The Effect of Angle of Tilt and Color of Light on the Voltage Output of Solar Cells

Catherine August and Olivia Hagan

Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center

Physics

Section 11A

Mr. McMillan / Mrs. Cybulski

7 June 2019
 The Effect of Angle of Tilt and Color of Light on the Voltage Output of Solar Cells

The purpose of this research was to determine the effect of angle of tilt and the

color of light on the voltage output of solar cells. As the Earth’s temperature continues to

rise, and the consequences of climate change become more prevalent, countries are

working towards reducing the use of non-renewable energy. Harnessing the energy of the

sun’s rays through photovoltaic cells, or solar cells, is the most promising renewable

energy solution to curbing carbon dioxide emissions from the usage of non-renewable

energy sources such as burning coal. To use solar cells to their fullest capability, factors

such as angle of tilt and the color of light must be considered to maximize energy output.

To collect data, model solar cells were placed on top of 15°, 30°, and 45° angled

ramps inside of a cardboard box with a hole at the top, to allow only the intended light

source to contact the solar cells. To change the color of the light, red, green, and blue

filter paper was placed over the hole at the top of the box, filtering the light contacting the

solar cell. A multimeter connected to the solar cell collected the voltage output. The

voltage values collected were analyzed using a Two-Factor Design of Experiment. It was

found that angle of tilt, color of light, and the interaction effect of the two variables were

statistically significant, with color of light having the most significant effect and the

interaction effect having the least significant effect. The hypothesis stating that a 15°

angle of tilt and red filter would produce the highest average voltage was accepted. The

highest average voltage output was 2.24 volts, produced when the lowest values of the

factors (15° and red filter) were used, and the lowest average voltage output was 1.75

volts, produced when the highest values of the factors (45° and blue filter) were used.
 Table of Contents

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………1

Review of Literature…………………………………………………………….…….5

Problem Statement…………………………………………………………….……..13

Experimental Design………………………………………………………………....14

Data and Observations……………………………………………………………….18

Data Analysis and Interpretation………………………………………………….….23

Conclusion…………………………………………………….……………………...32

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….….……39

Appendix A: How to Construct Light Canceling Cardboard Box…………….....…..40

Appendix B: How to Construct the Three Inclined Ramps…………………...……..41

Appendix C: Prediction and Parsimonious Equations………..………………….......43

Works Cited…………………………………………………………...………….….44
 August – Hagan 1

Introduction

The temperature of the Earth is rising at nearly twice the rate it was about fifty

years ago (Forsberg). The rising temperature of the Earth, or global warming, has become

a major concern among activists. They assert that if the Earth continues to warm at this

alarming rate, large amounts of irreversible damage may occur, such as the destruction of

coastal areas and melting of arctic lands.

One of the largest contributions to Earth’s warming is the use of fossil fuels, such

as oil, coal, and natural gas, which emit greenhouse gases, primarily carbon dioxide, into

the atmosphere. Humanity relies on such fossil fuels to heat their homes, power their

vehicles, operate industry and manufacturing, and generate electricity. Furthermore, the

United States gets 81% of its total energy from oil, coal, and natural gas, which are all

fossil fuels (“What You Need to Know About Energy”). However, all of these fossil fuels

are constituted as nonrenewable energy, meaning that the Earth’s supply of these

resources will eventually diminish, which will in turn cause the cost of utilizing these

resources to increase as supply decreases. Thus, it is important for humanity to switch to

using other forms of renewable energy, or energy that comes from natural sources that

are constantly replenished (Shinn).

Therefore, after decades of environmentally unsafe practices, environmental

activists have been turning to solar energy, a renewable energy source, in attempts to

envision a more sustainable future. Currently, solar energy only supplies slightly more

than one percent of electricity used within the United States. However, it has been

gaining popularity; in 2017, nearly one-third of all newly built electricity plants were for

solar energy, second only to natural gas (Shinn). As the use of solar energy becomes
 August – Hagan 2

more widespread, many questions on how to effectively maximize voltage output need to

be addressed. As solar panels generally rest on the rooftops of households and businesses,

one issue that needs to be managed is the best angle of tilt to rest the solar panels at, in

order to maximize voltage output. The perfect angle of tilt is vital to ensure that the entire

surface of the solar panel is encompassed by the sun’s rays. If less area of the solar cell is

covered by the sun’s rays, it will have less photons to absorb, thus decreasing voltage

output. Therefore, the angle of tilt at which the solar panel is positioned is important to

maximize the voltage output of solar cells. This experiment intended to determine if

angle of tilt is, indeed, an issue and had an optimal angle to maximize voltage output.

Thus, in this experiment, angles 15°, 30°, and 45° were utilized to test the effect of angle

of tilt, because previous research determined that generally, as angle increases, the area of

photons the sun absorbs decreases, and the optimal angle would be within this range.

This experiment also intended to determine the effect that color of light has on the

voltage output of solar cells, as the majority of solar panels available to consumers are

not able to absorb 100% of the electromagnetic spectrum that the sun emits, or all of the

colors of light that the sun emits. Not only this, but by placing a color filter on the light

source, it will change the color of light being received by the solar cell, which may

prevent all wavelengths of light from being absorbed, thus decreasing the voltage output.

In this experiment, red, green, and blue color filters were employed as they encompass

the range of the electromagnetic spectrum, with red at the lower end of the spectrum,

green in the center, and blue on the higher end, as well as alter the color of light absorbed

by the solar cell.

 August – Hagan 3

During experimentation, a solar cell was placed on a ramp of the specified angle

(15°, 30°, and 45°), and the ramp was placed under a cardboard box that had a hole cut in

the top with the specified color filter over the hole. A lamp then shined over the solar cell

within the cardboard box to act as the sun, and the other lights in the room were shut off

in order to reduce ambient light from sources other than the lamp. The data was collected

using a multimeter, which was then used to determine if angle of tilt, color filter, or their

interaction were statistically significant factors, thus accomplishing the objective of

determining how to maximize the voltage output of solar panels to create usable,

renewable energy in a cost-efficient way.

This research can help to understand and manage many existing issues in society

and on Earth. It can be used to inform the public of the benefits of using solar energy, and

to demonstrate that solar energy is an effective energy source to power homes. Citizens

can be more knowledgeable of the negative environmental impacts of global warming,

such as rising sea levels and more intense storms, and be motivated to take action to

prevent the damage from continuing. This research can also help inform citizens and

solar energy companies on the best way to construct solar cells in order to produce the

highest voltage possible. Solar panel constructors can build solar panels at the optimal

angle to maximize voltage output, which will be determined in this study, as well as work

on finding a way for solar panels to absorb colors of light that they currently struggle to

use, as these said colors will also be determined in this study.

Informing the public of the environmental consequences of global warming, and

solar panel constructors of how to maximize voltage output of solar panels, will tackle

the widespread ignorance throughout the United States that is preventing major changes
 August – Hagan 4

from being made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. If people become more informed

on the negative impacts of global warming due to this research, thus convincing them to

switch over to using solar energy rather than fossil fuels, it could strengthen the growing

green movement to reduce the rate at which global warming occurs. In turn, this would

dramatically offset the dangerously high levels of carbon dioxide from being emitted into

the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels, rather than utilizing solar energy, and work

towards saving the planet.

