of the
following material will permit
maximum reduction in the sheet
thickness for a given 50mm
thickness of ingoing material.
168
Answer to Question 1:
Paper 1: AISI 1006 (20%), AISI 1016 (25%), AISI
1022 (34/35%), AISI 1044 (16%), and AISI 5160
(17.5%).
Answer: AISI 1022
1030 (32%), AISI 1060 (17/22%), and AISI 5140
(28.6%).
Answer: AISI 1030
1038 (12%), AISI 1095 (9/10%), and AISI 4820
(13.1%).
Answer: AISI 1010.
169
Question 2 Fig. 2
calculate the minimum tensile

strength required from a material to
avoid failure of tie-bar. Nomenclature
of symbols is shown in Fig. 2.
Paper 1: P = 25 kN, D = 50mm, d =
35mm, and r = 5 mm
Paper 2: P = 20 kN, D = 40mm, d =
25mm, and r = 4 mm.
Paper 3: P = 30 kN, D = 60mm, d =
45mm, and r = 6 mm.
170
Answer to Question 2
To avoid failure of tie-bar, tensile strength
needs to be greater than maximum tensile
stress. 4P
Kt
πd 2
Paper 1: Maximum tensile stress 44.2 MPa.

Paper 2: Maximum tensile stress 68 MPa.
Paper 3: Maximum tensile stress 31.7 MPa.
171
Question 3
We are planning to design a thrust ball bearing, which
can bear axial load F. The diameter of readily available
spherical balls is d. Assume applied load will equally be
shared by all balls, and the ring (against which balls
will be pressed) is a flat surface (R2=∞). To maintain
ball bearing under elastic load limit, the maximum size
of contact patch should not exceeds b1. Determine the
minimum number of balls required for a safe design of
thrust ball bearing.
Paper 1: F = 2000 N, d = 6 mm, b1=250 microns, υ1=
υ2=0.28; E1= E2 =207 GPa.
υ2=0.29; E1= E2 =210 GPa.
υ2=0.3; E1= E2 =200 GPa
172
The maximum size of contact patch
1
⎛ ⎞ 3
⎜ ⎟
2 b = 2⎜
(
⎜ 0.75 Fi ⎡ 1 −ν 1
⎢
2
) (
+
)
1 −ν 2 ⎤ ⎟
2
⎥⎟
⎡ ⎤
⎜⎢ 1 + 1 ⎥ ⎣
E1 E 2 ⎦⎟
⎜ R R ⎟
⎝ ⎣ 1 2 ⎦ ⎠
Paper 1: Fi = 97.5 N Æ Number of balls = 2000/97.5.

Paper 2: Fi = 87 N Æ Number of balls = 1000/87.
Paper 3: Fi = 108.8 N Æ Number of balls =
3000/108.8
173
Question 4: Paper 1
Design an economic muff coupling to
connect a 38mm diameter shaft of 10 hp,
750 rpm motor with a 23mm diameter
shaft of a gear box. Assume that motor
delivers the maximum torque at 70% of
rated rotational speed. Choose cast steel
(maximum allowable tensile stress = 35
MPa) as a material for the muff coupling.
Assume the maximum permissible tensile
stress for key material is 70 MPa.
Determine all the dimensions of muff
coupling and keys.
174
Selecting the cross section of keys:
8*7 for 23mm shaft 10 × 746
Torque = = 135.7
10*8 for 38mm shaft 750 × 0.7
2π
h 60
Key area subject to compressive force Ac = l For design purpose assume max.
2
Key area subject to shear force As = w l applied torque T = 136 N .m
Tangential force on motor shaft = 7158 N
Tangential force on gear box = 11826 N
Key length for motor shaft to avoid crushing failure: 25.6 mm
Key length for motor shaft to avoid shear failure: 17.7 mm
Key length for brake shaft to avoid crushing failure: 50.5 mm
Key length for brake shaft to avoid shear failure: 38.3 mm
ANSWER: We can select 10*8*26 key for motor-shaft and
8*7*51 mm for gear-shaft.
175
Answer to Question 4……..
Minimum length of muff coupling =
26+51 = 77 mm.
Minimum value of external diameter
of muff coupling is = 38+ 8= 45 mm.
⎧ D = (2 d + 13) mm ⇒ D = 89 mm Initial
as d < 70 mm ⎨ design
⎩ L = 3.5 d ⇒ L = 133 mm
16 T K t D
shear stress τ = ⇒ τ = 2.54 MPa
( )
Coupling is over
π D −d
4 4 Designed.
176
allowable shear stress for coupling
Dmin = 45 mm.
16 (2.5 ×136) D
0.577 × 35e6 =
(
π D − (0.038)
4 4
)
Iteration 1: 0.0494
D − (0.038) = 8.6 ×10 D
4 4 −5
Iteration 2: 0.0502
Final dimensions of coupling are : Iteration 3: 0.0503
D = 51 mm , d1 = 38 mm ,
d 2 = 23 mm and L = 133 mm
For economic solution length can
be reduced to 100mm.
Question 5: Paper 1
A magnesium machined
plate (shown in Fig. 3) at
room temperature is
subjected to completely
reversed bending load of
300 N.m. Assume ultimate
strength of material is Magnesium alloys (108 cycles)
Sut=700 MPa, size factor
for plate is 0.85 and S e′ = 0.35 Sut
expected reliability is 99%. Low cycle fatigue (≤ 103 cycles)
Determine the thickness of Sl′ = 0.9 Sut bending
plate for 107 cycles.
178
We can start solution assuming stress
concentration factor = 2.0, and determine
thickness h.
Size factor = 0.85
Reliability factor = 0.814
Surface finish factor = 0.7947
Temp factor = 1.0
Corrected fatigue strength at 103 cycles =
173.2 MPa.
Corrected fatigue strength at 108 cycles =
67.4 MPa
179
Fatigue strength S ′f at 103 cycle
( ) ( )
log Sl′ = k1 log 103 + k 2 ⇒ log(173.2) = k1 log 103 + k 2
Fatigue strength S ′f at 108 cycle
( ) ( )
log Sl′ = k1 log 108 + k 2 ⇒ log(67.4) = k1 log 108 + k 2
⇒ k1 = −0.082 & k 2 = 2.4847
′ 7
Fatigue strength S f at 10 cycles
log S ′f = 7 k1 + k 2 ⇒ S ′f = 81.4 MPa
6M
h=
(b − d ) S ′f
6 × 300
h=
(0.05 − 0.008)× 81.4e6
h = 22.9 mm
Calculating K t for
d/h = 0.35
d/b = 0.16
Stress concentration factor = 2.35.

Corrected fatigue strength at 103 cycles = 147.47 MPa.
Corrected fatigue strength at 108 cycles = 57.33 MPa
Factors k1=-0.082 and k2=2.4144
Fatigue strength at 107 cycles = 69.25 MPa
Thickness = 24.9 mm. .. ANSWER
Bolted Joints under Fluctuating Load
Purpose of bolt-joint:
Clamp two or more
parts together
Clamping force is
applied by twisting
nut until bolt elongate
almost to elastic limit.
If nut does not
loosen, bolt tension
remains as
preload/clamping-
force.
182
Bolted Joints under
Fluctuating Load
Tensile load
fluctuates between
load P1 (min.) and P2
(max.)… Ex:
Connecting rod.
Fatigue strength
criterion needs to be
followed for a successful
design of bolt under
fluctuating load.
183
Modifying factors
Size factor
Surface finish factor
Stress concentration factor
Metric grade Rolled Cut Fillet
threads threads
3.6 to 5.8 2.2 2.8 2.1
6.6 to 10.9 3.0 3.8 2.3
Reliability factor 3*100 is UTS. 0.6*UTS is Yield strength
5*100 is UTS. 0.8*UTS is Yield strength
Temperature factor 6*100 is UTS. 0.6*UTS is yield strength
184
Determining percentage of
total load shared by bolt?
Deflection in bolt = Deflection in part
δb = δp
Pb Pp
=
Kb Kp
P = Pb + Pp assuming bolted joint follows Hook' s
Pb K p law & total load is lesser than elastic limit,
P = Pb + σ δ P
Kb ε= ⇒ =
E l AE
Kb
or Pb = P or K = A E
Kb + K p b
l
185
Determining percentage of total load shared by bolt….
Example: Assume initial clamping load is 2.5
kN. Load P = 5 kN. Allowable tensile stress =
160 MPa. Kp=2.5 Kb. Determine size of bolt.
Load shared by bolt,
Kb Kb
Pb = P ⇒ Pb = (5000)
Kb + K p K b + 2.5 K b
⇒ Pb = 1428.6 N
Root diameter d r = 4 A / π
Total load on bolt, F = Pb + Pi ⇒ d r = 5.6 mm
dr
F = 3928.6 N Approximate crest dia, d c =
0 .8
F ⇒ d c = 7 mm
Required min. area =
160e6
Select M8×1.25 bolt.
A = 2.4554e − 5 m 2 Assure stress < strength
Bolt Stiffness
Bolt with threads is considered as a stepped shaft. Root dia. is
used for threaded section of bolt, and crest dia. is used for
unthreaded section (Shank). Bolt stiffness:
1 1 1
= +
K b K bs K br
1 4 ⎡ Lse Lte ⎤
= ⎢ 2 + 2⎥
Kb π E ⎣ dc dr ⎦
If L ≤ 125 mm
Lt = 2 d c + 6
If 125 < L ≤ 200 mm
Lt = 2 d c + 12
If L > 200 mm
Lt = 2 d c + 25
Joint (part) Stiffness
Approximations:
1. Two conical frustums
about joint mid-plane
and having a vertex
angle of 2αf represent
the stresses in the joint.
2. Stress induced in joint is uniform throughout the
region. π Ei d c tan α f
K pi =
( )
⎡ Li tan α f + d w − d c (d w + d c )⎤
2 log e ⎢ ⎥
(L
⎢⎣ i tan α f + d w + d c )
(d w − d )
c ⎥ ⎦
Reference: Mechanical Engineering Design: Shigley and Mischke. 188
Example
Bolt & nut are made of steel. Thread
crest dia = 14mm and root dia =
12mm. Find bolt and joint stiffness.
Esteel=206.8 GPa, Ealuminum =71 GPa
1 1 1
= +
K b K bs K br
1 4 ⎡ Lse Lte ⎤
= ⎢ + ⎥
K b π E ⎣ d c2 d r2 ⎦
1 4 ⎡ 35 + 0.4 *14 20 + 0.4 *12 ⎤
= ⎢ 2 + 2 ⎥
K b π 206.8e9 ⎣ 14 (1.e − 3) 12 (1.e − 3) ⎦
1
= 2.3357e − 9
Kb
K b = 428.14 MN / m
π Ei d c tan α f
K pi =
( )
⎡ Li tan α f + d w − d c (d w + d c ) ⎤
2 log e ⎢ ⎥
( )
⎢⎣ Li tan α f + d w + d c (d w − d c ) ⎥⎦
π 206.8e9 (14e − 3) tan(π / 6)
K p1 =
⎡ (25 tan(π / 6) + 1.5(14) − 14)(1.5 *14 + 14) ⎤
2 log e ⎢ ⎥
⎣ (25 tan(π / 6) + 1. 5(14 ) + 14 )(1. 5 * 14 − 14 ) ⎦
5.2513e9
K p1 =
1.5475
K p1 = 3393.4 MN / m π 71.e9 (14e − 3) tan(π / 6)
K p2 =
1 1 1 ⎡ (30 tan(π / 6) + 1.5(14) − 14)(1.5 *14 + 14) ⎤
= + 2 log e ⎢ ⎥
K p K p1 K p 2 ⎣ (30 tan(π / 6) + 1.5(14 ) + 14 )(1.5 *14 − 14 ) ⎦
K p1 K p 2 1.8029e9
Kp = K p2 =
K p1 + K p 2 1.6867 ? % of load shared
K p = 812.56 MN / m K p2 = 1068.9 MN / m by bolt?
Ex: A bolted assembly is subjected to an external force, which
varies from 0 to 10 kN. The combined stiffness of parts is three
times the stiffness of bolt. The bolt is initially tightened with 11.25
kN. The ultimate and yield strength of bolt material are 660 MPa
and 460 MPa respectively. Assume stress concentration factor =
2.2 and expected reliability = 90%. Consider factor of safety = 2.
Determine the size of bolt with fine threads.
Endurance strength S e = (0.5 Sut )(reliability factor ) / (stress concentration factor )
S e = (330 MPa )(0.897 ) / (2.2 ) Mean load Pbm =

Pb max + Pb min
2
⇒ S e = 134.55 MPa Pbm = 12250 N
Kb Pb max − Pb min
Maximum load on bolt Pb max = Pi + Pmax Alternating load Pba =
Kb + K p 2
Pba = 1250 N
⇒ Pb max = 13750 N
σm σa 1
Kb Refer slide + =
Minimum load on bolt Pb min = Pi + Pmin Sut Se Ns
Kb + K p 120-121:
Modified σm σa 1
⇒ Pb min = 11250 N Goodman line + =
Sy Sy Ns
σm σa 1
+ =
Sut Se Ns
σ m = 219.951 MPa
Pba σ a 1250
tan θ = = = σ a = 22.435 MPa
Pb m σ m 12250
σm σa 1 Conclusion: Bolt
+ =
660 134.55 2 σ m = 205 MPa will be designed
σm σa 1 based on yield
+ = σ a = 25 MPa
460 460 2 strength criteria.
Pm
Bolt area required to sustain Pm =
(S y / Ns ) Conclusion: Bolt
Am = 5.33e − 5 ⇒ d r = 8.2 mm M10×1 will be
dr selected.
For fine - pitch bolt approx. crest dia. =
0.9
⇒ d c = 9.11 mm Iterations !!!!
• Definition
• Material (s)
• Constraints
• Equations
Design of a SPRING • Examples
• Energy Storage Component

• Elasticity is a basic requirement.
193
P
• Energy Storage
Component
• Elasticity is a basic
requirement.
• Requirement of
relatively large
deformation.
P 194
? ELASTIC ENERGY/VOLUME
σ2
Steel WC WV ∝
Copper
E
Young’s modulus, GPa
CFRP
Alumina
GFRP
Which
Aluminum
PEEK material is
Zinc
PP
Glass Fibreboard
the best??
Lead
PTFE
Property bar-
Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites charts
E = S / ro ATOMIC SIZE
Covalent bond is stiff (S= 20 –200 N/m) Metallic & Ionic (15-100 N/m)
Polymers having Van der Waals bonds (0.5 to 2 N/m). r0~ 3*10-10m)
196
MATERIAL (
M = σ 2 f E....MJ m3 ) Comment
Ceramics 10-100 Brittle in tension; good only
in compression
Spring 15-25 Traditional choice: easily
formed and heat treated.
steel
Ti alloys 15-20 Expensive, corrosion
resistant
CFRP 15-20 Comparable in performance
with steel, expensive
GFRP 10-12 --
Nylon 1.5-2.5 Economic & easily shaped
Rubber 10-30 Better than spring steel

197
Natural frequency
1 kg
fn =
2π Weight WV ∝
σ2
E
π
Weight = d 2 πDN ρ
4
1 kg
⇒ fn =
πd DNρ
σ 2 σ2
WV ∝ Ww ∝
E ρE
198
199
2 σf2
MATERIAL M =σ f E M = Comment
ρE
Ceramics 10-100, 5-50 Brittle in tension; good only in

compression
Spring 15-25, 2-3 Traditional choice: easily formed
steel and heat treated.
Ti alloys 15-20, 4-8 Expensive, corrosion resistant
CFRP 15-20, 4-8 Comparable in performance with

steel, expensive
GFRP 10-12, 3-5 --
Nylon 1.5-2.5, 1.5-2 Economic & easily shaped
Rubber 10-30, 10-30 Better than spring steel
σf2
? ELASTIC ENERGY/COST M =
C m ρE
Rubber Springs
Hooke’s law?
Stiffness increases with increase in
deflection.
Temperature dependence.
Useful if damping/cushioning is
required?
Often hybridized with metals. ….
Requires detailed analysis.
201
Stress-Strain for One Cycle
• Metals, glasses and ceramics

have low intrinsic damping, which
is measured by “Loss coefficient”.
• Loss factor is high in soft metals
like lead and pure aluminum, while
low in heavily alloyed metals like
bronze and high carbon steel.
• In polymers, loss factor depends
on ratio of operating temperature
• Energy Storage. to glass transition temperature.
• Elasticity. η ∝ 1E
• Relatively larger deflection.
• Min loss of Energy Metals are preferable materials.
203
Relative Cost
1.0
2.6
1.3
3.1
-
7.6
4.0
---
8.0
27.0 204
Most Popular Springs:
Helical Compression Springs
Initial load Pl Æ ll ~ 0.85 lf Can we overcome this constraint ?

