Plant Systems ○ Cork cambium

: produces the outer bark / covering of

Plant Cells plants
1.) Parenchyma ○ Vascular Cambium
- flat-thin walled w/ large vacuole : vascular tissue
- site of metabolic functions : increase in diameter and width of roots
- present in photosynthetic tissue of a leaf and soft flesh of and stems
fruits (c) Intercalary Meristems
- photosynthesis, protein synthesis : found in nodes or leaf attachment
- ready reserves (starch) : stem length
- specialized : helps regenerate parts removed
(a) Chlorenchyma : common in grasses
: contains chloroplast : increases the diameter of non-woody plants
(b) Aerenchyma
: intercellular spaces that improve gas exchange 2.) Non-Meristematic (Permanent)
(c) Transfer cells - they don’t divide because they’re matured
: dissolved cells that helps transport - gained new parts or lost old parts to perform specialized
: plasmodesmata permanent functions
- Types
2.) Collenchyma (a) Dermal
- unevenly thickened walls : covering tissue
- support and strength : Epidermis
- epidermis and veins in leaves → skin of the plants
→ for covering
3.) Sclerenchyma → specialized
- dead at maturity ○ Cuticle - for water retention
- have thick and rigid cell walls ○ Stomata - found at the underside of the
- serve as strengthening elements to support mature plant leaves for gas exchange
parts ○ Trichomes - leaf hairs (sa mushrooms
- specialized ganon)
○ Sclereids ○ Periderm - contains suberin (waxy
: stone cells covering) and lenticels (gas exchange in
: hard coats the stem)
: gritty textures (b) Vascular
: yung pears ata na sinasabi ni sir - for transport
○ Fibers ○ Xylem
: long and slender cells : water conduction upward
: for commercial use (ropes, textiles, strings, : dead cells
canvass) : xylary elements
(1) Vessel
Plant tissues (2) Tracheids (strength and
1.) Meristematic (Embryonic) conduction)
- formation of new cells (mitosis) (3) Rays
- plants grow because of this ○ Phloem
- found at the tips of roots and stems : food conduction downward
(a) Apical Meristems (c) Fundamental
: apices - ground tissues
: primary growth - cortex, pith
: increase in height **transpiration = water loss; works faster if mas mainit
: zone of elongation
: produces 3 tissues Plant Organs
○ Protoderm 1.) Vegetative
: epidermis - roots, stems, leaves
: outer layer 2.) Reproductive
○ Ground Meristem - flowers, fruits, seeds
: cortex (gitna)
○ Procambium Regulators of Plant Growth
: where vascular bundles are developed → Hormones
(b) Lateral Meristems - Produced by plants to regulate growth and development
: for girth and diameter - Chemical substances that the body produces in very small
: secondary growth amounts

Coleen Santos, 11HA17

 - 5 Kinds: a. Fibrous system
1.) Auxin : monocots
: primary hormone for growth : have numerous fine roots w/ similar diameter
: stimulate cells to divide and elongate b. Tap root system
: produced in the root and short aperical meristem : dicots
: sensitive to light and tends to move away from it : grow straight downward and remains as the
: Phototropism and the effect of auxin dominant root of the plant
○ Phototropism - the growth movement or c. Adventitious
its part in response to light as the : found at the base of stems, nodes, and
external stimulus internodes
○ Auxin will make the cells bigger and : may develop from leaves
heavier therefore causing the plant to - Longitudinal Sections of the Roots
bend towards the sunlight a. Meristematic Region
2.) Cytokinin : zone of cellular division
: works with auxin to stimulate cell division and : growing part of the roots
differentiation : with actively dividing cells
: promotes cell division and growth of lateral buds : cells in this region have large nuclei and are
(width increase) small in size
3.) Gibberillin ○ Root Cap
: produced in seeds and juvenile plants : forms at the tip of the root
: promotes seed germination : protects the delicate cells of
: helps in seed growth meristematic region from mechanical
4.) Abscisic Acid injury
: promotes bud dormancy b. Elongation Region
: works antagonistically w/ other hormones : cells elongate several times their original length
: helps plants cope w/ environmental stresses : no more increase in cell number
such as extreme cold and drought c. Maturation Region
5.) Ethylene : “region of differentiation”
: gaseous plant hormone that inhibits stem and : enlarged cells become differentiated into mature
root elongation tissues (xylem and phloem)
: promotes ripening of fruits and wilting of flowers : younger part is called “root-hair zone” because of
the numerous hair-like structures
Tropism - Specialized
- Growth in response to stimulus (1) Fleshy roots
○ Phototropism : roots that store food/sugar (sweet potato)
: response of plants to light (2) Prop Roots
○ Geotropism : grows from the lower portion of the stem above
: gravitropism the ground to support the entire plant
: response of a plant to gravity (3) Aerial Roots
: negative = growth upward : absorbs moisture from the air besides absorbing
positive = growth downward kasi gravity naturally water from the rain
causes roots to grow downward (4) Climbing Roots
○ Thigmotropism : roots that hold the stem securely (vines)
: plant’s response to touch or stimuli (5) Buttress Roots
○ Hydrotropism : roots that stabilizes the tree by widening its
: growth response to water foundation
: positive = roots
negative = stems Stems
○ Chemotropism - Passageway for the manufactured food, minerals and water
: plant’s response to chemicals from the soil and leaves
: positive = grow towards useful chemicals - Usually grows above the ground and holds the leaves,
Negative = grow away from harmful chemicals flowers, and fruits
- Kinds:

Roots a. Herbaceous
- Important functions : bearing of fruits happen once a year
(1) Anchors the plant : small and covered with epidermis
(2) Absorbs minerals and water b. Woody
(3) Conduct water and nutrients : large
(4) Store food : hard and not green
- 3 Types of root systems - External Parts

Coleen Santos, 11HA17

 ○ Nodes - where the leaves are attached
○ Internode - region between 2 successive nodes
○ Bud - a mass of tissue which develops into leaves
or flowers
➔ Apical = terminal buds
➔ Axillary = lateral
○ Lenticels - tiny pores that allow exchange of gases
for the stem
○ Leaf Scar - shows where the leaves were
previously attached to the stem
○ Axil - the angle formed between the stem and
petiole of the leaf
- Specialized
○ Stolons - above the ground runners (grasses)
○ Rhizomes - underground runners (ginger)
○ Tubers - are underground storage stems like
potatoes
○ Corms - underground stem with nodes where new
plants may arise
○ Tendrils - leaves or stems that hold into other
structures (vines)
Leaves
- Will soon grow from the bareness of trees chz
- Are flattened, lateral appendage that carries out the
functions of photosynthesis and transpiration
- External parts:
(1) Petiole - leaf stalk
(2) Blade - expanded and flattened portion of the leaf;
usually green
(3) Stipules - leaf-like outgrowths at the base of the
petiole
(4) Midrib - running through the center of the blade
(5) Vein - acts as the framework of the leaf
- Internal Parts:
(1) Stomata/Stoma - an opening through which gases
and water vapor pass into or out of the leaf
(2) Guard cells - regulates the opening and closing of
the stomata
(3) Epidermis - outermost tissues; protects the inner
tissues
(4) Cuticle - waxy covering of the epidermis
(5) Mesophyll - group of tissues in the inner portion of
a leaf; has 2 layers
○ Palisade
: upper mesophyll layer; cells are
compressed
○ Spongy
: lower mesophyll layer
: loosely arranged cells w/ lots of
intercellular spaces
- Specialized
○ Spines of Cactus - can’t perform photosynthesis;
spines will serve as protection while the stem will
perform photosynthesis
○ Tendrils - leaves or stems that hold into other
structures (vineees)
○ Bulbs - can store food in their scaly leaves
○ Succulents - fleshy leaves that store water
○ Bracts - colorful leaves which attract insect
pollinators to their small unscented flowers
- Transpiration
: giving off water vapor by the plants caused by the heat of
the sun
: more stomata are in the lower epidermis of a leaf to
minimize the effect of transpiration
Plant Reproduction
a. Asexual Reproduction
- one parent is involved
- produces an offspring genetically identical to it
- vegetative reproduction
- ways of asexual reproduction:
(1) Natural Vegetative Propagation
○ Stolons - above the ground runners
(stems) where roots of new plants could
start to grow
○ Rhizomes - underground runners;
modified stem specialized for
reproduction and storage
○ Tubers - underground storage stems like
potatoes from which new plants can
grow from the buds after a dormant
season
○ Bulbs - underground storage units
divided by mitosis, allowing many new
plants to form new bulbs
○ Bulblets - term coined for a unique form
of asexual reproduction in which bulblets
form in place of flower heads
○ Corms - underground stem where new
plants may arise
(2) Artificial Propagation Mode
- with human intervention; often faster that growing
from seeds
○ Stem Cutting - stem of a plant is cut and
planted on soil
○ Fragmentation - part of a plant breaks
off and grows into a new plant
○ Plantlets - miniature versions of parents
plants
○ Grafting - stem is inserted to another
stem of another plant
○ Marcotting - stem is wounded by girdling
(removal of outer bark)
- wounded part is wrapped w/ soil and
mosses then covered with a protective
waterproof covering
○ Tissue Culture - plant containing actively
dividing cells is cultured with appropriate
nutrients in growing medium at right
temp and light exposure
Coleen Santos, 11HA17
 (a) Pedicel - stalk of the flower
b. Sexual reproduction (b) Receptacle - swollen tip of the stalk