This research could also help supply jobs to countries that utilize solar energy, as

companies could hire new workers to install and maintain solar panels for household and

business use. Not only would this improve the economy, but it would allow individual

households and large corporations to reduce their environmental impact by preventing

them from having to burn fossil fuels for electricity. This would result in less greenhouse

gases in the atmosphere, thus reducing the rate at which global warming occurs.
 August – Hagan 5

Review of Literature

Due to years of neglect and environmentally unsafe practices, the Earth has

suffered paramount damage. One of the most prominent effects of this is the rise in global

temperature, due to the use of fossil fuels and unclean energy sources for electricity. In

fact, the Earth’s global temperature is increasing at nearly twice the rate as it was fifty

years ago (Forsberg). To combat this damage in attempts to envision a sustainable future,

activists have been turning to sources of renewable energy.

Solar energy is one form of renewable energy that is becoming more common as

time progresses. Solar energy, or energy from the sun, is commonly thought of as

“unlimited energy”, because only 0.0034% of solar energy that reaches the Earth’s

surface is needed to supply the whole world with energy (Jitisha et al.). To utilize solar

energy, people can install solar panels, which are usually placed on the roof. Ideally, each

solar panel is placed on the roof strategically as to avoid shade, because if even just one

of 36 cells is shaded, power output is reduced by almost half (“How Do Solar Systems

Produce Energy”). Solar photovoltaic cells are typically made up of silicon solar cells,

which combine to form a complete solar panel. Silicon is atomic number 14 on the

periodic table and is a metalloid with conductive properties, thus giving it the ability to

convert sunlight into electricity (Richardson).

All solar panels consist of a positive (P-type) and negative (N-type) film of silicon

photovoltaic cells, placed underneath a thin layer of glass, that convert light from the sun

into electricity using the photovoltaic process. In the photovoltaic process, photons from

the sun’s rays force the electrons from the negative film of silicon off the silicon,

allowing these freed electrons to navigate toward the positively charged side of the
 August – Hagan 6

silicon, creating an electron voltage that can be charged and channeled. This electric

current, created by wiring individual solar cells together to form a solar panel, forms a

solar photovoltaic array which is then sent to the inverter. The inverter is then able to

convert the direct charge (DC) electricity generated from the solar panel into an

alternating current (AC) by connecting the inverter directly to a dedicated circuit breaker

in the electric panel. This alternating current is then used as an immediate, usable energy

source for households and businesses. This process, again, called the photovoltaic effect,

is demonstrated in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Photovoltaic Process. Photograph from, “What Are Photovoltaic Cells? |

Socratic.” Socratic.org, n.d.

Figure 1 demonstrates the photovoltaic process that solar panels employ to

convert light from the sun into usable electricity. As shown, the sunlight forces the

electrons off the negative film of silicon, creating a flow of electricity for household and

business use, as detailed previously. The solar cell used in this experiment undergoes this

process in each trial to create a voltage for the multimeter to measure.

Although this process occurs within each solar cell, different factors may impact

how efficient this process is. As explained previously, solar panels are often placed on the

rooftops of buildings. Subsequently, engineers have pondered what tilt angle solar panels

should be positioned at to maximize the efficiency of solar panels. The tilt angle of solar

panels is important when determining the efficiency of solar panels, as when placed on
 August – Hagan 7

the roof, solar cells may not be fully enveloped by the sun’s rays depending on the angle

of tilt of the solar panel, thus reducing efficiency. Figure 2 below shows how the angle of

tilt of a solar panel impacts the voltage output of said panel.

Figure 2. Effect of Angle of Tilt from “Share and Discover Research.” ResearchGate.

Figure 2 above illustrates how the angle of tilt of a solar panel impacts the voltage

output of said panel. As the angle of tilt from the horizontal increases, less photons from

the sun reach the top area of the panel, as displayed in Figure 2, meaning less surface area

of the solar panel is encompassed by the sun. As less photons reach the surface area of

the panel, less energy is present to be converted into electricity, thus the voltage output

decreases. On the other hand, when the angle of tilt is smaller, and closer to the

horizontal, more photons from the sun are able to reach the surface area of the solar cell,

thus increasing voltage output. This idea is why it is hypothesized that the 15º angle of tilt

will maximize voltage output in this experiment.

Not only this, but specifically for the effect of angle of tilt, a study conducted by

B. Kamanga, J.S.P. Mlatho, C. Mikela, and C. Kamunda found that the angle at which

solar panels should be positioned may also be based on the latitude of the location it will

be installed at. When testing the efficiency of solar panels in Zomba District, Malawi by
 August – Hagan 8

recording the Global Solar radiation (GSR) every hour for one year, they derived the

formula 𝛽𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 𝜑 ± 15°, where 𝜑 is the latitude of the location and 𝛽𝑜𝑝𝑡 is the optimal

tilt angle. This formula was derived to allow for all solar cells to be within the sun’s rays,

thus a greater surface area of solar cells is able to absorb sunlight. The tilt angles used in

this experiment (15°, 30º, 45°) were chosen, as they are the most common angles used for

solar panels (B. Kamanga et al.). Based on previous research, which will be explained

later on, it is expected that a 15° tilt maximizes energy output and encompasses a greater

surface area of the sun’s rays.

Another important factor when considering the efficiency of solar panels is the

wavelengths of light they are able to absorb. Light is absorbed when a light wave strikes

an object with electrons that have the same vibrational frequencies as the light wave,

causing the electrons to absorb the energy of the light wave. This then creates vibrational

energy, allowing the vibrating electrons to contact other atoms in proximity. Finally, this

enables the vibrational energy to be converted into thermal energy (Henderson).

Objects, including solar panels, will absorb different frequencies of light

depending on the frequency at which the object’s molecules move. The sun emits

infrared, visible light, and ultraviolet light waves, ranging in frequencies of 290

nanometers (nm) to 3,200 nm (“The Sun and Its Energy”). Solar panels typically absorb

frequencies of light ranging from 380 nm to 750 nm, from the sun, as they possess the

correct voltage of energy to remove electrons from their weak bonds to create a current

(“What Light Wave Do Solar Panels Use?”). This range includes all the visible light

spectrum. It also encompasses part of infrared wavelengths, which are between 700 nm to

100,000 nm (“UV Light”). On the opposite end of the electromagnetic spectrum, defined
 August – Hagan 9

as the range of frequencies over which electromagnetic radiation extends, ultraviolet

wavelengths are between 10 nm to 400 nm (“UV Light”). The ultraviolet range of 10 nm

to 400 nm is less within the range of wavelengths that solar panels can absorb (380 nm to

750 nm) when compared to the infrared light wavelength range of 700 nm to 100,000 nm,

thus decreasing energy efficiency when using a blue filter rather than a red filter. This

decrease in energy efficiency is due to the fact that with a blue filter, energy is largely

converted into heat rather than electricity, so less energy is utilized by the solar panel

(Hekkenberg).

Finally, the color filters (red, green, blue) were chosen because red is at the lowest

end of the electromagnetic spectrum, green is in the center, and blue in on the higher end

of the electromagnetic spectrum, as shown in Figure 3 below. These color filters altered

the color of light absorbed by the solar cell, thus allowing the solar cell to absorb one

specific wavelength of light to sufficiently test the hypothesis.