Max load Pmax Æ l0 ~ 1.15 ls Reason ??? 205
Ends Used in Compression Springs
Figure (a) Plain; (b) plain and ground; (c) squared; (d) squared and ground.
Eccentric loading ? Increasing stresses on one side of spring.

Active Coils.
Passive Coils.. Turns which do not affect the deflection.
Force &
Torque
P sin α
P cos α
P cos α P cos α
P sin α
If α ≤ 10o P cos α ≈ P
P sin α ≈ 0
P cos α
Due to compressive loading, Helical Compression Spring will

be subjected to “Direct Shear” and “Torsion”.
207
Pure torsional loading
Centroidal axis
Transverse loading
Figure (c) Torsional and transverse loading

with no curvature effects; (d) Torsional and
transverse loading with curvature effects.
Mathematical Formulation
Strength > Stress
S ys
Safety factor , N s =
τ max
Tr P
τ max = +
J A
( P .D / 2 ) * ( d / 2 ) P
= +
( π d 4 / 32 ) πd 2 / 4
8 P . Cd * d 4P
= +
πd 4 πd 2
8 PC ⎛ 1 ⎞
= 2 ⎜
1+ ⎟
πd ⎝ 2C ⎠
8 PC ⎛ 0 .5 ⎞
= k ; k = ⎜ 1 + ⎟
πd 2 s s
⎝ C ⎠
To make spring, wire is curved into coil Æ shift in neutral axis towards
the center of curvature Æ Non-uniform stress distribution Æ Stress
concentration on the inner surface of curvature.
Wahl determined the

stress concentration
factor (Wahl factor)
that includes both
direct shear and stress
concentration due to
curvature.
4C − 1 0.615 Spring Index, C = D/d

Kw = +
4C − 4 C Constraint on Min value of C ???
0 .5
>1 >
C
210
Spring Stress Factor
C (=D/d) Ks Kw
5 1.1 1.311
6 1.083 1.253
7 1.071 1.213
8 1.063 1.184
9 1.056 1.162
10 1.050 1.145
11 1.045 1.131
12 1.042 1.119
211
8 PC
τ = kc
πd
max 2
⎛ 0 .5 ⎞
kc = ⎜1 + ⎟ for static load
⎝ C ⎠
4C − 1 0 . 615
kc = + for fatigue load
4C − 4 C
Under static load, yielding is the failure criterion.
Ductile materials yields locally and stress concentration is
negligible.
Under dynamic load, the failure will be fatigue and stress
concentration due to curvature will play important role.
212
Preferred Diameters for Spring Steel Wire, mm
First Second Third

Preference Preference Preference
0.10 0.11 1.3
0.12 0.14 2.1
0.16 0.18 2.4
First Second
0.20 0.22 3.2
Preference Preference
0.25 0.28 3.8
4.0 3.5
0.30 0.35 4.2
5.0 4.5
0.40 0.45 4.8
6.0 5.5
0.50 0.55 7.5
8.0 6.5
0.60 0.65 8.5
10.0 7.0
0.80 0.7 9.5
12.0 9.0
1.0 0.9
14.0 11.0
1.2 1.1
16.0 13.0
1.6 1.4
15.0
2.0 1.8
2.5 2.2
3.0 2.8
Ultimate Strength of Spring wire
S ys = 0.577 S yt
S ys
Safety factor , N s = S yt = 0.75 Sut
τ max
Initial guess
b
S ut = Ad
Material Range Exponent Coefficient Relative
(mm) b A (MPa) Cost
Cold Drawn 0.5 – 16 -0.1822 1753.3 1
Music wire 0.3 –6 -0.1625 2153.5 2.6
Oil temp. 0.5 – 16 -0.1833 1831.2 1.3
Chrome-Vanadium 0.5 -12 -0.1453 1909.9 3.1
Chrome Silicon 0.8 – 11 -0.0934 2059.2 4.0
302 Stainless (A313) 0.3 – 2.5 -0.146 1867 7-11
2.5-5 -0.263 2065
5-10
-0.478 2911
Designing Helical Compression
Springs for Static Loading
S ys
Safety factor , N s =
τ max
Max. Torsional yield strength for Helical
compression springs in static applications
Material Max percent of UTS
Before set After set
removed removed
A227 and A228 45 60
Hardened and tempered steel (A229,A230, A232, A401) 50 65
Austenitic stainless steel (e.g. A313) 40 55
Nonferrous alloys ( B134, B159, B197) 40 55
215
70
60 Unpeened
Percentage of UTS
Maximum Torsional Fatigue 50
40
Peened
Strength for round wire

30
20
10
helical compression spring 0

1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Number of rotations
Fatigue Percent of UTS

Life
ASTM 228, Stainless ASTM A230 & A232
(Cycles)
Steel & Nonferrous
Unpeened Peened Unpeened Peened
103 Sys Sys Sys Sys

105 36 42 42 49
106 33 39 40 47
107 30 36 38 46
Home Work: Create torsional shear S-N diamgram for 0.25mm,
0.5mm and 1.0 mm of ASTM A228 unpeened spring wire. 216
Ex: Design a cold drawn steel wire helical compression
spring, having minimum possible spring index. Static
axial load = 500 N. Min value of factor of safety = 1.2
ANSWER: Design Load = Applied load * factor of safety

P = 600 N ⎛ 0 .5 ⎞
kc = ⎜1 + ⎟
Minimum possible spring index, C = 5 ⎝ C ⎠
Material data for cold drawn steel wire kc = 1 .1
Material Range Exponent Coefficient Relative

(mm) b A (MPa) Cost
Cold Drawn 0.5 – 16 -0.1822 1753.3 1
S ut = Ad b 1753.3
Sut = 0.1822 MPa
d
789 N
Strength = 0.45 Sut Strength =
d 0.1822 mm 2
Stress 8 PC 8403.4 N
τ max = 2 kc Stress =
πd d 2 mm 2
2 −0.1822 8403.4
⇒d =
789
⇒ d = (10.6507 )
1 1.8178
mm
⇒ d = 3.6743
Choosing preferred diameter of spring steel wire from slide

213, d=4 mm
8(500 )5
τ max = (1.1) = 438 MPa Strength = 613 MPa
π (0.004) 2
FOS = 1.4
Energy Storage & Deflection
Work done by axial force P to deflect spring is stored as strain
energy, U = Avg. Force * Deflection
= (P/2) * (D/2 * θ )
= (P D/4) * (T * L/((π d 4 / 32) * G )
8P D
= (P D / 2)(π D N a )
π Gd 4
4 P 2 D3
= 4
(N a )
Gd
Deflection δ = ∂U
∂P
8P D 3 N a
δ= ? Series combination
Gd4
? Parallel arrangement.
Gd4
Stiffness k = P/δ =
8D 3 N a
Ex: Design a economic cold drawn steel wire helical compression
spring, subjected to maximum of 550 N axial compression load.
Spring needs to have a stiffness of 75 N/mm. Assume G=80000
N/mm2 and square & ground ends of spring
ANSWER: We need to determine wire diameter, coil diameter,

and number of turns. We need to check the safety of spring
against 550 N load.
789 N
Torsional strength of cold drawn steel wire =
d 0.1822 mm 2
8 PC ⎛ 0.5 ⎞
Maximum shear stress τ max = 2 ⎜
1+ ⎟
πd ⎝ C ⎠
Iteration 1: Selecting C=5, we find
8(550)5 ⎛ 0.5 ⎞ 789

2 ⎜
1+ ⎟ = 0.1822 ⇒ d = 3.5 mm
πd ⎝ 5 ⎠ d
From economics selecting d=4 mm
Gd4
Stiffness k =
8D 3 N a
80000 × (4 )
75 =
( )
8 53 N a
⇒ we can chose either N a = 5 or N a = 4
As we require stiffness = 75 N/mm, therefore we need to
change one of geometry parameter of spring. Easiest is to
change coil diameter D. First we choose Na=5 and check the
value of spring index.
75 =
( )
80000 × 4 4
( )
8 D3 5 C = 18.97 / 4
As C < 5, we select
Na=4. Æ D = 20.44
⇒ D = 18.97 mm mm. d=4 mm.
⇒ C = 4.7425
Example: Design a helical compression spring for
the valve mechanism. The axial force acting on
spring is 300 N when valve is open and 100 N when
valve is closed. The length of spring is 25mm when
the valve is open and 35 mm when the valve is
closed. Assume ultimate tensile strength of spring
material is 1400 MPa. The permissible shear stress
should be taken as 30% of UTS. The modulus of
rigidity is 80000 MPa. The spring is to be fitted over
a valve rod and the minimum inside diameter of
spring should be 20mm.
Minimum coil dia, Di = 20mm 8 PC ⎛ 0.5 ⎞
τ max = ⎜1 + ⎟
Spring mean dia, D = 20 + d πd ⎝2
C ⎠
Permissible shear stress, τ = 0.3 Sut 8(300 )(20 + d ) ⎛ 0.5 d ⎞
420 = ⎜1 + ⎟
τ = 420 MPa πd 3
⎝ 20 + d ⎠
P 300 − 100
Spring stiffness, k = = Try d=2, 2.5, 3, 4 mm
δ 35 − 25
k = 20 N / mm Selecting d = 4mm
Gd4
Stiffness k =
8D 3 N a
20 =
( )
80000 × 4 4
( )
8 243 N a
⇒ we can chose either N a = 10 or N a = 9
As we require stiffness = 20 N/mm, therefore we need to

change one of geometry parameter of spring. Easiest is to
change coil diameter D. First we choose Na=9 and check the
minimum value of wire diameter.
20 =
( )
80000 × 4 4
( )
8 D3 9 As minimum coil
diameter is greater than
⇒ D = 24.23 mm
20mm, we can finalize
⇒ Di = D − d = 20.23 the spring dimensions.
Spring for Fatigue Loading
When spring loads are dynamic (time-
varying), a fatigue stress situation exist.
Pa = 0.5 (Pmax − Pmin ) 8 Pa C 8 Pm C
τa = kw ; τ m = ks
Pm = 0.5 (Pmax + Pmin ) πd πd
2 2
In the helical compression spring loading

cases Pmin ≤ 0.
To solve problem ultimate shear strength,
shear yield strength, and fatigue strength
(at some number of cycles) are needed.
224
Spring for Fatigue Loading
Since all significant stresses in spring are shear
stresses, we may use a torsional Goodman diagram,
which is shown in following Figure.
Up to a certain point
(B), torsional mean
stress has no effect
on torsional
endurance limit.
Area OABC
represents region of
safety.
This figure indicates that if τm ≤ (Sys-Sse) ,

component will fail due to alternating stress (τa).
225
Designing Helical Compression Spring
for Fatigue Loading.. Considering FOS
Ssy/Ns
This figure indicates that if τm ≤ (Sys-Sse)/Ns ,

component will fail due to alternating stress (τa).
226
Ex: The exhaust valve system of diesel
engine is shown in Figure. The diameter of
valve seat is 30mm and the suction
pressure in the cylinder is 0.05 MPa. The
max. required valve lift =10 mm. Spring
stiffness = 10 N/mm. C = 7. Design this
spring for factor of safety greater than
1.25. Spring Mat. = Music wire.
Min load = 0.05e6*pi/4*(0.03*0.03)
Max. Load = Min load+10*10
8P C 1081
τ a = a 2 kw = 2
Pa = 0.5 (Pmax − Pmin ) = 50 N πd d
Pm = 0.5 (Pmax + Pmin ) = 85.4 N
8 Pm C 1631
τm = ks = 2
πd 2
d
For music wire
⎛ 0 .5 ⎞
(
Sut = 2153.5 d −0.1625 ) k s = ⎜1 +
⎝ C ⎠
⎟ = 1 . 0714
S sy = 0.45 Sut 4C − 1 0 . 615

kw = + = 1 . 2129
4C − 4 C
Iteration 1: At first iteration we start design using static mean
load and determine wire diameter using allowable shear yielding
(Ssy/Ns)
(
0.45 2153.5 1631)= ⇒ = Preferred wire
1.25 d( 0.1625
) 2
d
d 1.5 mm dia. = 1.6
τm =
1631
d2
S sy − S se
=
( ( ))
0.15 2153.5 d −0.1625
= 239.42 MPa
⇒ τ m = 637.11 MPa Ns 1.25
As τm > (Ssy-Sse)/Ns , component will fail due to yielding (τa +τm).
d = (3.4982 )1 1.8375
8(K w Pa + K s Pm )C 0.45 (2153.5)
=
πd 2
1.25 d 0.1625 ( ) d = 2 mm
S se
Pressure wire dia. Check τ a <
Ns
Gd4 Gd 100000 × 2
Stiffness k = 3
⇒ N a = 3
= 3
= 7.23
8D N a 8 C k 8 × 7 ×10
Tutorial III
Question 1: Determine
the deflection of springs
shown in Figure. Axial
load = 2000 N
Spring 1
N a = 12, d = 6 mm,
D = 30 mm, G = 100,000 MPa
Spring 2
N a = 12, d = 3 mm,
D = 15 mm, G = 80,000 MPa
229
Axial load = 2000 N
Gd4 K1=50 N/mm

Stiffness k =
8D 3 N a K2=20 N/mm
K = 50+20 = 70 N/mm
Spring 1
N a = 12, d = 6 mm,
D = 30 mm, G = 100,000 MPa Deflection = load/stiffness
Deflection = 28.5714 mm
Spring 2
N a = 12, d = 3 mm,
D = 15 mm, G = 80,000 MPa
230
Question 2: A helical compression unpeened spring,
made of ASTM A228, is preloaded with 25 N axial
force. The external force applied to compress spring
varies between zero to 100 N. Assume spring index
= 6, factor of safety ≥1.25. Determine wire diameter
for spring life = 107 cycles.
8 Pa C 957
For ASTM 228 wire τa = k w =
πd 2 d2
(
Sut = 2153.5 d −0.1625 ) τm =
8 Pm C 1242
ks = 2
S sy = 0.45 Sut πd 2
d
Pa = 0.5 (Pmax − Pmin ) = 50 N ⎛

k s = ⎜1 +
0 .5 ⎞
⎟ = 1 . 0833
⎝ C ⎠
Pm = 0.5 (Pmax + Pmin ) = 75 N 4C − 1 0 . 615
kw = + = 1 . 2525
4C − 4 C
0.45 (2153.5) 1242

= 2 ⇒ d = 1.3 mm
(
1.25 d 0.1625
d ) Selecting d = 1.6 mm
1242
τm = = 485.2 MPa
(1.6)
2
(S sy − S se ) = 0.15 (2153.5(d −0.1625 )) = 239.42 MPa

Ns 1.25
As τm > (Sys-Sse)/Ns , component will fail due to yielding (τa +τm).
8(K w Pa + K s Pm )C 0.45 (2153.5) 2198.2 775.26

=
πd 2
(
1.25 d 0.1625 ) d 2
= 0.1625
d
S se ⇒ d = 1.7633
Check τ a <
Ns
ANSWER: Preferred d = 2mm
Elements to Transmit Power
* Shafts
$ Keys/Interference-fit
% Coupling
Belt drive
Chain drive (i.e. bicycle)
Friction drive
Gear drive
233
Design of Belt Drive
Aim: Transmission of power over
comparatively long distance.
+Ve:
Low initial, assembly and running costs.
Tolerance for misalignment… Flexibility
Absorb shocks. Audio Tapes
Isolate effect of vibration Video Tapes
Data Cartridge
-Ve: Conveyor belt
Efficiency (Slip).. Friction uncertainties
Wear (short life) … One year life Friction drive
Loss of elasticity (Creep)

234
NOTE: Belts are subject to creep, therefore they require tensioning devices.
Belt Cross Size range Required Pulley
Type section (mm)
Flat t=0.75 - Crowned
5
Round d
d=3 to 20 Grooved
V ht
ht =6 to 23 Grooved/
Sheaves
Timing p>2 Toothed
wheel
Note: Time belt uses positive drive
mechanism, while other belt drives
use friction drive mechanism. Time
belt drive does not require any initial
tension. Teeth make it possible to
run at any speed.
Mechanism of Flat
Belt Pulley Drive
Belt contacts driving pulley
with tight tension T1 and
leaves this pulley with loose
tension T2.
m v2 dφ
(T + dT ) cos(0.5 dφ ) − T cos(0.5 dφ ) − μ dR = 0
⇒ dT = μ dR Eq. (1)
dF
T+dT
T
dR
(T + dT )sin (0.5 dφ ) + T sin (0.5 dφ ) − dR − m v 2 dφ = 0
⇒ T dφ − dR − m v 2 dφ = 0
dφ
Eq. (2)
Substituting dR from Eq. (1) x
dT
T dφ − dT / μ − mv 2 dφ = 0 ⇒ = μ dφ
(
T − mv )
2
y
T1
dT φ1 T1 − mv 2 μφ1
= μ ∫ dφ ⇒ =
On integration ∫
(
T2 T − mv
2
) 0 T2 − mv 2
e
V2
Centrifugal force = (m r dφ )
r
Open Flat Belt
⎛ D2 − D1 ⎞
α = sin ⎜⎜−1
⎟⎟
⎝ 2 Cd ⎠ T1 − mv 2
= e μφ1
T2 − mv 2
φ1 = π − 2 α
φ2 = π + 2 α
AB = Cd2 − (0.5 D2 − 0.5 D1 ) 2
Initial Tension
Belt Length, L = 2 AB + 0.5 D1 φ1 + 0.5 D2 φ2
or, L = 4 Cd2 − (D2 − D1 ) + 0.5 D1 (π − 2 α ) + 0.5 D2 (π + 2 α )
2
or, L = 4 Cd2 − (D2 − D1 ) + 0.5 π (D1 + D2 ) + α (D2 − D1 )

2
⎛ D − D1 ⎞
or, L = 4 Cd2 − (D2 − D1 ) + 0.5 π (D1 + D2 ) + (D2 − D1 )sin −1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
2
⎝ 2 Cd ⎠
Ex: A flat belt (w=152 mm, t=8 mm) transmits 11
kW. Cd=2.5 m, Ddriving_pulley=150 mm,
Ddriven_pulley=450 mm, Ndriving_pulley=2000 rpm, belt
material density = 970 kgf/m3. μ=0.3
Mass/length of belt = Weight density/g w t

πdN m = (970/9.81) (152/1000 ) (8 / 1000)
Belt velocity v = m/s
60 m = 0.1202 kg/m
v = 15.708 m/s
⎛ Ddriven − Ddriving ⎞ T1 − mv 2 μφ1 T1 − 29.66
Contact angle, φ1 = π − 2 sin −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = e ⇒ = 2.4755
2 Cd T2 − mv 2
T2 − 29.66
⎝ ⎠
φ1 = 3.0215 T1 − 2.4755 T2 = −43.7639
Power transmitted can be expressed as (T1 − T2 ) v = 11000

⇒ T1 − T2 = 11000 / 15.708 = 700.3 N
T1=1204.6 N L = 4 Cd2 − (D2 − D1 )2 + 0.5 π (D1 + D2 ) + (D2 − D1 )sin −1 ⎛⎜⎜ D2 − D1 ⎞⎟⎟

⎝ 2 Cd ⎠
T2= 504.3 N
Length = 5.9515 m Stresses ????
Example: We need to reduce the speed of 11kW, 1440 rpm
motor to 500 rpm using a belt-pulley drive mechanism. The belt
speed should not exceed 10 m/s. The angle of contact needs to
be greater than 165 degree. The leather belt, which can sustain
2.5 MPa tensile stress, is easily available. The density of belt is
0.95 gm/cc and coefficient of friction is 0.35. Assume the
thickness of belt is 5 mm. Determine (a) Dia of pulleys, (b)
length & width of belt and (c) belt tension.
Tangential velocity of driving pulley = Tangential velocity of driven pulley
D driven 1440
⇒ =
D driving 500
N driving
Maximum tangential speed = π D driving
60
Ddriven = 381.9 mm
⇒ Ddriving = 132.6 mm
-1 ⎛ Ddriven − Ddriving ⎞
Angle of contact φ1 = π - 2sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 11000 T1
2 Cd T − T = = 2.5 × 5
⎝ ⎠ 1 2 10 b
⇒ Cd = 955 mm
T1 − mv 2 μφ1 T1 − 0.475(b )
= e ⇒ = 2.74 ⎛ gm ⎞ b 5
T2 − mv 2
T2 − 0.475(b ) m = ⎜⎜ .95 ⎟⎟
⎝ cubic cm ⎠ 10 10
T1 − 2.74 T2 = −0.8265(b ) m = 4.75 ×10-3 (b ) kg/m
11000 T1
T1 − T2 = = 2.5 × 5
10 b
b = 144 mm
T1 = 1800 N
T2 = 700 N
Length ??
Commercial Flat Belts
Width (mm) of High Speed Width (mm) of FORT (Heavy
(Light to Medium duty: 2.3*V duty: 2.89*V W/mm per ply)
W/mm per ply) belt belt
3 Ply 4 Ply 5 Ply 6 Ply 3 4 Ply 5 Ply 6 Ply 8 Ply
25 25, 32, 76 100 Ply
32 40, 44 90 112 25 40, 44 76 112 200
40 50, 63 100 125 50, 63
40 100 125 250
44 76, 90 76
112 152 50 112 152 305
50 100 90
125 180 63 125 180 355
63 112 100
152 200 76 112 152 200 400
76 125
90 140 200 125 180 250
100 152 224 152 250
Correct Initial tension – Belt shorter than calculated length. 152*4*2.3*15.708
Belt of 3 Plies --- ----15 mm per meter belt length ? > 11 kW
Belt of 4 to 6 Plies– 10mm per meter belt length Length = 5.9515 m
Belt of 8 Plies ------- 5 mm per meter belt length L = 5.892
Commercial Flat Belts….cont
Width (mm) of High Speed Width (mm) of FORT (Heavy
(Light to Medium duty: 2.3*V
duty: 2.89*V W/mm per ply)
W/mm per ply)
3 Ply 4 Ply 5 Ply 6 Ply 8 Ply
3 Ply 4 Ply 5 Ply 6 Ply
… … … … …
… … …. ….
Type of Load Load Correction Factor, Kload
1. Normal load 1.0
2. Steady load, e.g. Centrifugal pump, 1.2
fans, machine tools, conveyors.
3. Intermittent load, e,g, heavy duty
fans, blowers, compressors, 1.3
reciprocating pumps, line shafts
4. Shock load, e.g. vacuum pumps, 1.5
rolling mills, hammers, grinders
Arc of 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
contact
Contact 1.33 1.26 1.19 1.13 1.08 1.04 1.0 0.97 0.94
factor, Karc
Problem: Find the length of a suitable flat belt
(thickness of ply=2mm) that can transmit 11 kW
at 2000 rpm in a Conveyor system. Cd=2.5 m,
Ddriving_pulley =150 mm, Ddriven_pulley =450
mm, Ndriving_pulley =2000 rpm, μ=0.3. belt
material density = 970 kgf/m3
πdN Load Correction Factor, Kload=1.2

Belt velocity v = m/s
60 Contact factor, Karc=1+7*(1.04-1.0)/10
v = 15.708 m/s Karc=1.028
−1 ⎛ Ddriven − Ddriving ⎞ Width ( for one ply belt ) =
Contact angle, φ1 = π − 2 sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 Cd ⎠ 11000 ×1.2 ×1.028
φ1 = 3.0215 ⇒ φ1 = 173o 2.3 × 15.708
Power transmitted can be expressed as (T1 − T2 ) v = 11000
⇒ T1 − T2 = 11000 / 15.708 = 700.3 N
Let us choose a four ply belt having width = 100 mm
m = (970/9.81) (100/1000 ) (8 / 1000)
m = 0.0791 kg/m
T1 − mv 2 μφ1 T1 − 19.52
= e ⇒ = 2.4755
T2 − mv 2
T2 − 19.52
T1 − 2.4755 T2 = −28.802
T1=1194.4 N In earlier example belt width =152mm,

T1=1204.6 N, T2= 504.3 N.
T2= 494.14 N
Which one is better???
What will happen if angle of

contact is increase ???
T1 − mv 2 μφ1
= e
T2 − mv 2
Arc of Contact
Increasing angle of contact decreases
belt tension and increases belt life
φ 1 = 3 . 0215 T1 − 19.52
= 2.4755 ⇒ T1 − 2.4755 T2 = −28.8018 T2 = 494.1
T2 − 19.52
φ 1 = 3 . 1416 T1 − 19.52 T2 = 466.6
= 2.5663 ⇒ T1 − 2.5663 T2 = −30.5742
T2 − 19.52
T1 − 19.52 T2 = 441.3
φ 1 = 3 . 2617 = 2.6605 ⇒ T1 − 2.6605 T2 = −32.4130
T2 − 19.52
T1 − T2 = 700 .3 N ??? 10% Reduction in belt

tension
245
Cross Belt Drive to
increase Contact Angle
−1 ⎛ D2 + D1 ⎞
α = sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 Cd ⎠
φ1 = π + 2 α = φ2
⎛ D + D1 ⎞
Belt Length, L = 4 Cd2 − (D2 + D1 ) + 0.5 π (D1 + D2 ) + (D2 + D1 )sin −1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
2
⎝ 2 Cd ⎠
Homework: Find the length of a suitable flat belt
(for crossed belt drive) that can transmit 11 kW in a
Conveyor system. Cd=2.5 m, Ddriving_pulley=150 mm,
Ddriven_pulley=450 mm, Ndriving_pulley=2000 rpm,
μ=0.3. Assume each ply is 0.75 mm thick and density
of belt material is 950 kgf/m3 .
Answer: 5919 mm
Required pulley consists of rim, hub
and web.
V- Belts
Belt Cross Size range Required Pulley
Type section (mm)
V ht ht =6 to 23 Grooved/
Sheaves
Nominal Nominal Belt section Pitch Min. pitch dia.of
height width, W Width pulley, mm
6 10 Z (Occasionally) 8.5 50
8 13 A 11 75
11 17 B 14 125
14 22 C 19 200
19 32 D 27 355
23 38 E 32 500
247
Data on Standard V-belt
Sections
• Only certain discrete standard pitch lengths are
manufactured.
• Only certain recommended pitch pulley diameters are
preferred.
• A special pulley may be manufactured of course - but would
cost more than a mass- produced commercial product.
Catalogue A
Cross Drive Recommended Wt , ht , Weight
section load, min pulley mm mm per
Symbol kW pitch dia, mm meter,
kgf
A .75-7.5 75 13 8 0.106
B 2-15 125 17 11 0.189
C 7.5-75 200 22 14 0.343
D 22-150 355 32 19 0.596
E 30-190 500 38 23 -
Nominal inside length and pitch
lengths for standard V-Belts
Type Nominal inside length, mm Quantity to be added to
get Pitch length
A 660,787, 838, 889, 965, 1067, 1168, 1219, 33
1295, 1346, 1397, 1447, 1524, 1574, 1626,
1717
B 889, 965, 1067, 1168, 1219, 1295, 1346, 45
1397, 1447, 1524, 1574, 1626, 1676, 1727
C 1295, 1524, 1727, 1905, 2057, 2159, 2286, 74
2438, 2667, 2845, 3048, 3251, 3454, 3658
D 3048, 3251, 3658, 4013, 4115, 4394, 4572 84
E 4572, 4953, 5334, 6096, 6858, 7620, 8382 114
Designation: Cross-section B and inside length 1168 mm (46 inches) shall

be designated as: B 1168/46 IS: 2494….. A deviation of 2.5 mm in length
from nominal pitch length is represented by one unit… B 1168/46-49, B
1168/46-51
T+dT
Sin(180)=0.309
V-Belt Effective μ = 3.2361 μ
dφ dF
• Wedging action increases power transmitting T

capacity. T+dT
• Force components T, T+dT, and m v2 dφ are

same as those of flat belt. However, normal force
as shown in Fig. is different T
(T + dT ) cos(0.5 dφ ) − T cos(0.5 dφ ) − μ dN = 0
⇒ dT = μ dN Eq. (1)
(T + dT )sin(0.5 dφ ) + T sin(0.5 dφ ) − dN sin β − m v 2 dφ = 0
⇒ T dφ − dN sin β − m v 2 dφ = 0 Eq. (2)
m v2 dφ
Substituting dN from Eq. (1)
dT μ
T dφ − dT / μ sin β − mv 2 dφ = 0 ⇒ = dφ
( )
T − mv 2 sin β
T1 φ μ
dT μ 2 T1 − mv 2 φ2
∫( ∫ dφ sin β
On integration = ⇒ = e
T2
T − mv )
2
sin β 0 T2 − mv 2
Pulley
Important points pitch dia.,
inch
2, 2.25,
2.5, 3,
3.5, 4.0,
4.5, 5,
LP = 2 Cd +
π
(D1 + D2 )+ ( D2 − D1 )
2 6,7, 7.5,
9, 10,
2 4 Cd 10.5, 11,
12, 13,
⎛ D2 − D1 ⎞ 14, 15,
α = sin ⎜⎜
−1
⎟⎟ 18
⎝ 2 Cd ⎠ Cd ≥ D2
φ1 = π − 2 α
Cd ≤ 3 (D2 + D1 )
φ2 = π + 2 α
Example: Design a V-belt drive connecting 7.5 kW
motor (rated speed 1440 rpm, shaft 1.5 inch) to a
compressor. We need speed reduction = 3. Assume
coefficient of friction = 0.25. Max center dist=500 mm.
ANSWER: Load correction factor for compressor = 1.3 (slide
242).
ÆEffective power transmission = 1.3*7.5 = 9.75 kW
Æ Let us select V-belt with B-cross section (17×11) and weight
0.189 kgf/m. Minimum pitch diameter of driving pulley is 125 mm.
We can select pulley of 5 inch diameter.
Æ As speed reduction equal to 3 is required, therefore driven
pulley 3*5 inch = 15 inch.
Cd ≥ D2 and Cd ≤ 3 (D2 + D1 ) are satisfied.
252
LP = 2 Cd +
π
(D1 + D2 )+ ( D2 − D1 )
2
Let us choose nominal inside
2 4 Cd length = 1727 mm
⇒ LP = 1830.2 mm Æ Pitch length = 1772 mm.
16129
⇒ 1772 = 2 Cd + 780 +
Cd
or Cd2 − 496 Cd + 8064.5
Cd = 479.17 mm
−1 ⎛
D2 − D1 ⎞ πdN
α = sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⇒ α = 0.2682, φ1 = 2.6051 V= = 9.5756
60
⎝ 2 Cd ⎠
T1 − (0.189 / 9.81)* 9.5756 * 9.5756
T2 − (0.189 / 9.81)* 9.5756 * 9.5756
(
= exp 0.25 × φ1 / sin 18o ( ))
T1 − 1.7665
= 8.2282 ⇒ T1 − 8.2282 T2 = −12.7686
T2 − 1.7665
(T1 − T2 )V = 9.75 *1000 T1 = 1160.6 N
T1 − T2 = 1018 N T2 = 142.6 N
Example: We require a V-belt drive to connect 5 hp (3750 W)
motor (rated speed 1440 rpm, shaft 38mm) to a compressor. We
need speed reduction = 3. Assume coefficient of friction = 0.25.
Max center dist=650 mm. Calculate belt tensions and pitch length.
ANSWER: Load correction factor for compressor = 1.3 (slide

242).
ÆEffective power transmission = 1.3*3750 = 4875 W
Æ Let us select V-belt with A-cross section (13×8) and weight
0.106 kgf/m. Minimum pitch diameter of driving pulley is 75 mm.
We can select pulley of 3 inch diameter.
Æ As speed reduction equal to 3 is required, therefore driven
pulley 3*3 inch = 9 inch.
Cd ≥ D2 and Cd ≤ 3 (D2 + D1 ) are satisfied.
254
LP = 2 Cd +
π
(D1 + D2 )+ ( D2 − D1 )
2
Let us choose nominal inside
2 4 Cd length = 1717 mm
⇒ LP = 1787.7 mm Æ Pitch length = 1750 mm.
5804.6
⇒ 1750 = 2 Cd + 478.8 +
Cd
Cd = 631 mm
or Cd2 − 6356 Cd + 2903.2 = 0
−1 ⎛
D2 − D1 ⎞ πdN
α = sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⇒ α = 0.1121, φ1 = 2.8995 V= = 5.7453
⎝ 2 Cd ⎠ 60
T1 − (0.106 / 9.81)* 5.7453 * 5.7453

T2 − (0.106 / 9.81)* 5.7453 * 5.7453
(
= exp 0.25 × φ1 / sin 18o ( ))
T1 − 0.3567
= 10.441 ⇒ T1 − 10.441T2 = −3.3676
T2 − 0.3567
(T1 − T2 )V = 4875 T1 = 938.75 N
T1 − T2 = 848.52 N T2 = 90.25 N 255
BEARINGS
Mechanical
elements which
1. allow relative
motion between
two elements (i.e.
shaft & housing).
2. Bear load
Thrust load
Radial load
Combined load
256
1. Dry Contacts 3. Lamellar Solids
2. Chemical Films
5. Elastomers 6. Flexible Strips

4. Pressurized Lubricant Film
7. Rolling Elements 8. Magnetic

Field
Comparison of three bearing types
Rolling Element
Bearing
¾ “Rotation is always easier than linear motion”.