Figure 3. Electromagnetic Spectrum. Photograph from, “Introduction to the

Electromagnetic Spectrum.” Western Reserve Public Media | Ubiquitous Science, n.d.

Figure 3 demonstrates the electromagnetic spectrum, and the different

frequencies of various light waves. Solar panels can absorb wavelengths between 380 nm

to 750 nm on the electromagnetic spectrum, as explained previously.

 August – Hagan 10

Other researchers have tackled experiments similar to this in the past, however,

past experiments have not tested color of light or color filters as a factor that impacts the

voltage output of solar panels. Yet, a multitude of experiments have tested the effect of

angle of tilt. As mentioned previously, a study done by B. Kamanga, J.S.P. Mlatho, C.

Mikela, and C. Kamunda in Zomba District, Malawi, at the University of Malawi, tested

four solar panels at tilts of 0º, 15º, 20º, and 25º, and recorded the optimal tilt angle by

recording the Global Solar radiation (GSR) every hour for one year. They determined that

for the months of October to February the optimum tilt is 0º, and from March to

September the optimum angle is 25º, but this varies depending on where the location is,

as explained previously with the formula they derived (B. Kamanga et al.).

Another similar study that was conducted by Tony Lam and Danny Li, from the

City University of Hong Kong, determined how to obtain the maximum energy output of

solar panels when testing different inclination angles, different directions for the panels to

face, and different times of day by measuring voltage. They found the maximum energy

output to be 775 kWh/m*m, which occurred when the angle of elevation was between

10° and 30° during the noon sun peak (Lam and Li).

Finally, a study conducted by Zaid Almusaied and Bahram Asiabanpour, from the

Ingram School of Engineering at Texas University, and Semih Aslan, from the Illinois

Institute of Technology in Chicago, tested four factors that could impact the performance

and efficiency of solar panels. They tested the angle of the tilt (0°, 30º, 60°), the

azimuthal angle from the south (0°, 45º, -45°), panel cleanliness measured in grams of

talc powder (0, 20, 40), and wind speed in kilometers per hour (0, 5.5, 10). Using an

ANOVA statistical test, wind speed was deemed insignificant, whereas the other three
 August – Hagan 11

factors were deemed to have a significant effect on energy output. The optimal conditions

for the significant factors were a tilt angle of 60º, an azimuthal angle of 45°, and a

completely clean solar panel (Zaid et al.).

Although there are similarities between this experiment and previous research,

there are important differences. Unlike B. Kamanga, J.S.P. Mlatho, C. Mikela, and C.

Kamunda’s, research, voltage output rather than Global Solar radiation (GSR) was

recorded, a lamp was used rather than the sun, and solar cells were used rather than actual

solar panels. Furthermore, in Tony Lam and Danny Li’s research, they tested various

inclination angles, different directions for the panels to face, and different times of day,

whereas this experiment tested only three different inclination angles and different color

filters. Finally, unlike Zaid Almusaied, Bahram Asiabanpour, and Semih Aslan, this

experiment tested only three different tilt angles and different color filters, whereas their

experiment tested the angle of the tilt, the azimuthal angle from the south, panel

cleanliness measured in grams of talc powder, and wind speed in kilometers per hour.

Information from previous research was useful when creating a hypothesis and

designing this experiment. Both B. Kamanga, J.S.P. Mlatho, C. Mikela, and C. Kamunda,

and Tony Lam and Danny Li found similar optimal tilt angles, at 0° to 25°, and 10° to

30°, respectively. This helped determine the hypothesis for this research, as the low angle

value of 15° is the only angle of the three used (15°, 30°, 45°) that is in between both of

these ranges. Also, the experimental results from Zaid Almusaied, Bahram Asiabanpour,

and Semih Aslan helped determine that the angle of tilt may be a significant factor in this

research, as they found it to be significant in theirs. Furthermore, their optimal tilt angle

differed substantially from the other previous research, as they found their optimal tilt
 August – Hagan 12

angle to be around 60°. However, this is most likely since this research was done in the

United States whereas the other research was done in Malawi and Hong Kong, so it can

be inferred that the optimal tilt angle varies greatly depending on location. Subsequently,

this research may determine whether tilt angle is a significant factor rather than the

optimal tilt angle, as the optimal angle will be different depending on location.
 August – Hagan 13

Problem Statement
Problem:

The purpose of this experiment was to determine which angle of tilt and which

color filtered light, when shined over the solar cell, produces the most efficient voltage

output for solar panels.

Hypothesis:

When the solar panel is tilted at a 15° angle from the horizontal and has a red

color filter, it will produce the most efficient voltage output for solar panels when

compared with a 30° or 45° angle of tilt, and green or blue color filter.

Data Measured:

The independent variables for this experiment included the angle of tilt from the

horizontal axis of the solar panel, whether it be 15°, 30°, or 45°, all measured in degrees,

and the color of the solar panel, either red, green, or blue. The dependent variable was the

energy output of the solar panel, which was measured in volts. Constants in this

experiment included the wattage and brand of the light bulb used, used to simulate the

natural environment of the sun, the brand of small solar cells used, and the brand of filler

colored paper used to replicate the color of each solar panel. To analyze the data

recorded, three two-factor Design of Experiments, or DOEs, with twelve trials each, were

conducted to determine the most efficient energy output, in volts, when positioning red,

green, or blue solar panels at an angle of tilt of either 15°, 30°, or 45°.
 August – Hagan 14

Experimental Design

Materials:

(2) Alligator Clips

15° Inclined Ramp (6.2 cm x 7.5 cm x 1.8 cm)
30° Inclined Ramp (6.2 cm x 7.5 cm x 3.6 cm)
45° Inclined Ramp (6.2 cm x 7.5 cm x 5.7 cm)
Solar Cell (53 mm x 30 mm)
Vekkia Clip Lamp with 6W Power
Light Canceling Cardboard Box (24 cm x 19 cm x 32.3 cm)
Red Filter Paper (24 cm x 19 cm)
Green Filter Paper (24 cm x 19 cm)
Blue Filter Paper (24 cm x 19 cm)
Meter Stick
Multimeter
Scotch Clear Tape
Table (at least 60 cm x 40 cm)
TI-Nspire Calculator Randomize Function

Procedures:

1. Using the TI-Nspire calculator randomizing function, randomize the order in which
four trials will be done (do not randomize the standards as they must be done at the
beginning, middle, and end). Number each trial as one, two, three, and four,
representing the type of trial until each number appears, and do so ten times to total
ten DOEs.

2. Ensure that the only light present in the room where completing trials is from the lamp,
as to avoid other light pollution. This can be done by experimenting in a dark room
(work room at the Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center) and creating a
cardboard box, which will be detailed in Appendix A.

3. Clip the Vekkia Clip Lamp on a level edge so that the lamp head is 35 cm above the
top of the table.

4. From the base of the lamp, measure 8 cm forward on the table and place the front edge
of the inclined ramp (see Appendix B for construction instruction for the ramps) at this
spot.