Low friction & moderate lubricant requirements
are two important advantages of rolling bearing.
¾ If you can buy it, don’t make it!

¾ Bearing selection….
~ 20,000 Varieties of bearings.
Conventional bearing steel to ceramics, with (out) cage (brass/polymers).
Pin.
Smallest bearings – few grams. Largest 70 Tonnes 259
I.I.T. Bombay
260
Failure of Four Row Cylindrical
Roller Bearing
Two large roller bearings – (ID = 865

mm, OD = 1180 mm) failed in a cold
rolling mill… Cost = Rs. 35,00,000 each
one bearing failed within 105 hours (installed on
05/01/03 and failed completely on 10/01/03), and
other failed within 300 hours of operation
(installed on 05/01/03 and removed on 24/01/03 due to
detection of excessive vibration and metal particles).
Expected life of bearings was approximately
40,000 operating hours
Survival rate 0.5% and 1.0%.
261
Failed Bearing
262
Bearing
subjected
to normal
load
263
In rolling mills the load is of
constant direction. Only a
quarter of the outer race is
under load. For this reason,
the side faces of the outer
races are divided into four
zones indicated by I to IV.
When the bearing is mounted
for the first time it is usual to
position zone I in the direction
of action of the load.
After a period of
approximately 1000 operating
hours (≅ 2 months), outer race
is turned 90°.
Conclusion: Rated bearing life = 4.* Life of one load zone.

Expected life of each load zone = 10,000 operating hours
Hole
Detailed survey of failed
bearing indicated placement
of hole on the line of
maximum load.
Four holes of 3/8” 10 UNC 3B

of 45mm depth were drilled
and tapped to facilitate the
handling of outer race.
• Withnew arrangement, no
complaint was received.
• Company informed us that they
received 70,00,000 from bearing
company based on IIT report.
III III
IV
W II W IV
II
I
I
(a) Earlier arrangement (b) New arrangement

Video Clips of
Rolling Element Bearings
267
Radial Load Axial Load
Ball Cylindrical roller Angular contact ball Tapered roller Spherical
roller
Ball Cylindrical roller

269
Cylindrical Roller Bearing
Higher coefficient of
friction because of small
diameter rollers and
rubbing action against
each other
270
Selection of bearing type
Cylindrical & Needle roller– Pure Radial Load
Cylindrical roller thrust, ball thrust, four point
angular contact ball bearings– Pure Axial load
Taper roller, spherical roller, angular contact
bearings– Combined load
Cylindrical roller, angular contact ball bearing–
High speed
Deep groove, angular contact, and cylindrical
roller bearing– High running accuracy
271
Rolling Element Bearings
Load Direction Misalignment
Capacity
Radial Axial Both High Med Low
Deep groove ball y y y
Cylindrical Roller y Some y
types
Needle y y
Taper Roller y y y y
Self Aligning Ball y y y
Self Aligning y y y
Spherical Roller
Angular contact y y y
ball
Thrust ball y y
Equivalent load: P = V X Fr + Y Fa
Equivalent load
P = V X Fr + Y Fa
V Rotation factor
X Radial factor
Fr Applied radial load
Y Thrust factor
Fa Applied thrust load
273
Bearing type Inner ring Single row Double row e
Rotating Stationary Fa/VFr > e Fa/VFr ≤ e Fa/VFr > e
Deep Fa/C0 V V X Y X Y X Y
groove .014 1 1.2 0.56 2.30 1 0 0.56 2.30 .19
ball .028 1.99 1.99 .22
bearing
.056 1.71 1.71 .26
.084 1.55 1.55 .28
.11 1.45 1.45 .3
.17 1.31 1.31 .34
.28 1.15 1.15 .38
.42 1.04 1.04 .42
.56 1.00 1.00 .44
Angular 20 1 1.2 .43 1.0 1 1.09 .70 1.63 .57
contact 25 .41 .87 .92 .67 1.44 .68
ball 30 .39 .76 .78 .63 1.24 .80
bearing 35 .37 .66 .66 .60 1.07 .95
40 .35 .57 .55 .57 .93 1.14
Self 1 1 .4 .4 1 .42 .65 .65 1.5
aligning cotα cotα cotα tanα
ball
bearing
Designation – International Organization for Standardization
Each rolling bearing is designed by a code that clearly indicates

construction, dimensions, tolerances and bearing clearance.
Multiply by 5 to get bore in mm 00 = 10mm

01= 12mm
d<10mm… 618/8 (d=8mm)
02 = 15mm
d>500 mm… 511/530 (d=530mm) 03 = 17mm
http://www.skf.com/portal/skf/home/products?newlink=first&lang=en
0 Double row angular contact ball bearings
1 Self-aligning ball bearings
2 Spherical roller bearings
3 Taper roller bearings
4 Double row deep groove ball bearings
5 Thrust ball bearings
6 Single row deep groove ball bearings
7 Single row angular contact ball bearings
8 Cylindrical roller thrust bearings
HK needle roller bearings with open ends
K Needle roller and cage thrust assemblies
N Cylindrical roller bearings
A second and sometimes a third letter are used to identify the
configuration of the flanges, e.g. NJ, NU, NUP; double or
multi-row cylindrical roller bearing designations always start
with NN.
QJ Four-point contact ball bearings
SRB TBB
ACBB
SABB TRB DGBB DGBB ACBB CRTB
In increasing order
In order of
increasing
outside
bearing
278
diameter
Deep Groove Ball Bearing Seals: Often made of
(DGBB): Both rings elastic rubber. Bearings
possess deep grooves. sealed on both sides are
Bearing can support high grease filled and in –normal
radial forces as well as axial working conditions the
forces. There are single-row grease filling lasts the entire
& double row DGBB. Widely service life of the bearings.
used in industry. Angular Contact Ball
Bearing (ACBB):
Cage/Separator: Ensures
Raceways are so arranged
uniform spacing and
that forces are transmitted
prevents mutual contact of
from one raceway to other
rolling elements.
under certain contact angle-
angle between line of action
Shield: Profiles sheet steel
of the force & radial plane.
discs pressed into the
Due to CA, ACBB are better
grooves of outer ring and
suited to sustain high axial
forming gap-type seals with
loads than DGBB.
the inner-ring shoulders.
Cylindrical roller bearings
280
Examples of basic codes
281
Suffix
61804 61804-2Z 61804-2RS1
282
Basic Dynamic Load Rating: C
Radial load (thrust load for thrust bearings) which a group
of identical bearings with stationary outer rings can
theoretically endure one million revolutions of inner ring.
Static Load Rating: C0

Radial load causing permanent deflection greater than
0.01% of ball dia.
284
Deep Groove Ball Bearing
RSH Æ Sheet steel reinforced contact seal of acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR) on

one side of the bearing. L stand for low friction.
Pressed brass
cage
E indicates reinforced ball set. TN9 indicates injection moulded snap type cage of glass fibre
reinforced polyamide
Example: Assume radial and axial loads on a bearing
are 7500N and 4500N respectively. Rotating shaft dia =
70 mm. Select a single row deep groove ball bearing.
Bearing type Inner Single row e

ring
Rotating Fa/VFr > e
Deep Fa/C0 V X Y
groove .014 1 0.56 2.30 .19
ball .028 1.99 .22
bearing
.056 1.71 .26
.084 1.55 .28
.11 1.45 .3
.17 1.31 .34
.28 1.15 .38
.42 1.04 .42
.56 1.00 .44
Fa/Fr = 0.6; Fa/C0=4500/31000 Æ X = 0.56, Y= 1.37; P=10365 292

Fa/C0=4500/68000 Æ X = 0.56, Y= 1.65; P=11625
Rolling Element Bearings-
Load Calculation: Tabular Approach
Load rating
C > P x fn x fL x fd
Where C = radial dynamic rating
P = calculated effective radial load
fn = speed (rpm) factor
fl = Life (hours) factor
fd = dynamic or service factor
Load classification Factor
Uniform 1.0
Light shock 1.5
Moderate shock 2.0
Heavy shock 3.0
293
294
Example 1: Radial load = 4448 N, Speed = 1000 rpm
Desired life= 30 000 hours, No Shock loading.
C > P x fn x fL x fd
fd = 1.0; P = 4 448 N, fn= 2.78; fl= 3.42
=> C > 42, 290 N
295
Revisiting example discussed in slide 292
Example: Assume radial and axial loads on a bearing are 7500N and
4500N respectively. Shaft dia = 70 mm. Select a deep groove ball bearing.
Consider shaft rotates at 1000 rpm and expected bearing life =
30000 hours
Fa/Fr = 0.6; Fa/C0=4500/31000 Æ P=10365

Fa/C0=4500/68000 Æ P=11625
C > P x fn x fl
fn= 2.78; fl= 3.42
Case 1: C = 98.55 kN
Case 2: C = 110. 53 kN
May be a good option for life = 1300 hr

296
Angular contact ball bearings are produced in a wide variety of
designs, such as:
– single row angular contact ball bearings
– double row (O, X, Tandem) angular contact ball bearings

– four-point contact ball bearings
In SKF catalogue
contact angle α =40° is
designated by suffix B.
Similarly contact angles
of 25° and 30° are
designated with suffixes
AC and A respectively.
Equivalent static
bearing load
P = 0.5 Fr + Y0Fa
SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGNATIONS
GA: Two bearings arranged back-to-back (or face to face)

will have a light preload before mounting.
GB: Two bearings arranged back-to-back (or face to face)
will have a moderate preload before mounting.
M: Machine brass cage, ball centered.
CA: Internal clearance smaller than normal (CB) before
mounting
E: Optimized internal design
J: Pressed steel cage, ball centered.
P: Glass fibre polyamide 66 pressed cage, ball centered.
PH: Glass fibre reinforced polyetheretherketone pressed
cage, ball centered.
Mathematical Approach
In ideal case, bearings fail by surface-fatigue.

Dynamic load rating (catalogue C0 reading) is the load which 90% (reliability=0.9)
of a group of identical bearings will sustain for minimum of 106 cycles.
(C ) 10
a 6
= P1a L1 = P2a L2 = P3a L3 1
⎡ 1 ⎤ 1.17
a=3 for ball bearings ⎢ log e ⎥
LR R
=⎢ ⎥
10 L90 ⎢ log 1 ⎥
a= for roller bearings ⎣
e
0.9 ⎦
3
a
⎛C ⎞ 1000,000
⇒ Bearing life in hours = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ P ⎠ 60 Speed
305
Example 2: Radial load = 2 224 N, Speed = 1500 rpm
Desired life= 8 hours/day, 5 day/weeks for 5 years, Light Shock
loading. For shaft dia of 25 mm.
C > 2224*1.5*(10400*1500*60/106)1/a
C > 32, 633 N for BALL BEARINGS
C > 25, 978 N for ROLLER BEARINGS
306
Example 3: A radial load of 3000N combined with thrust load of
2500N is to be carried on a 6214 ball bearing for 70 mm dia
rotating shaft at 1000 rpm. Determine equivalent radial load to be
used for calculating fatigue life. Compare life of 6214 bearing with
that for a 7214 (nominal contact angle 30°)
Step 1: C0 for 6214 is 45kN and 7214 is 60 kN. C for

6214 is 63.7 kN and 7214 is 71.5 kN
Step 2:
Bearing type Single row, Fa/VFr > e e
Deep groove ball bearing Fa/C0 X Y
.056 0.56 1.71 .26
Angular contact ball bearing 30 .39 .76 0.8
Step 3: Radial load for 6214 bearing is 5955N & for

7214 bearing radial load is 3070.
307
Step 4: Life for 6214 will be 20,400 hours and for 7214,
life=210,550 Hours
3
⎛ C ⎞ 1000,000
Bearing life in hours = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ P ⎠ 60 Speed
Homework: A single row cylindrical roller bearing N 205

ECP is subjected to pure radial load of 2800 N and rotational
speed = 1500 rpm. Estimate the bearing life for reliability = 0.99.
ANS: 3448 Hours
Homework: Select a suitable deep groove ball bearing for a

shaft of 30 mm dia rotating at 2000 rpm. Bearing needs to
support a radial load of 2000 N and axial load of 400 N.
Friction & Temperature-rise in REB
Friction in a loaded
bearing between
rolling elements and
raceways is a complex
phenomenon,
resulting partly from
elastic hysteresis.
Sliding resistance
occurs between rolling
elements at guiding
surfaces of the cage.
309
Sources of friction in Anti-friction
Bearings
1. Elastic hysteresis in Rolling

• μ≅0.0001 for Chrome
steel.
2. Sliding
3. Lubricant shearing
• τ=η du/dz
4. Seals
310
Load Dependent Friction Moment
M P = μ P (d/2)
M P = Frictional moment due to external (+ pre-) load, N.mm
μ = Coefficient of friction
P = Resultant load = Fr2 + Fa2 , N
d = Bore dia, mm Table: Coefficient of
friction for bearings
Bearing Type μ
Deep groove ball .0015
Generally μ is a function of Self aligning ball .001
load. Data given in Table are Angular contact ball .002
applicable for P = 0.1 C. Cylindrical roller .0011
Needle roller .0025
Lubricant and
Speed M L = 10 −7 f L (v N )2 / 3 d m3 if v N ≥ 2000
M L = (1.6e − 5) f L d m3 v N < 2000
Dependent if
ν = Operating viscosity of oil, mm 2 / s
Friction N = Rotational speed, rpm
Moment M L = Moment, N.mm
Table: Lubrication factor fL

Bearing Type Grease Oil Spot Oil Bath Vertical
Shaft in oil
bath
Deep groove ball .75-2 1 2 4
Self aligning ball 1.5-2 .7-1 1.5-2 3-4
Angular contact ball 2 1.7 3.3 6.6
Cylindrical roller .6-1 1.5-2.8 2.2 4
Needle roller 12 6 12 24
Seal Dependent Friction
Moment
2
⎛ Min dia + Max dia ⎞
M s = f 2 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ N.mm
⎝ f1 ⎠
Table: Friction factors for seals

Bearing Type f1 f2
Deep groove ball 20 10
Self aligning ball 20 10
Angular contact ball 20 10
Cylindrical roller 10 25
Needle roller 20 50
Total friction moment M = MP+ML+MS

313
Example: Estimate friction moment of 6214-RS1
bearing running at 1,200 rpm under 5000 N radial load
when jet lubricated by synthetic ester jet engine oil
having a viscosity of 6 mm2/s (cSt) at operating
temperature.
Ans: 468.5 N.mm
M P = μ P (Bore dia/2) Bearing Type μ

⇒ M P = 262.5 N .mm
v N = 6 × 6000 70 + 125
dm = = 97.5 mm
⇒ v N = 36000 2
M L = 10 −7 f L (v N )
2/3
d m3 if v N ≥ 2000
⇒ M L = 10 −7 ×1× (36000 )
2/3
(97.5 )
3
M L = 101
2
⎛ Min dia + Max dia ⎞
M s = f 2 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ f1 ⎠ Bearing Type f1 f2
M s = 105 N.mm Deep groove ball 20 10
Ans: 468.5 N.mm. If bearing is operating at 1200

rpm (20 rps), then power loss = 59 Watts.
Average coefficient of friction =
59/(5000*π*1200/60*0.07)=0.0027
Bearing Temperature
Dependence on total friction moment,
speed, extraneous heat source and heat
dissipation capability.
Ideally operating temp needs to be
atmospheric temp because bearing friction
is small.
Excluding extraneous heat, steady state
temperature of a bearing can be calculated
by balancing heat flow generated by
bearing and heat flow dissipated into
environment.
316
Heat dissipation rate Q R = Rate of heat generation Q L
Calculation of rate of heat generation ?

Heat flow dissipated to environment is calculated from
the difference between the bearing temperature and
ambient temperature, size of heat transfer surfaces and
heat flow density, which depends on cooling conditions.
⎧ 20,000 W / m 2 if d m B < 4000
⎪ − 0.34
q LB = ⎨ ⎛ dm B ⎞
⎪20000⎜ 4000 ⎟ W / m2
⎩ ⎝ ⎠
q LB [t − t amb ]K t (Min dia + Max Dia )π B = ω M

Heat flow Cooling factor Angular
density W/m2 speed
0.5 for warm environment
rad/s
1 for natural cooling
2.5 for forced cooling
Example: Estimate bearing operating temperature of
6214-RS1 bearing running at 6,000 rpm under 5000 N
radial load when jet lubricated by synthetic ester jet
engine oil having a viscosity of 6 mm2/s (cSt) at
operating temperature. Assume ambient temp = 30°C
and natural cooling of bearing.
Rate of heat generation = ω M

2πN ⎛ 468.5 ⎞ N .m
= ⎜ ⎟
60 ⎝ 1000 ⎠ s
2π (6000 ) ⎛ 468.5 ⎞ N .m
= ⎜ ⎟ = 294.4
60 ⎝ 1000 ⎠ s
⎛ 70 + 125 ⎞
dm B = ⎜ ⎟ 24 = 2340
⎝ 2 ⎠
q LB = 20,000 W / m 2 as d m B < 4000
⎛ 70 + 125 ⎞ ⎛ 24 ⎞
20000 [t − 30]⎜ ⎟π ⎜ ⎟ = 294.4
⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠
⇒ t = 30 + 1.0012
Bearing Mounting
Bearings are mounted on shaft and housing with
transition to Interference fit.
If interference fits exceed the internal radial
clearance, the rolling elements become preloaded.
C2, C3, C4 as
bearing suffix.
High operating
temperature
environment
requires larger
bearing
clearance.
IT Grade 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Lapping
Honing
Super finishing
Diamond turning
Plan grinding
Broaching
Reaming
Boring, Turning
Sawing
Milling
Planing, Shaping
Extruding
Cold Rolling, Drawing
Drilling
Die Casting
Forging
Sand Casting
Hot rolling, Flame cutting

Nominal Sizes (mm)
over 1 3 6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250
inc. 3 6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250 315
IT
Grade International tolerance grade of industrial processes.
1 0.8 1 1 1.2 1.5 1.5 2 2.5 3.5 4.5 6
2 1.2 1.5 1.5 2 2.5 2.5 3 4 5 7 8
3 2 2.5 2.5 3 4 4 5 6 8 10 12
4 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16
5 4 5 6 8 9 11 13 15 18 20 23
6 6 8 9 11 13 16 19 22 25 29 32
7 10 12 15 18 21 25 30 35 40 46 52
8 14 18 22 27 33 39 46 54 63 72 81
9 25 30 36 43 52 62 74 87 100 115 130
10 40 48 58 70 84 100 120 140 160 185 210
11 60 75 90 110 130 160 190 220 250 290 320
12 100 120 150 180 210 250 300 350 400 460 520
13 140 180 220 270 330 390 460 540 630 720 810
14 250 300 360 430 520 620 740 870 1000 1150 1300
Preload ????
Negative internal clearance before operation.
Preload on rolling element bearing results

constant elastic compressive forces on rolling
element and raceway surfaces at their
contact points.
This makes the bearing extremely rigid and increases
the natural frequency of the shaft, which is suitable
for high speed operation.
This improves running accuracy and locating accuracy.
Preload is also used to prevent or suppress shaft
runout, vibration, and noise.
Example: We need to choose 03/04 bearing.
Tolerances:
Allowable
0 μm< IF< 12 μm
Loose Preloading
Achievable
IT Grade 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Lapping
Honing
Super finishing
Diamond turning
Plan grinding
Boring, Turning
Nominal Sizes IT Grade 2 3 4 5 6
(mm) Lapping
over 10 18 Honing
Super finishing
inc. 18 30
IT Grade
0.1° misalignment results 52 μm preloading for 30 mm
1 1.2 1.5 length
2 2 2.5 0.01° misalignment results 5 μm preloading.
3 3 4
4 5 6
5 8 9
6 11 13
7 18 21
8 27 33
9 43 52
10 70 84
11 110 130
12 180 210
13 270 330
14 430 520
Example: Estimate bearing operating temperature of 6214-RS1
bearing running at 6,000 rpm under 1000 N radial load when jet
lubricated by synthetic ester jet engine oil having a viscosity of 6
mm2/s (cSt) at operating temperature. Assume ambient temp =
30°C, ball dia=6 mm, preloading of bearing = 10 microns, and
forced cooling of bearing.
If we consider only applied force
Bearing Type μ
M P = μ P (Bore dia/2) Deep groove ball .0015
⇒ M P = 52.5 N .mm
To consider effect of preloading we can use static load capacity provided in

catalogue. As per its definition load equal to static load capacity causes
permanent deflection greater than 0.01% of ball dia. In other words load
equivalent of 45000 N causes 0.01/100*6000=0.6 microns plastic
deformation of rolling elements. As per one engineering guess, if a ball is
deflected to 100 microns, then 99 microns will be elastic deformation Î
45000 N is causing 60 micron deflection of rolling element
For rolling elements relation between deflection and load is
expressed by
2
δ1 W1 3
= 2
δ2 W 3
2
2
3 ⎛ 45000 2 / 3 ⎞3 / 2
10 W1
= 2
→ W1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
60 (45000 ) 3 ⎝ 6 ⎠
Preload W1 = 45000 /(6^1.5) = 3062 N
Friction moment due to applied force + pre -load

M P = μ P (Bore dia/2)
⇒ M P = 213.3 N .mm M s = 105 N.mm
M L = 10 −7 f L (v N )
2/3
d m3 if v N ≥ 2000 Total moment = 419.3 N.mm
( )
⇒ M L = 10 −7 ×1× (36000 )2 / 3 97.53 ⇒ M L = 101
2πN ⎛ 419.3 ⎞ N .m N .m
= ⎜ ⎟ = 263.5
60 ⎝ 1000 ⎠ s s
⎛ 70 + 125 ⎞
dm B = ⎜ ⎟ 24 = 2340
⎝ 2 ⎠
q LB = 20,000 W / m 2 as d m B < 4000
⎛ 70 + 125 ⎞ ⎛ 24 ⎞
20000 [t − 30](2.5)⎜ ⎟π ⎜ ⎟ = 263.5
⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠
⇒ t = 30 + 0.36
Revisiting example discussed in slide 128
Example: Design a shaft that must transmit 2 hp at 1725 rpm. Shaft is loaded
with a spur gear and a sheave.
Fg
Fr
R2 x = −234.7 N ; R2 y = 44 N ; Addition: We require

DGBB for 20000
R1x = 32.7 N ; R1 y = 66 N operating hours. 329
ANS: d1=11.7 mm
d2=15.0 mm
d3=09.8 mm
Radial load on bearing 1, P1 = 66 2 + 32.7 2 ⇒ P1 = 74 N

Radial load on bearing 2, P2 = 234.7 2 + 44 2 ⇒ P2 = 239 N
C1 > 74*(20000*1725*60/106)1/3
C1 > 943.1 N
C2 > 239*(20000*1725*60/106)1/3
C2 > 3046 N
330
Choose appropriate bearing…
Variable Loading 1
⎛ P1a L1 + P2a L2
+ P3a L3+ ... ⎞ a
Often bearings are P = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ L1 + L2 + L3 + ... ⎠
subject to variable
loading: a = 3 for ball bearings
Bearing operates at 10
1000 rpm and a= for roller bearings
applied load of 500 N 3
for 100 hours, then L1, L2 , L3 ,... Number of rotations
bearing operates at
1200 rpm and 250 N IF L = expected life, then
for 250 hours….
( )
1
In such situation it is ⎛ P1a L1+ P2a L2
+ P3a L3+ ... L ⎞ a
P = ⎜⎜ ⎟
advisable to find an ⎝ (L1 + L2 + L3 + ...) L ⎟⎠
equivalent load
P = (P1 f1 + P2 f 2 + P3 f 3 + ...) a
1
using a a a
332
Example: A ball bearing is run at four piecewise load and speed
conditions.
Time Speed, Product, Rotation Applied

fraction rpm column 1*2 fraction load, kN
0.1 1000 100 0.0333 4
0.2 2000 400 0.1333 3
0.3 3000 900 0.3 2
0.4 4000 1600 0.5333 1
P= (
P13 f1 + P23 f 2 + P33 f 3 + P43 f 4 )
1
3
(
P = 8.6636 × 10 9
)
1
3
= 2054 N
When to select REB
Noise reduction & damping (energy
absorption)…??
Frequent start & stop
Load increases with speed.
Position of shaft
Friction loss
Cost
334
Inner Ring Rollers
Reduction in coefficient of friction: Belt design
Fresh oil Used oil

Aim: To reduce shear strength
of interface
LUBRICATION
Process by which the
friction in a moving
contact is reduced. Six
distinct form of
lubrication are:
Hydrodynamic
Hydrostatic
Elastohydrodynamic
Mixed
Boundary
Solid film
338
Quantification of LUBRICATION using
dimensionless film parameter Λ (“Specific
film thickness)
hmin
Λ=
2
Rrms ,a + R 2
rms ,b
Solid-film
Boundary
lubrication, Λ<1
Mixed lubrication,
1<Λ<3
Hydrodynamic
lubrication, Λ>5 Dependence of
Hydrostatic hmin of
Elastohydrodynamic roughness
, 3<Λ<5
340
¾ Root-mean-square 1 l 2
deviation Rq = ∫ z ( x ) dx
l 0
341
To understand functioning of lubricants one
needs to understand Dry FRICTION
Leonardo da vinci(1452-1519): Fα W;F ≠ A
¾ “Friction made by same weight will be of equal
resistance at the beginning of movement,
although contact may be of different breadths or
length”
¾ “Friction produces the double the amount of
effort if weight be doubled”
G.Amontons, 1699: Fα Fn; F ≠ A
342
μ static ≥ μ kinetic
¾C.A.Coulomb 1781 (1736-1806):

1)Clearly distinguished between static & kinetic friction
2)Contact at discrete points.
3)Friction due to interlocking of rough surfaces
4)No adhesion
5)f ≠ func(v) 343
TOMLINSON’s Theory of Molecular attraction: 1929
Relation between friction coefficient & elastic properties of
material involved.
f = 1 . 07 * [θ I +θ II ]2 / 3 E is young modulus, Mpsi

3 . E + 4 .G
θ = G is modulus in shear, Mpsi
G (3 .* E + G )
Clean Steel E=30 Mpsi, G=12 Mpsi
0.6558
Aluminum E=10 Mpsi, G=3.6 Mpsi
Titanium E=15.5 Mpsi G=6.5 Mpsi
0.5039
344
Bowden & Tabor Model
Two friction sources
Generally load on bearing surface is carried
on just a few points. These are subjected
to heavy unit pressure, and so probably
weld together. Adhesion force developed at
real area of contact.
Deformation force needed to plough
asperities of harder surface through softer.
Resulting friction force is sum of two
contributing terms
Adhesion = Attractive force across an interface

Interface = Contact boundary between two surfaces.
345
ADHESION Theory
346
Coefficient of
friction > 1.0 ????
ADHESION Theory
• Two surfaces are pressed together under load W.

• Material deforms until area of contact (A) is sufficient to support
load W. A = W/H.
• To move the surface sideway, must overcome shear strength of
junctions with force F F=As
348
Shear stress of softer of contacting materials
s
W = Areal H F = Areal s μ=
H
For most of untreated
materials H = 3σy & s
= σy /1.7321
Expected value of μ
=.2
Friction of metals
arises from strong
adhesion or welding at
the regions of real
contact.
Similar & dissimilar
materials?????
349
PLOUGHING Effect
Ploughing occurs when two bodies in
contact have different hardness. The
asperities on the harder surface may
penetrate into the softer surface and
produce grooves on it, if there is relative
motion.
Assume n conical asperities of hard metal in contact with
flat soft metal, vertically project area of contact:
(
A = n 0.5 * πr 2 )
W = n(0.5 * πr ) H 2
F = (nrh) H
2
μ= cot θ
π 350
Coefficient of friction vs cone angle
4
3.5
2.5
Coefficient of friction
2
1.5
.5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Cone angle
For θ = 45° μ = 0.6366

For θ = 60° μ = 0.3676
For θ = 80° μ = 0.1123
Generally slopes of real surfaces are lesser
than 10° (i.e. θ> 80°), therefore μ ≅ 0.1.
Conclusion: Total μ , representing contribution for
both ploughing and adhesion terms, should not
exceed 0.3. For same material, μ = 0.2.
Junction Growth
2
⎛ δW ⎞
δA.τ y = ⎜ ⎟ + δF
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ F =f (A) ????
Friction increases area of contact
Constant 352
Limiting Junction Growth
Presence of weak interfacial films.
Assume shear stress, τi.
Fmax = τ i Amax ⎛ δW ⎞
δA.τ y = ⎜
2
⎟ + δF
2
⎝ 2 ⎠
Fmax τ i Amax
μ= =
W 2 (τ y2 − τ i2 ) Amax
2
τi
μ=
2 (τ y2 − τ i2 )
Understanding this mechanism motivates to apply thin film
of low shear strength materials to the surfaces.
353
Contamination is beneficial
in reducing friction
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATION
“Metal surfaces of this (↑) type have initial μ = [0.1, 0.3]. Higher
values are reached if surfaces continue to slid over each other.” To
get true μ we need to degas the surface metal and perform
354
experiments in high vacuum conditions.
μ for mixed lubrication = 0.01 – 0.1
μ for elastohydrodynamic lubrication = 0.001 – 0.01
355
356
357
Boundary Lubrication
Fig. Friction bounce
358
Boundary Lubrication
Table: Coefficient of friction influenced by %
of polar lubricant on steel surfaces.
Lubricant Friction
Coefficient
Pure mineral oil Low viscosity 0.360
2% oleic acid in mineral oil 0.249
Pure oleic acid High viscosity 0.195
High viscosity requires higher pumping power. Therefore 359
little percentage of boundary additives is used.