5. Connect the red wire to the VΩ port of the multimeter, and connect this red wire to the
positive terminal (red wire marked ‘+’) of the solar cell using an alligator clip.
 August – Hagan 15

6. Connect the black wire to the common (COM) port of the multimeter, and connect this
black wire to the negative terminal (black wire marked ‘-‘) of the solar cell using an
alligator clip.

7. Ensure that the multimeter is set to the 20 DCV setting to measure voltage.

8. When beginning data collection, with a standard trial, attach the thin, green, 24 cm x
19 cm filler paper to the hole over the cardboard box using tape.

9. Tape the solar cell directly on the center of the ramp and place the ramp directly
underneath the hole in the box.

10. Position the lamp to shine directly over the hole on the box, allowing it to shine on
top of the solar cell.

11. Allow the lamp to emit light on the solar cell for approximately five seconds.

12. After five seconds, record the voltage of the solar cell displayed on the screen of the
multimeter. If the multimeter fluctuates, take the middle value between the fluctuating
values.

13. Repeat steps eight through twelve for the remaining trials, ten times to total ten
DOEs.
 August – Hagan 16

Diagram:

Light Canceling
Cardboard Box
Vekkia Clip Lamp

Multimeter
Filler
TI-Nspire Solar Inclined
Paper
Cell Ramps
Calculator

Tape Meter
Stick
Alligator
Clips

Figure 4. Materials Used in Experiment

Figure 4 shows the materials used in the experiment, including the two alligator

clips, TI-Nspire calculator randomizing function, tape, multimeter, light cancelling

cardboard box, solar panel, Vekkia clip lamp with 6W, three inclined ramps (15°, 30°,

45°), three color filler papers (red, green, blue), and meter stick.
 August – Hagan 17

Vekkia
Clip Lamp

Ramp with
Solar Cell

Multimeter

Figure 5. Solar Cell Affixed on Ramp

Figure 5 shows the multimeter connected to a solar cell, which is positioned on

the center of the ramp. The Vekkia clip lamp is positioned 35 cm directly above the cell.

Vekkia
Clip Lamp

Filter
Paper
Cardboard
Box

Multimeter

Figure 6. Complete Setup

Figure 6 shows the complete setup of the experiment. The solar cell positioned on

the ramp, as shown in Figure 5, is directly underneath the hole at the top of the black,

light cancelling cardboard box.

 August – Hagan 18

Data and Observations

Table 1
Design of Experiment Variables
Angle of Tilt (Degrees) Color Filter
(-) Standard (+) (-) Standard (+)
15 30 45 Red Green Blue

Table 1 shows the low, standard, and high values for the angle of tilt the solar cell

was positioned in the experiment, which were 15°, 30°, 45° respectively. It also shows

the low, standard, and high values used for the color filter, which were red, green, and

blue respectively. The standard value of 30° was chosen based on previous research, as

others have determined that an angle around 30° may produce an ideal voltage output.

The standard value of a green color filter was chosen as it is in the middle of the

electromagnetic spectrum. In order to run the experiment, a solar cell was placed on a

ramp of the specified angle and a specified color filter was placed over a cardboard box.

See the procedure for further explanation of the setup.

These two factors were tested to determine how to maximize the voltage output of

solar cells. The first symbol represents angle of tilt and the second symbol represents the

color filter utilized. Thus, in the table, (+,+) indicates the use of the 45° angle and blue

filtered light, (+,-) indicates the use of the 45° angle and red filtered light, (-,-) indicates

the use of the 15° angle and red filtered light, (-,+) indicates the use of the 15° angle and

blue filtered light, and (standard, standard) indicates the use of the 30° angle and green

filtered light. The following table shows the data collected for all ten DOEs in the

experiment.
 August – Hagan 19

Table 2
Data Collected for All Trials
Voltage Output (Volts)
DOE
(+,+) (+,-) (-,+) (-,-) Standard Standard Standard
1 1.72 2.05 1.88 2.17 2.15 2.03 2.09
2 1.67 1.95 2.08 2.32 2.13 2.10 2.00
3 1.95 2.22 2.08 2.34 2.17 2.19 2.27
4 1.91 2.17 2.10 2.36 2.25 2.27 2.25
5 1.93 2.21 2.10 2.35 2.25 2.25 2.28
6 1.83 2.28 2.01 2.35 2.26 2.26 2.28
7 1.82 2.27 2.05 2.37 2.26 2.25 2.25
8 1.55 1.98 1.65 2.07 1.94 1.96 1.94
9 1.53 1.97 1.62 2.04 1.94 1.94 1.93
10 1.56 1.97 1.65 2.05 1.94 1.94 1.95
Average 1.75 2.11 1.82 2.24 2.13 2.12 2.12

Table 2 shows the voltage outputs for each of the ten DOEs when using different

values for the angle of tilt and color filter. It shows the averages of all of the data as well.

The low angle of 15° and low color of red produced the highest average voltage output of

2.24 volts, and the high angle of 45° and high color of blue produced the lowest average

voltage output of 1.75 volts.

 August – Hagan 20

Table 3
Observations for Each DOE
DOE Observations
Multimeter fluctuated between 1.70 to 1.74 volts for the high angle of tilt and
1 high color (blue) trial, so the average was taken and recorded as 1.72 volts.
Other trials did not fluctuate.
Noticed that the red wire of the solar cell used was about to fall off and was
almost unattached, so this solar cell was used to complete the second DOE and
2
then switched to a new one for the third. Trials otherwise had no significant
occurrences.
New solar cell used for this trial other than the one used for DOEs one and two.
All trials in this DOE read higher than the averages at the end, which is
3 potentially due to the fact that this was the first time the new solar cell was used
and it may have been able to utilize the light from the lamp more, as it was
newer.
All trials in this DOE read higher than the averages at the end due to the new
4 solar cell being used. Multimeter did not fluctuate for any trial and there were
no furthermore significant occurrences.
All trials in this DOE read higher than the averages at the end due to the new
solar cell being used. Multimeter fluctuated between 2.30 and 2.40 volts for the
5
low angle of tilt and low color (red) trial, so the average was taken and recorded
as 2.35 volts. No other significant occurrences.
All trials in this DOE read higher than the averages at the end due to the new
6 solar cell being used. Multimeter did not have any issues and all trials ran
smoothly for this DOE.
Red wire in solar cell broke while removing the solar cell from the inclined
ramp, after completing the last standard trial. Thus, for the following three
7 DOEs, the solar cell that was used in DOEs one and two was used again,
meaning that one solar cell was used for five DOEs and a different one was
used for the other five DOEs.
Solar cell used in DOEs one and two was used again. Overall, voltages for each
trial were reading lower than the previous trials using the other solar cell.
8 However, as one cell was used for five DOEs and another was used for the
other five DOEs, the averages at the end should be balanced between the two
different cells used.
Overall, voltages for each trial were reading lower than the averages due to the
solar cell being used. Multimeter fluctuated between 1.58 and 1.66 volts for the
9
trial using low angle of tilt and high color (blue), so the average was taken and
recorded as 1.62 volts.
Again, voltages for each trial were reading lower than the averages due to the
10 solar cell being used. Multimeter did not fluctuate for any trial and there were
no furthermore significant occurrences.