Material Tensile Solid film
strength, MPa lubrication
Lead babbit 69
Tin babbit 79 τi
μ adhesion =
Copper lead 55 2 (τ y2 − τ i2 )
Silver 160
Aluminum alloy 150
Tin bronze 310
Zinc alloy 320
Steel 520
Stainless steel 400
PTFE 21
Carbon graphite 14 μtotal = μ ploughing + μ adhesion
Nylon 79
Bimetallic babbit overlay
bearings.
Trimetallic copper/lead
bearings.
Aluminum bearings (less
expensive to manufacturer than
bimetal or trimetal copper/lead
bearings. Switching to aluminum
also gets rid of lead)
Homework: Estimate bearing operating temperature of
6214 bearing running at 6,000 rpm under 5000 N radial
load. Assume bearing surfaces are lubricated with
molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) solid film lubrication
mechanism. Shear strengths of bearing materials, bearing
-MoS2 interface and MoS2- MoS2 interface are 250 MPa, 50
MPa and 20 MPa respectively. Assume ambient temp =
30°C, ploughing component of friction coefficient is
negligible and natural cooling of bearing.
NOTE: It is preferable to use boundary or solid lubricant as

additives in liquid lubricant. For liquid lubricant main properties
is viscosity. Under boundary & mixed lubrication, liquid
lubricants work as carrier fluids.
Absolute viscosity Constant of
VISCOSITY Dynamic viscosity proportionality
Consider surface 1 is
moving with a velocity V
on a film of thickness h.
Imagine film is composed
of series of horizontal
layers and force F
du η
causing these layers to τ =η ; ν=
deform/slide on one dy ρ
another just like a deck 2
of card. m
η in Pa.s ; ν in
s
363
Viscosity
Physical property-resistance to flow.
Due to internal friction and molecular
phenomena .
Dynamic Viscosity
o 1 cP=10-3 Pa.s
Kinematic Viscosity
o 1 cSt = 1 mm2/s Grades of Oils:
• SAE– (Society of
Automotive Engineers)
ISO
364
Variation of viscosity with temp: Increase in
temp decreases intermolecular forces.
SAE ISO Viscosity In mPa.s VI
grade grade 400c 1000c 1300c
10W 32 32.6 5.57 3.20 107

20W 68 62.3 8.81 5.01 118
SAE 30 100 100 11.9 6.25 110
SAE 40 150 140 14.7 8.0 102
5W-20 46 38 6.92 4.17 140
10W-30 68 66.4 10.2 5.7 135
10W-40 100 77.1 14.4 8.4 193
10W-50 ------ 117 20.5 10.53 194
365
VISCOSITY INDEX: Qualitative
comparison index
• Pennsylvanian oil~VI=100
• gulf coast oil ~ VI=0
L-U
VI = *100
L-H
Y is viscosity in
⎛ ⎡ logH - logU ⎤ ⎞
⎜ antilog ⎢ ⎥ − 1⎟⎟ cSt at 100°C
⎜ for fluid of
⎝ ⎣ logY ⎦ ⎠
If VI > 100, then VI = + 100 interest.
0.00715
An oil with VI = 240 has less rate of viscosity change with

temperature compared to oil with VI 100.
Logarithmic scale
367
− β (t −tin )
η = ηin e
η
log e ⎛⎜ in ⎞⎟
Walther' s Equation
⎝ η⎠ log log( cS + 0.6) = constant − c log T
⇒β =
(t − tin )
SAE Viscosity In mPa.s β
grade 400c 1000c 1300c
10W 32.6 5.57 3.20 0.0294

20W 62.3 8.81 5.01 0.0326
SAE 30 100 11.9 6.25 0.0355
SAE 40 140 14.7 8.0 0.0376
5W-20 38 6.92 4.17 0.0284
10W-30 66.4 10.2 5.7 0.0312
10W-40 77.1 14.4 8.4 0.0284
10W-50 117 20.5 10.53 0.0401
Homework: Estimate bearing operating temperature of
6214 bearing running at 6,000 rpm under 5000 N radial load.
Oil bath lubrication mechanism is employed. The viscosity of
oil at room temperature is 27 mm2/s (cSt). Assume ambient
temp = 30°C, β=0.03/°C and natural cooling of bearing.
M P = μ P (Bore dia/2) Bearing Type μ

⇒ M P = 262.5 N .mm
Generally v ≥ 1, thereforeν N > 2000 Lubrication factor fL
Bearing Type Oil Bath
−7
f L (v N )
2/3
M L = 10 d m3 Q v N > 2000
Deep groove ball 2
(
⇒ M L = 10 −7 × 2 × (v )2 / 3 (6000 )2 / 3 97.53 ) 70 + 125
M L = 61.23 (v )
2/3 dm = = 97.5 mm
2
M = M P + M L = 262.5 + 61.23 (v )
2/3
N .mm
=
2πN ⎛ 262.6 + 61.23 ν 2 / 3
⎜
( )⎞⎟ N .m
60 ⎜⎝ 1000 ⎟ s
⎠
(
= 0.6283 262.6 + 61.23 ν ( ))
2 / 3 N .m
s
⎛ 70 + 125 ⎞
dm B = ⎜ ⎟ 24 = 2340 q LB = 20,000 W / m 2 as d m B < 4000
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 70 + 125 ⎞ ⎛ 24 ⎞
20000 [Δt ](1)⎜ π
⎟ ⎜
⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠
⎟ = 0 . 6283 262 (
. 6 + 61 . 23(27 exp( − 0 . 3 Δt )2/3
)
⎛ 70 + 125 ⎞ ⎛ 24 ⎞
20000 [Δt ](1)⎜ ⎟π ⎜
⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠
(
⎟ = 0.6283 262.6 + 61.23(27 exp(−0.3 Δt )
2/3
)
(
Δt = 0.0021 262.6 + 551 (exp(−0.3 Δt )
2/3
)
Iteration 1 : Δt = 0 ⇒ Δt = 1.7083
Iteration 2 : Δt = 1.7083 ⇒ Δt = 2.1796
Iteration 3 : Δt = 2.1796 ⇒ Δt = 2.3406
Iteration 4 : Δt = 2.3406 ⇒ Δt = 2.3991
Convergence !!!
FLUID FILM Λ>5
BEARINGS
Machine elements designed to produce smooth (low
friction) motion between solid surfaces in relative motion
and to generate a load support for mechanical
components.
Fluid between surfaces may be a gas, liquid or solid.
Word film implies that fluid thickness (clearance) separating
the surfaces is several orders of magnitude smaller than
other dimensions of bearing (width & length).
Successful design requires film thickness to be larger than
the micro asperities on the surfaces, operation without
contact of surfaces.
Operation principles of liquid film bearings are
hydrodynamic, hydrostatic or combination.
372
Hydrodynamic Hydrostatic
4/6/8 pockets
Axial coordinate Axial coordinate

Hydrodynamic Hydrostatic
Relative motion between two External source of pressurized
mechanical surfaces is utilize the fluid is required to levitate the
generate pressure and levitate shaft surface and separate it
one surface relative to other from bearing surface.. Costly
surface…. Self-acting
Load support is a function of Load support is a weak function
lubricant viscosity. of lubricant viscosity.
HDL provided an infinite bearing Infinite life if supporting ancillary
life equipments function well
Able to damp the external Able to control the effect of
vibrations. external vibration.. Active control
Requires lubricant flow to Require pressurized lubricant.
compensate the leakage from
bearing ends.
Significant difference in static & Almost same value of coefficient
kinetic friction coefficients of frictions.
High relative speed generates Very good control on the shaft
much higher load capacity & position.
destabilize the shaft-system.
Petroff’s
Equation
Friction = Shear Stress * Area
F = (Viscosity* V/h)*Area
V = 2πRN ; A = 2πRL
η * 2πRN * 2πRL
Friction force, F =
C
F
Coefficient of friction, μ =
W
η * 2πRN * 2πRL / C
⇒μ=
2 RLP
Conclusion: Coefficient of
2 ηN R
→ μ = 2π friction is a function of
P C
speed, load and viscosity
C is radial clearance 375
Temperature Rise
Friction, due to shear of lubricant film,
generates heat (F×V)) in lubricant oil and
increases the temperature of lubricant.
Assuming that total generated heat is
carried by the oil flowing through bearing
Heat generated = Heat convected by oil flow
η (2 π R N )(2 π R L )
(2 π R N ) = m CP Δt
C
ρ = 860 kg / m3
η (2 π R )3 N 2
or Δt =
C m CP
L
(
C P = 1760 J / kg oC )
η (2 π R )3 N 2 R
or Δt = L = 1000
⎛ 2πRN ⎞ C
C ⎜ρ C L ⎟ CP
⎝ 2 ⎠
( )
η 8π 2 N ⎛ R ⎞
2 Δt = 52.2η N
or Δt = ⎜ ⎟
(ρ ) C P ⎝ C ⎠
Δt = 52.2η N Assume rotational speed = 900 rpm
In hydrodynamic lubrication, increase in viscosity
Δt = 783η increases load capacity but also increases
friction. We require Reynolds equation.
SAE Viscosity in Viscosity in

grade mPa.s 400c mPa.s 1000c
25.5258 10W 32.6 5.57 4.3660
48.7809 20W 62.3 8.81 6.8982
78.3000 SAE 30 100 11.9 9.3177
109.6200 SAE 40 140 14.7 11.5101
29.7540 5W-20 38 6.92 5.4184
51.9912 10W-30 66.4 10.2 7.9866
60.3693 10W-40 77.1 14.4 11.2752
91.6110 10W-50 117 20.5 16.0515
Reynolds Equation
A basic pressure distribution equation for “Fluid
Film Lub.”
In 1886, Reynolds derived for estimation of
pressure distribution in the narrow, converging
gap between two surfaces.
Reynolds equation helps to predict hydrodynamic,
squeeze, and hydrostatic film mechanisms.
Reynolds' equation
∂ ⎛ h 3 ∂ P ⎞ ∂ ⎛ h 3 ∂P ⎞ ⎧∂ ∂ ⎫
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 6 ⎨ (U 1 + U 2 )h + (W1 + W2 )h + 2(Vh − V0 )⎬
∂x ⎝ η ∂x ⎠ ∂z ⎝ η ∂z ⎠ ⎩ ∂x ∂z ⎭
378
U1
U2=0
No pressure development within the parallel surfaces.
U1
U1
379
Pressure driven flow
380
Small element of
Fluid with sides
dx, dy, and dz
⎛ ∂τ ⎞ ⎛ ∂p ⎞
Force balance : pdy.dz + ⎜⎜τ + dy ⎟⎟dx.dz = ⎜ p + dx ⎟dy.dz + τdx.dz
⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ⎠
∂u
For Newtonian flow τ = η
∂P ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ∂y
= ⎜⎜η ⎟⎟
∂x ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠
381
∂P ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞
= ⎜⎜η ⎟⎟
∂u ∂P ∂x ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠
On integration :η = y + C1
∂y ∂x
∂P y 2
→ ηu = + C1 y + C2
∂x 2
Using boundary conditions : y = 0, u = U 2 ;

y = h, u = U 1
η (U1 − U 2 ) ∂P h
ηU 2 = C 2 , − = C1
h ∂x 2
⎛ y 2 − yh ⎞ ∂P y
⎜
⇒u =⎜ ⎟
⎟ + (U1 − U 2 ) + U 2 Check !!!
⎝ 2η ⎠ ∂x h
382
Flow rate in x - direction per unit width :
h
q x = ∫ u.dy
0
h 3 ∂P h
qx = − + (U1 + U 2 )
12η ∂x 2 Check !!!
Similarly flow rate in z - direction

h
q z = ∫ w.dy
0
h 3 ∂P h
qz = − + (W1 + W2 )
12η ∂z 2
Reynolds equation is derived using mass continuity equation

∂q x ∂q z
+ (Vh − V0 ) + =0
∂x ∂z
383
Reynolds' equation
∂ ⎛ h 3 ∂P ⎞ ∂ ⎛ h 3 ∂P ⎞ ⎧∂ ∂ ⎫
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 6⎨ (U1 + U 2 )h + (W1 + W2 )h + 2(Vh − V0 )⎬
∂x ⎝ η ∂x ⎠ ∂z ⎝ η ∂z ⎠ ⎩ ∂x ∂z ⎭
Stretching action Wedge

action Squeeze action
(inclined (bearing
surfaces surfaces move
perpendicular to
∂ ⎛ 1 ∂P ⎞ ⎧∂ ⎫
Simplification I : h 3 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 6(U1 + U 2 )⎨ h ⎬ each other)
∂z ⎝ η ∂z ⎠ ⎩ ∂x ⎭
High loads
Can carry
∂ ⎛ h 3 ∂P ⎞
for short
⎧∂ ⎫
duration
Simplification II : ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 6(U1 + U 2 )⎨ h⎬
∂x ⎝ η ∂x ⎠ ⎩ ∂x ⎭
Comparison among pressure profiles at z = 0
7000000
6000000 Simplification II
5000000
plong in green color
4000000
Pressure
3000000
2000000
Simplification I
1000000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
θ
Length/diameter
=0.25
1.4E8
Simplification I
1.2E8
pshort in red
1E8
8E7
Pressure
6E7
4E7
2E7
Simplification II
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
θ
Length/ diameter = 2.5

22000000 pshort in red Simplification I
2E7
18000000
16000000
14000000
Pressure
12000000
1E7
8000000
Simplification II
6000000
4000000
2000000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
θ
Length/diameter = 1.0
Short Static Bearing
∂ ⎛ 1 ∂P ⎞ ⎧∂ ⎫
h3
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 6(U1 + U 2 )⎨ h ⎬
∂z ⎝ η ∂z ⎠ ⎩ ∂x ⎭
∂ 2 P 6Uη dh
= 3
∂z 2
h dx
dp 6Uη dh
= 3 z using max pressure condition dp/dz = 0 at z = 0
dz h dx
3Uη dh ⎛ 2 L2 ⎞
p= 3 ⎜⎜ z − ⎟⎟ using p = 0 at z = ± L/2
h dx ⎝ 4⎠
388
Film thickness, h, depends on geometry of tribo-pair. For
example, in journal bearing h = Cr + e cosθ
Using expression of h in following equation

3Uη dh ⎛ 2 L2 ⎞ e
p= 3 ⎜z − ⎟ ; dx = R dθ ; ε = θ
h dx ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ Cr
3Uη ⎛ ε sin θ ⎞⎛ 2 L ⎞
2
p= 2 3 ⎜
− ⎟⎜⎜ z − ⎟⎟
Cr (1 + ε cos θ ) ⎝ R ⎠⎝ 4⎠
389
Load capacity of short journal
bearing θ
Load component in direction of line of centres

π L2 UηL3 2ε 2
Wθ = ∫ ∫ p.( Rdθ .dz ). cos θ ⇒ Wθ =
0 −L 2 (
2Cr2 1 − ε 2 )
2 φ
Load component perpendicular to line of centres

π L2 W
UηL3π ε
Wr = ∫ ∫ p.( Rdθ .dz ). sin θ ⇒ Wr =
0 −L 2 (
4Cr2 1 − ε 2 )
3
2
1/ 2
UηL π 3
ε ⎧⎛ 16 ⎞ 2 ⎫
Wθ + Wr2 ⎨⎜ 2 − 1⎟ε + 1⎬
2
⇒W = =
(
4Cr2 1 − ε 2 )
2
⎩⎝ π ⎠ ⎭
Wr π 1− ε 2
tan φ = ⇒ tan φ =
Wθ 4 ε
Locking of Journal
Position ε =1
φ =0
W = Max value
ε =0
φ =π2
W =0
0 < ε <1
0 <φ <π
2
0 < W < Wmax
Journal OD φ
Bearing ID
391
Lesser the attitude angle, better the stability of bearing.
eccentricity ratio vs. attitude angle

90
80 0+ 5 = 5 N
70 10 + 5 = 15 N
60 100 + 5 = 105 N
Attitude angle
50 1000 + 5 = 1005 N
40
30
20
10
0
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
Eccentricity ratio
392
Friction force in Journal Bearing
Petroff equation (explained on slide 375)--- inaccurate
U dp h h = Cr + e cosθ
τ =η + ; F = ∫ τ dA
h dx 2
L/2 π
⎛ U ⎞
F = ∫ ∫ ⎜η + 0 ⎟Rdθ .dz
−L / 2 0 ⎝ h ⎠
1/ 2
2ηULRπ UηL π 3
ε ⎧⎛ 16 ⎞ 2 ⎫
F= ⇒W = ⎨⎜ 2 − 1⎟ε + 1⎬
Cr 1 − ε 2 (
4Cr2 1 − ε 2 ) 2
⎩⎝ π ⎠ ⎭
If εÆ 0, F Æ Petroff solution
393
Temperature Rise
Friction, due to shear of lubricant film,
generates heat (F×V)) in lubricant oil and
increases the temperature of lubricant.
Assuming that total generated heat is
carried by the oil flowing through bearing
Heat generated = Heat convected by oil flow
F (2 π R N ) = m C P Δt
F (2 π RN )
or Δt = ρ = 860 kg / m3
⎛ 2πRN ⎞
⎜ρ
⎝ 2
Cr L ⎟ C P
⎠ (
C P = 1760 J / kg oC )
2F
or Δt =
(ρ Cr L ) C P
1 F
or Δt =
756800 (Cr L )
Design of Hydrodynamic Journal
Bearing
1. Guess eccentricity
ratio UηL3π ε ⎧⎛ 16 ⎞ 2 ⎫
1/ 2
W= ⎨⎜ 2 − 1⎟ε + 1⎬
2. Calculate load (
4Cr2 1 − ε 2 )
2
⎩⎝ π ⎠ ⎭
capacity, friction
2ηULRπ
force, temperature F=
rise. Cr 1 − ε 2
3. Modify lubricant 1 F
viscosity. Δt =
4. Repeat steps 1-3 756800 (Cr L )
so that average
viscosity and load − β (t −tin )
η = ηin e
converge.
395
Ex: Determine the minimum film thickness, maximum pressure, coefficient of
friction for a hydrodynamic journal bearing, which supports a 600 N load at
rotational speed of 2000 rpm. The shaft dia is 40 mm. Assume bearing length
= 10 mm, oil viscosity at room temp (30°C) = 15 mPa.s, β=0.029, and radial
clearance 20 μm.
Given: U = 4.19 m/s. Factor1 = U*L3*π*0.25/(Cr2)=8227 m2 /s,

Factor2 = 2*U*L*R* π /Cr ,
1/ 2
UηL3π ε ⎧⎛ 16 ⎞ 2 ⎫
STEP 1: Assume ε = 0.5 Æ W = 118 N W= ⎨⎜ 2 − 1⎟ε + 1⎬
(
4Cr2 1 − ε 2 )
2
⎩⎝ π ⎠ ⎭
Assume ε = 0.75 Æ W = 562 N

STEP 2: Assume ε = 0.8 Æ W = 900 N, F = 6.58 N, Δt=43.5°C
1/ 2
ε ⎧⎛ 16 ⎞ 2 ⎫
W = (Factor1)η ⎨⎜ 2 − 1⎟ε + 1⎬
(1 − ε )
2 2
⎩⎝ π ⎠ ⎭
η (Factor 2)
F= Δt = 6.607 F
1− ε 2
396
STEP 3: Modify viscosity using
− β (t −tin )
η = ηin e
at Δt = 43.5o C η = 0.0042
STEP 4: For ε = 0.8 Æ W = 252 N, F = 1.84 N, Δt=12.2°C,

η=0.0105Æ W = 630.2 N, F = 4.6 N, Δt=30.4°C.
Now it is preferable to increase ε. Let us assume ε = 0.82 and

Δt=21 °C Æ W = 613.5 N, F = 3.8 N, Δt=24.9°C, η=0.0073Æ W
= 546.2 N, F = 3.4 N, Δt=22.2°C. η=0.0077Æ W = 576 N, F =
3.5 N, Δt=23.4°C.
Now it is preferable to increase ε. Let us assume ε = 0.83 and

Δt=23 °C Æ W = 649 N, F = 3.6 N, Δt=24°C.
π 1− ε 2
tan φ =
Answer ε = 0.82 φ = 28.7o 4 ε
Minimum film thickness, hmin = C (1 − ε )
hmin = 20 (1 − 0.82 ) ⇒ hmin = 3.6 micron
Maximum pressure will occur at z = 0

3Uη ⎛ ε sin θ ⎞⎛⎜ 2 L ⎞⎟
2
p= 2 3⎜
− ⎟⎜ z − ⎟
Cr (1 + ε cos θ ) ⎝ R ⎠⎝ 4⎠
⇒ p= 2
( −
)
3(ω R ) ηin e − β Δt ⎛ ε sin θ ⎞⎛ L2 ⎞
⎟⎜⎜ 0 − ⎟⎟
3 ⎜
Cr (1 + ε cos θ ) ⎝ R ⎠⎝ 4⎠
⇒ pmax =
(
0.75 ω ηin e − β Δt L2) (ε sin θ o max )
Cr2 (1 + ε cos θ o max )3
θ o max = 2.7385
F 3.5 How to
μ= = reduce
pmax = 6.48 MPa W 600
temperature
⇒ μ = 0.0058
Groove arrangement to
feed to HB under pressure
– Hybrid bearing
0.675 hg3 Psupply ⎛ d h ⎞
1.75
QP = ⎜ + 0 .4 ⎟
η ⎝ L ⎠
hg = Local film thickness , m
d h = Diameter of feed hole , m
Psupply = Feed pressure , Pa
399
Ex: Determine the minimum film thickness, maximum pressure, coefficient of
friction for a hydrodynamic journal bearing, which supports a 600 N load at
rotational speed of 2000 rpm. The shaft dia is 40 mm. Assume bearing length =
10 mm, oil viscosity at room temp (30°C) = 15 mPa.s, β=0.029, and radial
clearance 20 μm. Assume dia of feed oil is 2.5mm and supply pressure is 1.5 bar
Given: U = 4.19 m/s. Factor1 = U*L3*π*0.25/(Cr2)=8227 m2 /s,

Factor2 = 2*U*L*R*pi()/Cr ,
STEP 1: Assume ε = 0.5 Æ W = 118 N

Assume ε = 0.75 Æ W = 562 N
STEP 2: Assume ε = 0.8 Æ W = 900 N, F = 6.58 N
1/ 2
ε ⎧⎛ 16 ⎞ 2 ⎫
W = (Factor1)η ⎨⎜ 2 − 1⎟ε + 1⎬
(1 − ε )
2 2
⎩⎝ π ⎠ ⎭
η (Factor 2)
F=
1− ε 2
400
Heat generated = Heat convected by oil flow ρ = 860 kg / m3
F (2 π R N ) = m C P Δt C P = 1760 J / kg oC( )
F (2 π RN )
or Δt = 0.675 hg3 Psupply ⎛ d h 1.75
⎛ 2πRN ⎞ ⎞
⎜ Cr L + QP ⎟ ρ C P QP = ⎜ + 0 .4 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ η ⎝ L ⎠
Δt =
27.64 F
hg = 20 ×10 −6 × (1 + ε ), m
or
( )
4.189 + 0.254 × (1 + ε )3
d h = 0.0025, m
≅ Δt = 29.3o C
Psupply = 1.5 × 105 , Pa
⇒ QP = 2.54 × 10 −8 (1 + ε ) m3 / s
3
STEP 3: Modify viscosity using

− β (t −tin ) Continue
η = ηin e iterations !!!
at Δt = 33o C η = 0.0064
Hydro-Static Bearings (HSB)
Completely removal of wear and reduction of
coefficient of friction to 1/500.
Surfaces can be separated by full fluid film even at
zero speed.
No problem with micro roughness and waviness.
Zero friction at zero speed.
Useful feature for large size telescopes and radars.
High stiffness
Oil film thickness varies as cube root of load. h ∝ W 1/ 3
Why not every bearing is based on Hydrostatic mechanism

High pressure supply… Reliability & life of high pressure oil lines are always
in doubt.
Hydrostatic Thrust Bearings
Many loads carried by rotating machinery have
components that act in the direction of the
shaft’s axis of rotation. Bearings supporting
such loads are known as thrust bearings.
Elementary 1-D Analysis
Assume a shaft of
radius Ro is located
co-axially with a
circular recess of
radius Ri.
Assume all the oil
in recess is at the
supply pressure Ps.
404
3 Refer slide
h dp 368
Elemental flow rate: δq = − 12η dr .rdθ
If flow is axisymmetrical, and radial flow rate

is constant, then flow
3
rate:
h dp
Q=− .r .2π
12η dr
If film thickness is constant, then on

integration: πh 3 p
= −Q (log r + C1 )
6η
405
Using two boundary conditions to find
unknown values of C1 and Q
R0
log
p = ps r in the region R 0 ≥ r ≥ Ri
R0
log
Ri
Load carrying capacity:
Ro 2π
W = ps .π Ri2 + ∫ ∫ p (rdθ ) dr
Ri 0
Substituting expression of p and rearranging

⎛ Ri2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎜ 1− r 2 ⎟
( )
2
R W = C1 ⎜ ⎟
W = ps . π Ro2 ⎜ ⎟
o 1
⎜ ⎛ Ro ⎞ ⎟ ⎜ 2. log⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎟
⎜ 2. log ⎜ R ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎜ r ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ i⎠⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 1⎠⎠
406
load vs ratio
22
20
18 C1 = 10
16
14
load
12
10
4
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
ratio
Ro 2π
W = ps .π Ri2 + ∫ ∫ p(rdθ )dr

Ri 0
πh03 ps 1 1
Q= Q = C2
6η log(1 / r1 ) log(1 / r1 )
1
flow vs ratio Q = C2
240
220
log(1 / r1 )
200
180
160
140
flow
120
100
80
60
40
C2 = 10
20
0
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
ratio
• Generally we require high load capacity but low flow rate.

Power loss: consists of pumping
power and friction losses.
U
Pt = Ph + Pf F = ηA
h0
Ph = Q.Ps ωr
F =η A(r )
R04 ⎛⎜ ⎛ Ri ⎞ ⎞
4 h0
π ⎟ω 2
Pf = η 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ω2
R0
2 h0 ⎜ ⎝ R0 ⎠ ⎟ Pf = Fωr ⇒ Pf = η ∫ dr
2πr 3
⎝ ⎠ h0 Ri
1 πh03 π ⎛ R04
4⎞
⎛ Ri ⎞ ⎟ 2
Pt = Ps + η
2 ⎜ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ω
6η log( R0 / Ri ) 2 h0 ⎜ ⎝ R0 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
• Generally we require high load capacity, low flow rate and low
power loss.
409
Example: W = 1000 N, ω=5 rpm, R0=100 mm, Ri=50
mm, η=0.01 Pa.s. Optimize minimum film thickness for
minimum power loss
1 πh03
π ⎛ 4⎞
⎛ Ri ⎞ ⎟ 2
R04
Pt = Ps + η
2 ⎜ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ω
6η log( R0 / Ri ) 2 h0 ⎜ ⎝ R0 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ Ri2 ⎞
⎜ 1 − ⎟ C2
(
W = ps . π Ro2 ⎜ ) R 2
⎟ Pt = C1h03 +
⎜
o
⎛ Ro ⎞ ⎟
h0
⎜ 2. log ⎜ R ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ i⎠⎠
ω = 2π * 5 60 ⇒ ω = 0.5236 rad/s
C1 = 2.614 *1011 N/(s.m 2 )
1000 2. log(2)
Ps = ⇒ Ps = 58,824 Pa
(
π * 0.1 1 − 0.5
2 2
) C2 = 0.404 *10 −6 N.m 2 / s
ho min − power −loss = 26.8 micron 410
Homework
A hydrodynamic journal bearing uses
SAE10W-40 lubricating oil. Assume:
Room temperature, tin = 40°C.
Effective operating temp, teff = tin+0.5*Δt
Applied load = 2200 N
Journal radius = 40mm
Bearing length = 20mm
Rotational speed of journal = 30 rps
Radial clearance = 0.1% of journal radius
Determine min. film thickness, max. fluid
pressure, and coefficient of friction.
411
GEARS
To transmit power between shafts rotating

usually at different rotational speeds… ? belt
drives
Generally gear pair acts as a speed reducer
aiming torque amplification at output shaft.
? Friction ωin
Engagement
Torque ratio, m A =
ωout
Often gears are treated as pitch cylinder
which roll together without slip. Positive
drive provided by meshing teeth. ? belt
drives.
Hybrid drives
Selection of Mechanical Drive
Flat belt is cheapest. V-belt is comparatively costly.
Gear drive is costliest.
Maintenance of belt drive is relatively simple.
Periodic adjustment of centre distance in order to
compensate stretch of belt. In gear drive,
lubrication is important consideration in
maintenance.
Shifting mechanism: Flat belt & gear drives are
preferred choice. In case of V-belt, it is not possible
to use shifting.
Flat belt for long center distance. V-belt for
comparatively short centre distance. Gear for
smallest centre distance.
413
Spur Gears: Teeth
parallel to axis of rotation.
Suitable to transmit
motion between parallel
shafts. Bending load
Radial load
Contact load
Spur Gear Drive

Helical Gears: Teeth are inclined to axis of rotation.
Helix angle is same for pinion (smaller gear) and gear.
However, hand of helix is opposite. Lesser noise compared
to spur gears.
Helical Gear Drive. Bending, Radial, Thrust and Contact loads
415
Straight Tooth Bevel Gears: Teeth
formed on conical surfaces. Size of gear tooth
decreases towards apex of cone. Transmit motion
between intersecting shafts.
Bevel gear drive with straight teeth.
416
Worm Gears: Worm resembles a screw.
Direction of rotation of worm wheel??? High speed ratio.
Worm Gear Drive. (a) Cylindrical teeth; (b) double enveloping.
417
Velocity ratio
Normally speed reduction
for a single pair of spur
gear is lesser than 6:1.
Size of gear wheel
increases Æ Gear box size.
For high speed reduction.
Two stage or three stage
construction are
preferred.
418
Spur Gear
Nomenclature
Pitch circles: Imaginary

tangent circles.
Pinion: Smaller.
Circular pitch: Sum of tooth
thickness & width of space.
Addendum: Radial distance
between top land and pitch
circle.
Backlash: Difference
between tooth space and
tooth thickness.
Module: m=Dp/ZP=DG/ZG
419
Basic spur gear Geometry.
Spur Gear Nomenclature
Conjugate Action
Modules
Preferred 1,1.25,1.5,2,2.5,3,4,5,6,8,10,12,16,20,25,32,40
Second choice 1.125,1.375,1.75,2.25,2.75,3.5,4.5,5.5,7,9,11,14,18,22,28,36,45
Catalogue B
Bore Bore
Module Module
diameter Pounds diameter Pounds
MM MM
of cutter of cutter
HBIGM01 1mm 27mm or 1” 95.20 HBIGM05 5 27 or 1 155.40
HBIGM01.25 1.25 27 or 1 95.20 HBIGM05.5 5.5 27 or 1 172.20
HBIGM01.5 1.5 27 or 1 98.00 HBIGM06 6 27 or 1 193.20
HBIGM01.75 1.75 27 or 1 100.80 HBIGM07 7 32 or 1-1/4 329.00
HBIGM02 2 27 or 1 103.60 HBIGM08 8 32 or 1-1/4 392.00
HBIGM02.25 2.25 27 or 1 103.60 HBIGM09 9 32 456.40
HBIGM02.5 2.5 27 or 1 107.80 HBIGM10 10 32 512.40
HBIGM02.75 2.75 27 or 1 110.60 HBIGM11 11 40 560.00
HBIGM03 3 27 or 1 119.00 HBIGM12 12 40 616.00
HBIGM3.25 3.25 27 or 1 123.20 HBIGM14 14 40 665.00
HBIGM03.5 3.5 27 or 1 120.40 HBIGM16 16 40 980.00
HBIGM03.75 3.75 27 or 1 123.20 HBIGM18 18 50 1190.00
HBIGM04 4 27 or 1 124.60 HBIGM20 20 50 1358.00
HBIGM04.25 4.25 27 or 1 147.00
HBIGM04.5 4.5 27 or 1 142.80
HBIGM04.75 4.75 27 or 1 152.60
All sizes shown above are in 20o PA =Presure Angle (Note: 14.1/2o PA is also supplied)
Catalogue B
BSS Cutter (European
Cuts Teeth
Number Cutter No)
1 135 - RACK 8
2 55 - 134 7
3 35 - 54 6
4 26 - 34 5
5 21 - 25 4
6 17 - 20 3
7 14 - 16 2
Tooth φ, Adde Dede
Pitch and Base Circles.? system deg ndum ndum
Cross belt Full 20 1m 1.25m

depth 1.35m
22.5 1m 1.25m
1.35m
25 1m 1.25m
1.35m
Stub 20 .8m 1m
c
Contact Ratio
Length of action
=
Base_pitch
Length of approach + Length of recess
rbg
(2 π )
Zg
424
Contact Ratio
Length a *c = rp sin φ
Length a *b = rop2 − rbp2
Length cb = a *b − a *c
or, cb = rop2 − rbp2 − rp sin φ
Similarly ac = rog2 − rbg2 − rg sin φ
Length of action, ab = rop2 − rbp2 + rog2 − rbg2 − (rp + rg ) sin φ
rop2 − rbp2 + rog2 − rbg2 − C sin φ

Contact ratio =
2π rbg / Z g
425
Ex: For φ=20°, ZP=19, Zg=37, and m=4; Find Gear Ratio,
circular pitch, base pitch, pitch diameters, center distance,
addendum, dedendum, whole depth, outside diameters, and
contact ratio. If center distance is increased by 2% what will
be new pressure angle and new contact ratio.
Gear Ratio = 37 rop2 − rbp2 + rog2 − rbg2 − C sin φ

19
π dg Contact ratio =
Circular pitch = pb
Zg
or, p c = π m
Base pitch p b = pc cos φ ⎛ rp cos φ ⎞
Pitch dia d g = m Z g φnew = cos ⎜ −1 ⎟
⎜ 1.02 r ⎟
Nominal center dist, C = (rg + rp ) ⎝ p ⎠
Addendum, a = 1.0 × m ⇒ a = 4 mm
Dedendum, b = 1.25 × m ⇒ b = 5 mm New rp
d op = d p + 2 a
Design of
Spur Gears
Breakage of gear teeth
Excessive wear of gear
tooth surface
Excessive noise
Excessive heat
Patent U.S. 5,503,045

427
Forces on Gear
Tooth
A torque Tp is being delivered by pinion to gear.

At pitch point, Force W is transmitted from one tooth to corresponding
to tooth on gear, along the line of action.
TP
Magnitude Wt =
rp Additional load on bearings
Radial component Wr = Wt tan φ
NOTE: Assumption of one tooth contact. Load sharing (contact ratio=1.6)???