Table 3 shows the observations made during each DOE. In DOEs one, five, and

nine, the multimeter fluctuated between two voltages, so the average was taken between
 August – Hagan 21

the given two. Also, one solar cell was used in DOES one, two, eight, nine, and ten,

whereas a different one was used in DOEs three, four, five, six, and seven due to

complications with flimsy wires, as explained in Table 3.

Broken Solar Cell

Red Wire
Separated

Figure 7. Broken Solar Cell

Figure 7 shows the solar cell that was used in DOEs three, four, five, six, and

seven. The red wire broke after completing these DOEs, so a different solar cell was used

in DOEs one, two, eight, nine, and ten. Although the different solar cells tended to differ

in voltage values, the averages between the two balanced out at the end.

Figure 8. Multimeter Reading Voltage

 August – Hagan 22

Figure 8 shows the process of the multimeter reading the voltage for the high

angle of tilt (45°) and high color (blue), for the seventh DOE. In this trial, the multimeter

did not fluctuate and behaved as normal. Following this, the recorded voltage output was

recorded and another trial was done, until all ten DOEs were completed.

Red Color Vekkia Clip Lamp

Filter

Cardboard
Box

Figure 9. Lamp Shining Light on Solar Cell Using Red Filter

Figure 9 shows the process of the Vekkia clip lamp shining light on the solar cell

through the red color filter. The red filter altered the color of light that the solar cell

receives, as the solar cell receives more infrared light wavelengths when the light is

exposed to this filter. Following this, the other trials in the DOE, which include using

green and blue color filters, were conducted. This was done until all ten DOEs were

completed.
 August – Hagan 23

Data Analysis and Interpretation

The experiment that was conducted tested the effect of angle of tilt (15°, 30°, and

45°) and color filter (red, green, blue) on the voltage output of solar cells. To achieve this,

a lamp acted as the light source and small solar cells were placed on top of the ramps,

directly underneath the light source. To create the color filters, a cardboard box with the

bottom cut out, and a hole about the size of the lamp head at the top was utilized. The

different colored filter paper was taped over the hole at the top of the box, thus creating a

color filter. The cardboard box was then placed over the solar cell on the ramp, under the

lamp. To measure the voltage output of the solar cell, a multimeter was connected to the

positive and negative terminals of the solar cell. Thus, the data collected was quantitative

and continuous, as the multimeter measured the quantity of voltage output, and voltage

output can take on all values within any given range. A two-factor Design of Experiment,

or DOE, can be utilized the analyze the data as there are two input factors (angle of tilt,

color filter) suspected of influencing the output (voltage), and a two-factor DOE can

determine which factors do, in fact, impact the output.

To ensure that the data collected was reliable, constants, randomization, and

repetition were used. To minimize the effect of lurking variables, the same researcher

taped the solar cell to the ramp and taped the color filter to the top of the cardboard box.

This constant was important, as it kept the placement of the ramp under the light source

consistent, so that each trial was exposed to the same amount of light. It was randomized

by generating numbers one, two, three, and four, representing the type of trial, and was

done so until each number appeared, ten times to total ten DOEs. The trials were then

completed in the order the numbers were generated. It was important to randomize these
 August – Hagan 24

trials to increase reliability by decreasing the variability in the data. However, the three

standards in each DOE were not randomized, as they had to be completed at the

beginning, middle, and end of each DOE. This was done to ensure that the DOE

remained consistent throughout and nothing changed over time throughout the course of

the DOE. Furthermore, multiple DOEs were conducted to utilize repetition, which

provides assurance that the results from the experiment are valid and consistent. The

experiment was repeated more than once to reduce variability in the data. This repetition

combined with the randomization method used, standards, and constants (location and

lamp used) ensured that the data collected was valid.

Table 4
Table of Values
Angle of Tilt (Degrees) Color Filter
(-) Standard (+) (-) Standard (+)
15 30 45 Red Green Blue

Table 4 above shows the low, standard, and high values for the angle of tilt the

solar cell was positioned in the experiment, which were 15°, 30°, 45° respectively. It also

shows the low, standard, and high values used for the color filter, which were red, green,

and blue respectively. The standard value of 30° was chosen based on previous research,

as others have determined that an angle around 30° may produce an ideal voltage output.

The standard value of a green color filter was chosen as it is in the middle of the

electromagnetic spectrum.
 August – Hagan 25

Table 5
Averages and Grand Average
Values (+,+) (+,-) (-,+) (-,-) Grand Average
Average 1.75 2.11 1.82 2.24 1.98

Table 5 shows the average voltage output for each combination of factors. The

average for the 45° angle of tilt and blue color filter (+,+) was 1.75 volts, the average for

the 45° angle of tilt and red color filter (+,-) was 2.11 volts, the average for the 15° angle

of tilt and blue color filter (-,+) was 1.82 volts, and the average for the 15° angle of tilt

and red color filter (-,-) was 2.24 volts. The grand average was then calculated by adding

all four of these averages together and dividing by four. When doing so, the grand

average was found to be 1.98 volts.

Table 6
Effect of Angle of Tilt
EFFECT O 2.5
F ANGLE OF
Effect of Angle of Tilt T I LT
Low (-) High (+) (-) 2.03 (+) 1.93
2
1.82 1.75
VOLTAGE (V)

2.24 2.11 1.5

Avg: 2.03 Avg: 1.93
1

0.5

0
-1 1
ANGLE OF TILT

Figure 10. Effect of Angle of Tilt Graph

Table 6 and Figure 10 show the voltage output of solar cells when different angles

of tilt were used. Table 6 gives the average voltage output when using the low angle of

tilt (15°) and when using the high angle of tilt (45°). When the 15° tilt was utilized, the

voltage output of the solar cell was, on average, 2.03 volts. When the 45° tilt was utilized,

the average voltage output was 1.98 volts. The effect of angle of tilt can be found by
 August – Hagan 26

subtracting the low value of 2.03 volts, from the high value of 1.98 volts. Thus, the effect

of angle of tilt was found to be -0.10 volts. This means that on average, as the angle of tilt

increases, the voltage output is decreased by 0.10 volts.

Table 7
Effect of Color Filter
Effect of Color Filter (-)2.18
(-) 2.18
Low (-) High (+) (+)
(+)1.79
1.79
2.11 1.75
2.24 1.82
Avg: 2.18 Avg: 1.79

Figure 11. Effect of Color Filter Graph

Table 7 and Figure 11 show the voltage output of solar cells when different color

filters were utilized. Table 7 gives the average voltage output when using the low color

filter (red) and when using the high color filter (blue). When the red color filter was used,

the voltage output of the solar cell was, on average, 2.18 volts. When the blue color filter

was used, the average voltage output was 1.79 volts. The effect of color filter is found

using the same method used to find the effect of angle of tilt (subtracting the low value

from the high value). Thus, the effect of color filter is 2.18 subtracted from 1.79, or -0.39

volts. This means that on average, as the color filter increases on the electromagnetic

spectrum, the voltage is decreased by 0.39 volts.