• Constant torque, but each tooth experiences repeated loading.. Fatigue
loading.
428
Max load at pitch point
Ex: Pinion shaft passes 15kW at 2500 rpm. For φ=25°,
ZP=14, m=4, and Gear Ratio=3.5, determine transmitted
loads on gear teeth. Find pitch diameters, mean and
alternative components of transmitted load.
Z g = 3.5 × 14 = 49
T p = 15000 /(2 π 2500 / 60) = 57.3
Tg = 3.5 × 57.3 = 200.55 N .m
d p = m Z p = 4 × 14 = 56 mm
Tangential load , Wt = T p / (d p / 2) == 2046 N
Radial load ,Wr = Wt tan φ = 954 N
Wt 47% load
Mean load =
2
Wt
Alternative load =
2
429
Ex: A gear pair (ZP=23, φ=20°, Zg =24, m=1.75, F=10.0 mm)
has center distance equal to 42 mm. Find nominal and running
contact ratios.
Gear Ratio = 24
23
Circular pitch p c = π m → pc = 5.5 mm
Base pitch p b = pc cos φ → 5.1662 mm
Pitch dia d g = m Z g → d g = 42 mm
Nominal center dist, C = (rg + rp ) → 41.125 rop2 − rbp2 + rog2 − rbg2 − C sin φ
CR =
Addendum, a = 1.0 × m ⇒ a = 1.75 mm pb
Dedendum, b = 1.25 × m ⇒ b = 2.1875 mm
d op = d p + 2 a → d op = 43.75
⎛ 41.125 cos φ ⎞
φnew = cos ⎜−1
⎟ → φ new = 23. 06 o
⎝ 42 ⎠
Nominal contact ratio = 1.6,
Contact ratio after assembly = 1.14
Homework: What will the pressure angle be if the center
distance of a 20° pressure angle gear pair is increased by
7%.
Homework: Find out the mean and alternating load

components of a gear-set that transmits 50 kW at 1600
pinion rpm. φ=25°, ZP=23, Zg=57, and m=4.
431
Stresses in Spur Gears
Two modes of failures:
Fatigue: fluctuating bending stresses at
root of tooth.
Keep stress state within modified Goodman
line for material.. Infinite life
Surface fatigue (Pitting)
Repeated surface contact stresses …
materials do not exhibits endurance limit
Properly designed gear-sets should
never fail but must be expected to
eventually fail by one of surface wear.
432
Bending Stresses
Moment
σb =
Section Modulus
Wt l
σb = 2
Ft /6
Assumptions
Compression due to radial
component of force is negligible.
Teeth do not share load
Greatest force is exerted at tip
Lewis Eq. σ b = Wt
FY m
433
No. of Form No. of Form No. of Form
Teeth factor Y Teeth factor Y Teeth factor Y
12 0.245 21 0.328 50 0.409
13 0.261 22 0.331 60 0.422
14 0.277 24 0.337 75 0.435
15 0.290 26 0.346 100 0.447
16 0.296 28 0.353 150 0.460
17 0.303 30 0.359 300 0.472
18 0.309 34 0.371 400 0.480
19 0.314 38 0.384 Rack 0.485
20 0.322 43 0.397
AGMA introduced velocity factor in terms of pitch

line velocity (m/s) in Lewis equation.
3.05 + V Wt
Kv = (cast iron, cast profile ) σb =
3.05 FY m
6.01 + V
Kv = (Cut or milled profile ) AGMA Lewis Eq.
6.01
3.56 + V K W
Kv = (Hobbed or shaped profile ) σb = v t
3.56 FY m
5.56 + V
Kv = (Shaved or ground profile )
5.56
Useful for preliminary estimation
of gear size.
Ex: Find out the power rating (assuming static loading) of milled profiled spur
gear (AISI material, yield strength = 210MPa) for data: φ=20°, ZP=16,
F=36mm, m=3.0, N = 20 rps. Assume factor of safety = 3.0.
Ans: Allowable bending stress = 70 MPa.

Pitch line velocity V=3.0 m/s.
Kv = 1.5 , Form factor Y = 0.296
Tangential load = 1492 N.
Power rating = 4.475 kW.
Homework 15: Find out the power rating (for infinite life) of milled
profiled spur gear (AISI material, ultimate strength = 380MPa) for data: φ=20°,
ZP=16, F=36mm, m=3.0, N = 20 rps. Assume factor of safety = 3.0.
Ans: Endurance strength = 190 MPa. Allowable strength = 84 MPa

Tangential load = 1790 N.
Power rating = 5.37 kW.
AGMA Bending Stress
Equation
K v Wt
σb = Ka KB Km
FmJ
J = AGMA bending Geometry Factor depends on pressure angle, point of loading
Load distribution
Driven Machines factor Km
Power Source Uniform Light shock Moderate shock Heavy shock Face Km
Application factor, Ka width, mm
Uniform 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
(Electric motor,
< 50 1.6
turbine) 150 1.7
Light shock 1.20 1.40 1.75 2.25
(Multicylinder) 250 1.8
Moderate shock 1.30 1.70 2.00 2.75 >500 2.0
Rim thickness factor K B = − 2 m B + 3 . 4 0.5 ≤ m B < 1 . 2

tR
K B = 1 .0 m B ≥ 1 .2 where m B =437
ht
transmits 8 N.m torque from crankshaft (rotational speed 8000
rpm) of single cylinder IC engine to wheels. Bore diameter of
pinion is 17 mm, and bore dia of gear is 20 mm. Using AGMA
bending stress formula to determine the maximum bending
stress. Assume gears are grounded.
Given: F = 10 mm, m =
1.75, Wt =
K W
σb = v t
Ka K B Km 8000/(23*1.75*0.5)
FmJ
Driven Machines
Load distribution
Power Source Uniform Light shock Moderate shock Heavy shock factor Km
Application factor, Ka Face Km
Uniform 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
(Electric motor,
width, mm
turbine) < 50 1.6
Light shock 1.20 1.40 1.75 2.25
(Multicylinder)
Moderate shock 1.30 1.70 2.00 2.75
5.56 + V
K a = 2.0 K m = 1.6 Kv = (ground gears )
5.56
d p = 23 *1.75 = 40.25 mm
π dp N π (40.25) 8000
V= = → 16.86 m / s
60 60
5.56 + V
Kv = = 1.3185
5.56
d proot = d p − 2 *1.25 *1.75 = 35.875
ht = 2.25 *1.75 = 3.9375 mm
( )
t R = 0.5 d proot − Bore p = 9.4375
mB > 1.2 ⇒ K B = 1
K v Wt
σb = Ka K B Km
FmJ
J = 0.35
J = 0.26
K v Wt
σb = Ka K B Km
FmJ
⇒ σ b = 368.6 MPa for tip loading
⇒ σ b = 273.8 MPa for HPSTC loading
Allowable Bending Stress vs.
Brinell Hardness
Grade 2 → σ all ,b = 0.703 H B + 113 MPa

Grade1 → σ all ,b = 0.533 H B + 88.3 MPa
σ b = 368.6 MPa
Grade 2 → required H B = 363.6
Grade1 → required H B = 525.9
Core/case hardness ????
Effect of Brinell hardness on allowable bending stress for two grades of through-
hardened steel [ANSI/AGMA Standard 1012-F90]
σ b = 273.8 MPa Grade 2 → required H B = 228.7 443

Grade1 → required H B = 348
From previous example…..
No bending failure if hardness is

greater than 230 HB for grade 2
material.
No bending failure if hardness is

greater than 350 HB for grade 1
material.
But failure occurs after 106 cycles

Why ??
Surface/Contact Stresses
in Spur Gears
Surface failure of gear tooth
occurs due to very high local
contact stresses. Maximum
contact pressure at the
contact point between two
cylinders is given by:
2F
pmax = Refer Slide 57
π bL
where b =
[( ) ( ) ]
2 F 1 −ν 12 / E1 + 1 −ν 22 / E2 As per nomenclature of gear
πL ⎛ 1 + 1 ⎞ design: F = W, L=F, W = Wt
⎜ d d 2 ⎟⎠ /cosφ , d1=dp*sinφ
⎝ 1
445
2F
pmax =
π bL As per nomenclature of gear
design: F = W, L=F, W = Wt /
where b =
[( ) (
2 F 1 −ν 12 / E1 + 1 −ν 22 / E2 ) ] cosφ , d1=dp*sinφ
πL ⎛ 1 + 1 ⎞
⎜ d d 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ 1
2W
pmax =
π bF
where b =
[( )
2 W 1 −ν p / E p + 1 −ν g / E g
2 2
( ) ]
πF ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1
⎜ d + ⎟
⎝ p d g ⎠ sin φ
2 Wt / cos φ
pmax =
π bF
where b =
2 Wt [( ) (
1 −ν 2p / E p + 1 −ν g2 / E g ) ]
π F cos φ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
⎜ d + 1d ⎟
⎝ p g ⎠ sin φ
⎡ ⎛ d p + dg ⎞ ⎤ Surface contact
⎜ ⎟
2 2 Wt
⎢
⎢ ⎜ d p dg ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎥
⎥ compressive
=
pmax
(
π F sin φ cos φ ⎢⎢ 1 −ν 2p ) ( )
/ E p + 1 −ν g2 / E g ⎥⎥ stress
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ dp + dg ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ d d ⎟
2Wt ⎢ ⎝ p g ⎠ ⎥
σ c2 =
⎢
(
π F sin φ cos φ ⎢ 1 − ν 2
p ) ( )
/ E p + 1 − ν g2 / E g ⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Wt ⎡ 1 ⎤⎡ 2 dg + d p ⎤
⇒σ = 2
c
F dp
⎢
[( 2
) 2
(
⎢⎣ π 1 −ν p / E p + 1 −ν g / E g ) ]⎥⎢
⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ sin φ cos φ d g
⎥
⎥⎦
1 sin φ cos φ Zg
Let C P = I=
⎡⎛ 1 −ν 2p ⎞ ⎛ 1 −ν g2 ⎞⎤ 2 Zp + Z g
π ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ E P ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ E g ⎟⎠⎥⎦ Wt C P
⇒ σc =
F dp I
Wt
AGMApitting resistance equation σ c = C P C a C m Cv
F I dp
Driven Machines Load distribution

factor Cm
Power Source Unifor Light Moderate Heavy
m shock shock shock Face width, Cm
Application factor, Ca mm
Uniform 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
(Electric < 50 1.6
motor, turbine) 150 1.7
Light shock 1.20 1.40 1.75 2.25
(Multicylinder) 250 1.8
Moderate 1.30 1.70 2.00 2.75 >500 2.0
shock
B
⎛ A + 200 V ⎞
Cv = ⎜ ⎟ where A = 50 + 56 (1 − B ) ; B = 0.25 (12 − Qv )
2/3
⎜ A ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Calculation of Factor Cv
B
⎛ A + 200 V ⎞
Cv = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ A ⎟
⎝ ⎠
A = 50 + 56 (1 − B ) B = 0.25 (12 − Qv )
2/3
and
AGMA Tolerance Cv for 16.86 m/s velocity

Qv
9 15 μm 1.34
10 10 μm 1.23
11 7 μm 1.13
12 5 μm 1
449
transmits 8 N.m torque from crankshaft (rotational speed 8000
rpm) of single cylinder IC engine to wheels. Bore diameter of
pinion is 17 mm, and bore dia of gear is 20 mm. Using AGMA
pitting resistance formula to determine the maximum contact
stress. Assume gears’ quality = 9, E = 2.e5 MPa, ν=0.3
Wt
AGMApitting resistance equation σ c = C P C a C m Cv
F I dp
1
CP = ⇒ C p = 187 2.0 1.6 1.34
⎡⎛ 1 −ν 2p ⎞ ⎛ 1 −ν g2 ⎞⎤
π ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ E P ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ E g ⎟⎠⎥⎦
sin φ cos φ Zg
I= ⇒ I = 0.0821
2 Zp + Z g
Ans: 1334 MPa
Contact Stress vs. Brinell
Hardness
Effect of Brinell Hardness on allowable contact stress for through-hardened steel.
451

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ME 331: Design of Machine Elements

Lecture Tutorials Distribution

EXTRA CLASS: 11/10 (9.30:11.00), 16/10 (2:00-3.30 pm)

Contact Time: 16.30 to 17.30 Hours --- Monday to Friday.

 Machine: Structure + Mechanisms

Shafts, couplings, springs, bearings, belt and gear

 Iterations… Interrelated parts

Stress-strain Diagram for

ε elastic > ε proportional

 Ductility: Material elongation > 5%.

Iron 207 130 260 45

Ex: A flat SS plate is rolled into a cylinder with inner radius of

NOTE: Strength at 106 cycles tend to be about 50-60% of static strength 12

ε el ε el Ex: In mining operation the iron

Carga Axial en Placa con Orificio

Placa de Seccion Transversal Plana

Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzo

Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzo para Placa

Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzo para Placa

Factor de Concentracion de Esfuerzos para Placa Rectangular

51.2 (1250 × 350 )

 Compressive load causes elastic deformation of surface

Design Factors: “Factor of Safety”

NOTE: FOS is deterministic. Often data are statistical and there is 59

R = 1-0.0075 ???? Ref: Probabilistic Mechanical

20 0.00 20 −0.04 20 −0.02 20 ± 0.03

(T1,σ T )+ (T2 ,σ T ) = (10000,1100)

(L1,σ L )(T1,σ T ) = (L2 ,σ L )(T2 ,σ T )

• Maximum and minimum diameters of the crank-pin and

Prob : A valve seat (20 + 0.035 ) is inserted in a housing (20 0.000 ).

• Maximum and minimum diameters of the valve seat and

Letter Symbols for Tolerances

over 1 3 6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250

inc. 3 6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250 315

1 0.8 1 1 1.2 1.5 1.5 2 2.5 3.5 4.5 6

Wringing δ=0.00 mm Require light pressure.

Light δ=0.00025d mm Suitable for low speed and

Medium δ=0.0005d mm Considerable pressure is

CASE I: Internally Pressurized (Hub)-

Cold Rolling, Drawing

Hot rolling, Flame cutting

Aloha Airlines flight 243, a Boeing

Sl′ = 0.9 Sut bending ; Sl′ = 0.75 Sut axial

S-N (Wohler) diagram

Example: The ultimate tensile strength of an axial

Endurance limit modification factors

Finishing Constant a Exponent b

20°C 1.00 300°C 0.975

⎧1.24 d −0.107 2.79 ≤ d ≤ 51 mm Applicable only

NOTE: A 7.5mm diameter beam specimen is used for

Necessary to define “effective diameter” based on

For a rotating round

STEP 1: Estimate endurance limit of mat. ±30 kN

STEP 1: Estimate endurance limit of

ANS: Diameter = 19.3 mm

Fatigue strength S ′f can be expressed by

log(0.9 * 600 ) = k log(10 ) + k

ANS: 20214 cycles

 Question 1: A coupling hub (bore φ 309.168 ) 0. 0

is shrink fitted on a solid shaft of 310h6. The

Maximum interference = Maximum shaft dia - Min. dia of hole

Minimum pressure = 160.14 MPa

Using fatigue strength equation:

Using Palmgren Miner rule (refer slide 112)

Machine: Structure + Mechanisms

Iterations… Interrelated parts

Ductility: Material elongation > 5%.

Compressive load causes elastic deformation of surface

Question 1: A coupling hub (bore φ 309.168 ) 0. 0

Uses “sunk key”, grab-screw” or Low power

calculate the minimum tensile

Paper 1: Maximum tensile stress 44.2 MPa.

Paper 1: Fi = 97.5 N Æ Number of balls = 2000/97.5.

Stress concentration factor = 2.35.

Wahl determined the

In the helical compression spring loading

This figure indicates that if τm ≤ (Sys-Sse) ,

This figure indicates that if τm ≤ (Sys-Sse)/Ns ,

Loss of elasticity (Creep)