 August – Hagan 27

Table 8
Interaction Effect INTERACTION EFFECT OF
Angle of Tilt ANGLE OF TILT AND
COLOR FILTER
Color (low) 2.5
(-) (+) (-) 2.24
2 (+) 1.75
Color (high)

VOLTAGE (V)
(-) 2.24
(-) 2.11 1.5 (+) 1.82
Color Filter

Solid Segment (+)

1
2.11 1.75
0.5
Dotted
(-) 0
Segment
2.24 1.82 -1 1
ANGLE OF TILT

Figure 12. Interaction Effect Graph

Table 8 compares the voltage output averages between the angle of tilt and color

filter when they interact with each other. Figure 12 shows the interaction effect between

the angle of tilt and the color filter utilized. The solid segment represents the high value

for color filter and the dotted segment represents the low value for color filter.

Furthermore, the slope of the solid segment is -0.18 and the slope of the dotted segment is

-0.21. With these values, the interaction effect can be found by subtracting the low color

filter slope (solid segment) from the high color filter slope (solid segment) to get 0.03

volts. Based on the slopes of the two segments, there does not appear to be an interaction

effect, because the two segments are almost parallel, having very similar, negative slopes.

This implies that there may not be anything significant about their interaction, as the rate

of change does not appear to matter if the color filter is held high or low.
 August – Hagan 28

Plot of 30 Standards
2.5

Voltage (V) 2

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 13. Scatterplot of Standards

Figure 13 shows the voltage outputs for the standards trials, which had an angle of

tilt of 30° and a green color filter. The results had a range of 1.93 volts to 2.28 volts,

making the range of standards 0.35 volts. Doubling the range of standards would give

0.70 volts. However, this large range of standards is since two different solar cells were

used as one of them broke, as detailed in the data and observations section. As shown in

the data and observations section, one of the two cells consistently read lower than the

other. Thus, it would make more sense to average the standards from the beginning,

middle, and end of the experiment, and then calculate the range of standards to account

for this fact. As shown in Table 2 in the data and observations section, the average

standard at the beginning of the DOE was 2.13 volts, the average standard during the

middle of the DOE was 2.12 volts, and the average standard during the end of the DOE

was 2.12. This would cause the range of standards to be 0.01, which is 0.02 when

doubled. This indicates that all the effects are significant, as the angle of tilt effect value

(-0.10), color filter effect value (-0.39), and interaction effect value (0.03) are all outside

the range of -0.02 and 0.02.

 August – Hagan 29

Furthermore, when viewing Figure 13, there is no pattern occurring in the data

over time, as the data seems to remain in a generally straight line around 2.15 volts. As

the standards are all in the same general area, the data suggests consistency, meaning that

each test gave similar results when under the same conditions and the experiment was

designed well. Finally, the original range of standards of 0.35, as detailed above, suggests

there was a lot of variability in the data, which would be accurate due to the two different

solar cells used (which was a flaw within the experiment). However, the other calculated

range of standards of 0.01 (which was found by taking the average standard from the

beginning, middle, and end of each DOE) suggests that when the two different solar cells

cancel out (as each was used for five of the ten DOEs), the experiment was consistent

from the beginning to the end.

Dot Plot of Effects -0.02 0.02

C C&AT
AT
-0.39 -0.10 0.03

-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1

Figure 14. Dot Plot of Effects

Figure 14 shows the dot plot for the test of significance, labeled with the effects of

angle of tilt (AT), color filter (C), and their interaction (C&AT). For the test of

significance, these three effect values were compared to double the range of standards to

see if there were any significant factors in the data. The black vertical lines (fences)

represent double the range of standards, which in this case, is the absolute value of 0.02.

Any effects on the outside of those lines are deemed statistically significant, meaning the

results likely did not happen by chance alone, whereas effects that are inside the lines are

not statistically significant. The dot plot shows that all the factors were statistically
 August – Hagan 30

significant when determining the voltage output of a solar cell. The effect that is the most

significant is color filter, with an effect value of -0.39, as it is the effect that is farthest

away from zero, with zero meaning no difference in the outcomes. The effect that is the

least significant is the interaction effect between angle of tilt and color filter with an

effect value of 0.03, because it is the closest to the fences.

−0.10 −0.39 0.03

𝑌 = 1.98 + 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐶+ 𝐶 + "𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒"
2 2 2
Figure 15. Prediction Equation

The equation above in Figure 15 shows the prediction equation for the voltage

output of solar cells, considering all the effects and the interaction effect, regardless of if

they are significant. This equation allows a prediction for voltage output in future

experiments based on the value plugged in for each factor. See Appendix C for further

details on how this equation was obtained.

−0.10 −0.39 0.03

𝑌 = 1.98 + 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐶+ 𝐶&𝐴𝑇 + "𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒"
2 2 2
Figure 16. Parsimonious Prediction Equation

Figure 16 shows the parsimonious prediction equation to predict the voltage

output of solar cells. Unlike the regular prediction equation, the parsimonious prediction

equation only accounts for the significant factors, but because all factors were deemed

significant, it is the same as the prediction equation. These factors were deemed

significant as they were outside of double the range of standards, as seen in Figure 14.

See Appendix C for further details on how this equation was obtained.
 August – Hagan 31

Interpretation:

Overall, in this experiment, everything was deemed statistically significant, as

shown in Figure 14. Color filter was the most significant effect, as its effect value of -

0.39 was farthest away from zero. Again, this means that on average, as the color filter

increased on the electromagnetic spectrum, the voltage was decreased by 0.39 volts. The

interaction effect of 0.03 was the least significant effect, as it was very close to zero, with

zero meaning no difference in the outcomes. In fact, because the interaction effect was

only 0.01 off from the fence, the interaction effect may have a very small effect, if any,

on the voltage output of solar cells. It could have possibly happened by chance alone due

to how close it was to the fence. Finally, the angle of tilt had an effect value of -0.10,

meaning that on average, as the angle of tilt increased, the voltage output decreased by

0.10 volts. Overall, it can be concluded that color filter had the greatest effect on the

voltage output of solar cells, angle of tilt had a smaller effect on the voltage output of

solar cells, and the interaction effect of angle of tilt and color filter had a very small

effect, if any, on the voltage output of solar cells.

 August – Hagan 32

Conclusion

The purpose of this experiment was to determine which angle of tilt and which

color filtered light, when shined over a solar cell, would produce the greatest voltage

output. To collect data, model solar cells were placed on top of 15°, 30°, and 25° angled

ramps inside of a cardboard box with a hole at the top, to allow only the intended light

source to contact the solar cells. To change the color of the light, red, green, and blue

filter paper was placed over the hole at the top of the box, filtering the light contacting the

solar cell. A multimeter connected to the solar cell then collected the voltage output of

the cell.

It was hypothesized that when the solar cell is tilted at a 15° angle from the

horizontal and has a red color filter, it will produce the most efficient voltage output for

solar panels when compared with a 30° or 45° angle of tilt, and green or blue color filter.

The hypothesis was accepted, as the 15° angle of tilt from the horizontal combined with

the red color filtered light resulted in the highest mean voltage output at 2.24 volts. The

mean voltage output for the 15° angle of tilt and blue filtered light was 1.82 volts, the

mean voltage output for the 45° angle of tilt and red filtered light was 2.11 volts, and the

mean voltage output for the 45° angle of tilt and blue filtered light was 1.75 volts, which

were all less than the mean of 2.24 volts produced using the 15° angle of tilt and red

filtered light.

Conducting the two-factor Design of Experiment determined that both angle of

tilt, color filter, and their interaction were all statistically significant factors, meaning the

results likely did not happen by chance alone. Color filter had the highest effect value of -

0.39, followed by angle of tilt with an effect value of -0.10, and their interaction with an
 August – Hagan 33

effect value of 0.03, which were all outside the absolute value of double the range of

standards of 0.02, making them all statistically significant factors. The negative effect

value of angle of tilt means that on average, as the angle of tilt increases, the voltage

output is decreased by 0.10 volts. The negative effect value of color filter means that on

average, as the color increases on from red to blue on the electromagnetic spectrum, the

voltage output is decreased by 0.39 volts. These effect values suggest that the color filter

used had the greatest effect on the voltage output of solar cells, angle of tilt had a smaller

effect on the voltage output of solar cells, and their interaction effect had a minor effect,

if any, on the voltage output of solar cells due to how close the effect value of 0.03 is to

zero, which indicates no difference in the outcomes.

The data collected supported the hypothesis, as a 15° angle of tilt from the

horizontal allows for the majority of solar cells on a solar panel to be encompassed by the

sunlight, or in this experiment, the lamp. Solar panels are typically placed on the rooftops

of buildings, and the tilt the solar panel is positioned at on the roof is important when

determining the efficiency of solar panels, as certain tilt placements on the roof prevent

the sun from enveloping all the solar cells which reduces efficiency. Specifically, as the

angle of tilt from the horizontal increases, less photons from the sun reach the surface of

the solar panel, meaning less surface area of the solar panel is encompassed by the sun.

As less photons reach the surface area of the panel, less energy is present to be converted

into electricity, thus the voltage output decreases. On the other hand, when the angle of

tilt is smaller and closer to the horizontal, more photons from the sun are able to reach the

surface area of the solar cell, increasing voltage output. Therefore, the smaller angle of

tilt of 15° allows more of the surface area of the solar cell to encompass the photons
 August – Hagan 34

provided by the sun’s rays, which is why the 15° angle of tilt maximized the voltage

output in this experiment. This concept can further be explained by the formula

(Wo/Wi)*100 = efficiency, in which Wo is work output in joules, Wi is work input

measured in joules, and efficiency is measured in percentage. As explained previously, a

15° angle of tilt will have a greater voltage output due to more surface area of the solar

panel being encompassed by the sun. Therefore, a 15° angle of tilt would have a greater

work output, making the numerator larger in the given equation, resulting in a greater

efficiency.

However, the proper tilt also depends on the region of the world in which the

solar panel is located. A study by B. Kamanga, J.S.P Mlatho, C. Mikela, and C. Kamunda

determined that the optimal angle of tilt for solar panels to be positioned at is based on

the latitude of the location it will be installed at. When testing the efficiency of solar

panels in Zomba District, Malawi by recording the Global Solar radiation (GSR) every

hour for one year, they derived the formula 𝛽𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 𝜑 ± 15°, where 𝜑 is the latitude of

the location and 𝛽𝑜𝑝𝑡 is the optimal tilt angle. This formula was derived to allow for all

solar cells to be within the sun’s rays, thus a greater surface area of solar cells is able to

absorb sunlight. In this experiment, the lamp shined directly over the solar cell. This

allowed the angle of tilt that was most horizontal, the 15° angle, to absorb more sunlight

than the more vertical angles of tilt of 30° and 45°. However, in other latitudes, the sun

may not be positioned directly above the solar panel, thus the optimal angle of tilt would

be different for each region.

The color filter, or color of light, was the other factor that was tested in this

experiment. As expected, the red color filter, as compared with the green and blue color
 August – Hagan 35

filters, maximized the voltage output of solar panels. This is because solar panels

typically absorb frequencies of light from 380 nm to 750 nm, from the 290 nm to 3,200

nm the sun emits of infrared, visible light, and ultraviolet waves, because frequencies

from 380 nm to 750 nm possess the correct voltage of energy to remove electrons from

the weak bonds to create a current (“What Light Wave Do Solar Panels Use?”). The

range of 380 nm to 750 nm that solar panels absorb includes all of the visible light

spectrum, and also encompasses part of infrared wavelengths, which are between 700 nm

to 100,000 nm, and part of ultraviolent wavelengths, which are between 10 nm to 400 nm

(“UV Light”). The ultraviolet range of 10 nm to 400 nm is less within the range of

wavelengths that solar panels can absorb (380 nm to 750 nm) when compared to the

infrared light wavelength range of 700 nm to 100,000 nm, thus decreasing energy

efficiency when using a blue filter rather than a red filter. Along with the ultraviolet range

being less within the range of frequencies that solar panels can absorb, when the small

range of ultraviolent light is absorbed, energy is largely converted to heat rather than

electricity, so less energy is utilized by the solar panel (Hekkenberg).

The results from this experiment agree with existing research in the field. As

mentioned previously, a study done by B. Kamanga, J.S.P. Mlatho, C. Mikela, and C.

Kamunda in Zomba District, Malawi, at the University of Malawi, determined that for the

months of October to February, the optimum angle of tilt is 0º, and from March to

September, the optimum angle of tilt is 25º, but this varies depending on where the

location is, as explained previously with the formula they derived (B. Kamanga et al.).

Their results agree with the results determined from this research, as they found angle of

tilt to be a significant factor to maximize the voltage output of solar panels. Furthermore,
 August – Hagan 36

the optimal angle was determined to be 15º, rather than 30º or 45º, which was within the

range of 0º to 25º that their experiment found.

Another study conducted by Tony Lam and Danny Li, from the City University of

Hong Kong, found that the maximum energy output for solar panels was 775 kWh/m*m,

which occurred when the angle of elevation was between 10° and 30° during the noon

sun peak (Lam and Li). Their results agreed with the results from this experiment, as this

experiment found to the optimal angle of tilt to be 15°, which was within the range that

Lam and Li found.

The experimental design was helpful in reaching the conclusion as it was

beneficial to use color filters to change the color of light that was shined over the solar

panel. Originally, the solar panels were going to be painted, but this was inapplicable as

actual solar panels used for homes and businesses are typically black or blue, and not

painted. Thus, using color filters was effective to test what colors of light solar panels can

absorb rather than painting the cells. It was also helpful to use a multimeter, as it is the

easiest way to measure the voltage output of solar panels. However, the experimental

design did have some issues. It was difficult to keep the solar cell in the exact same

position when placing the cardboard box over it, as the box would often move the solar

cell from its original position. This could have prevented the entire surface area of the

solar cell from being encompassed by the lamp’s rays, thus reducing the voltage output of

the cell by making it read lower than it could have if the box had not moved it.

Other than this issue, further problems were encountered. In the first, fifth, and

ninth DOEs, the multimeter fluctuated between two values when measuring the voltage

output. This could have resulted in recording an inaccurate voltage output for the specific
 August – Hagan 37

trial, but this error was minimized by taking the average of the two values the multimeter

would fluctuate between. Additionally, the frail wires of the solar cells detached from the

solar cells while conducting trials. After the second trial, the red wire, the positive input,

of the solar cell that was being used appeared as if it were about to fall off, so a different

solar cell was used for the third through the seventh DOE. However, in the seventh DOE,

the red wire of the solar cell broke, so for DOEs eight through ten, the original solar cell

from the first and second DOEs was used. This was problematic, as in the third through

the seventh DOEs, the voltage output read consistently higher than the voltage output for

the first, second, and eighth through tenth DOE, as the manufacturer that made the solar

cells, inconsistently constructed the solar cells. However, this error was minimized by

using one solar for five of the DOEs, and another solar cell for the other five DOEs,

allowing their differences in voltage output to balance out when taking the average.

Further research may be conducted to expand upon this research, including more

investigations on what colors of light solar panels can absorb, as well as how to enable

solar panels to absorb more colors of light than they previously can. Currently, there is no

existing research testing the impact of color filters on the voltage output of solar cells, so

more research can be done to confirm the finding from this experiment that color filters

and the color of light do, indeed, impact the voltage output of solar cells. Along with this,

research could be done to find a way to enable solar panels to absorb more frequencies on

the ultraviolent portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, as this experiment found that

solar cells have difficulty absorbing blue light as compared to red or green light. If further

research found a way to allow solar panels to absorb blue light, voltage output could be

maximized, making solar panels a more accessible energy solution to utilize in the future.
 August – Hagan 38

The current technology available on the market that is made to maximize voltage

output of solar panels includes self-adjusting solar panels. Self-adjusting solar panels,

known as Automatic Sun Tracking System (ASTS), are completely automatic and move

to follow the sun during the day so that the panel is always receiving the sun’s full

intensity (Nikesh and Rakesh). This system ensures that all solar cells of the solar panels

receive sunlight so that the voltage output is the highest possible. This system uses six

sensors that work together to track the sun during the day, when it is cloudy, and sensors

for at night. Once it is detected that it has reached the night, the solar panels reset to the

east for when the sun rises in the morning (Nikesh and Rakesh). While these systems

effectively ensure that the solar panels receive the full intensity of the sun at all hours, the

systems require precise calibration, are more expensive than manual solar panels, and are

not applicable to smaller scale solar panels that would be placed on homes. While this

system would be ideal to ensure all solar panel users maximize the voltage output of their

solar system, it is not realistic for the average household to implement.

It could also be expanded by finding a way to make solar panels out of more cost-

efficient materials, as the current cost to install an average, six kilowatts solar panel

system is $12,810, after tax credits, which is not attainable for many families and

businesses within the United States, and the world (Matasci). If the use of solar panels

was made more cost-efficient by utilizing different materials that are similar to but less

expensive than silicon, more people would be able to use solar energy to power their

homes and businesses rather than burning fossil fuels, which could ultimately reduce the

rate at which global warming occurs and save the planet from its current environmental

crisis.
 August – Hagan 39

Acknowledgements
The researchers would like to thank Mr. McMillan and Mrs. Cybulski for helping

with the scientific concepts related to this research, the formatting of the paper, and the

statistical analysis for the data.

 August – Hagan 40

Appendix A: How to Construct Light Canceling Cardboard Box

Materials:

Roll of Duct Tape

Black Acrylic Paint
Paint Brush
Box Cutter
Cardboard Box (24 cm x 19 cm x 32.3 cm)
Ruler

Procedures:

1.With duct tape, seal all the cracks and corners on the outside of the cardboard box so
that no light shines inside the box.

2. Paint the entire outside of the box with black acrylic paint.

3. Let the paint set for one hour, so that it is completely dry.

4. On the top face (24 cm x 19 cm) of the box, measure to the center and cut a circle with
a radius of 5 cm in the center.

5. On the opposite bottom face (24 cm x 19 cm) of the box, cut the full bottom face out,
so that the box can be placed over the solar panel set up. Refer to Figure 17 below to see
the final constructed light cancelling box.

Figure 17. Completed Light Cancelling Box

Figure 17 above shows the final constructed box.

 August – Hagan 41

Appendix B: How to Construct the Three Inclined Ramps

Materials:

Dark Brown Acrylic Paint

Paint Brush
Box Cutter
White Styrofoam Board (81.28 cm x 101.6 cm)
Ruler
Protractor

Procedures:

1. On the Styrofoam board, using a ruler to measure, cut out three 6.2 cm x 7.5 cm
rectangles.

2. Cut out a 1.8 cm x 6.2 cm rectangle of the Styrofoam board with a box cutter.

3. On a flat level table, stand the 1.8 cm x 6.2 cm rectangle vertically, so that the 6.2 cm
edge is laying perpendicular to the surface of the table. Line the top 6.2 cm edge of the
1.8 cm x 6.2 cm with the 6.2 cm edge of one of the 6.2 cm x 7.5 cm rectangles.

4. Keeping the 6.2 cm edges of the two rectangles aligned, tilt the 1.8 cm x 6.2 cm
rectangle downward until it makes a 15° angle with the flat surface of the table, and
see Figure 18. At this point. Hot glue the two 6.2 cm edges together so that it forms an
inclined ramp.

5. Cut out a 3.6 cm x 6.2 cm rectangle of the Styrofoam board.

6. Repeat the same process as in steps 3-4, instead of measuring to a 15° angle, measure
to a 30° angle.

7. Cut out a 5.7 cm x 6.2 cm rectangle of the Styrofoam board.

8. Repeat the same process as in step 3-4, instead of measuring to a 15° angle, measure to
a 45° angle.

9. Paint the surface of all three ramps brown, as to mimic the color of a rooftop.
 August – Hagan 42

Diagram:

6.2 cm

15°

Figure 18. Ramp Construction

Figure 18 above shows the placement of how the degree of inclined was

measured, and how the two 6.2 cm sides of the two rectangular pieces of the ramp

should be aligned. The orange line indicates where the 6.2 cm edges of the two pieces

of the ramp should be attached. This is an example with the 15° inclined ramp, but the

same process is applied to constructing the 30° and 45° inclined ramps.
 August – Hagan 43

Appendix C: Prediction and Parsimonious Equations

𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝐶&𝐴𝑇
𝑌 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 + + + + "𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒"
2 2 2
−0.10 −0.39 0.03
𝑌 = 1.98 + 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐶+ 𝐶&𝐴𝑇 + "𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒"
2 2 2

Figure 19. Prediction Equation

Figure 19 above shows the prediction equation for the voltage output of solar

cells. This was found by taking the grand average of 1.98, and adding each effect value

divided by two, regardless of if the effect value was significant. Noise is also added to the

end to account for uncontrollable factors.

𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝐶&𝐴𝑇
𝑌 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 + + + + "𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒"
2 2 2
−0.10 −0.39 0.03
𝑌 = 1.98 + 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐶+ 𝐶&𝐴𝑇 + "𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒"
2 2 2

Figure 20. Parsimonious Prediction Equation

Figure 20 above shows the parsimonious prediction equation. Unlike the regular

prediction equation, only the significant, or the vital few, factors are included. However,

since all the values were deemed significant, the parsimonious prediction equation was

the same as the prediction equation. Again, noise is added to account for uncontrollable

factors.
 August – Hagan 44

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