- Reproductive Parts where flower parts arise
: plants involved in sexual reproduction (c) Sepals - green, leaflike structures that
- Plants flower according to season and one of the cover and protect the flower in the bud
most important factors that changes with season is stage
photoperiod (proportion of the length of day and (d) Petals - colorful structures in circle
night w/in 24 hours) - *calyx = collective term for all sepals
- Photoperiodism corolla = collective term for all petals
: response of flowering plants in the difference in
the duration of light and dark periods in a day
: dry season (days > night) ; wet season (days <
night) or winter
: 3 types of plants according to their photoperiod
requirements for flowering
○ Long-day - flower when days are longer
○ Short-day - flower when days are
shorter
○ Day-neutral - flower at any season
- Although temp, water, and other environmental
*BABAGSAK YUNG MAGJJUDGE NG DRAWING KO GRRRRR
conditions may vary from year to year, day length
FLOWER YAN OKAY*
is CONSTANT
- Stages of Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
- Secret to flowering = PHOTOPERIODISM
(1) Megasporogenesis / Microsporogenesis
- Phytocromes
: Mega = leads to the formation of the female
: chemical sensors found in the leaves of plants
gametophyte (embryo sac which contains the
: plant pigments that assumes 2 interconvertible
ovules or egg cells)
forms, PR and PFR
: Micro = leads to the formation of male
: Red light from sunlight = inactive PR forms the
gametophyte (pollen grain which contains the
active PFR
sperm cells)
: At night, far red light converts PFR back to PR
(2) Pollination
○ Short-day plant species (winter
: act of transferring pollen grains from the male to
flowering)
anther to the female stigma
→ PFR inhibits flowering
a. Self-pollination - pollination of the flower
→ PR > PFR
in a plant
○ Long-day plant species (summer
b. Cross-pollination - pollination of a flower
flowering)
of the same species in a different plant
→ PFR induces flowering
(3) Pollen Germination
→ PR < PFR
: a pollen grain absorbs liquid from the stigma and
germinate
Flowers
: a pollen tube carrying the sperm cells grow down
- Reproductive structure found in flowering plants
the neck of the style, allowing it to enter the ovary
- Contains the reproductive organs of the plant (stamen and
and join with the ovule to fertilize it
pistils)
(4) Double Fertilization
- Reproductive Organs
: 1 haploid sperm (N) fertilizes the haploid egg (N)
1. Stamen (Androecium)
: a diploid (2n) will be formed → zygote
: male reproductive organ
: the other sperm (N) fertilizes the central cell (2n)
: 2 parts
of the embryo sac to form a triploid endosperm
(a) Anther - produces pollen which contains
: There are 2 fertilization events kaya double
the sperm cells
fertilization
(b) Filament - slender stalk that holds up the
: Zygote undergoes a series of mitotic divisions,
anther
producing a mass of undifferentiated cells called
2. Pistil (Gynoecium)
the embryo
: female reproductive organ
: 3 parts
(5) Fruit and Seed Development
(a) Stigma - sticky and slightly enlarged part
: 2 major changes after fertilization
of the tip of the style
a. The ovary develops into a fruit
(b) Style - slender tube that supports the
b. The ovule becomes a seed
stigma; a tube leading to the ovary
: 2 Parts of a fruit
(c) Ovary - swollen base of pistil containing
a. Pericarp (fruit wall)
the ovules
○ Exocarp - outermost wall
: Other Structures
○ Mesocarp - middle wall
Coleen Santos, 11HA17
 ○ Endocarp - innermost wall : hair and nails are included in this system
b. Seeds 2.) Muscular
- Made up of seed coat, : main function = enables us to move
endosperm, and embryo : main organ = skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles
(6) Seed Germination : Myofibrils = muscle fibers; actin (thin) and myosin (thick)
: seeds of plants may fall to the ground or may be filaments
carried by animals to other places 3.) Skeletal
: if conditions are favorable, seed germinates : main function = provides shape and support; also enables
: Parts of a seed: you to move
a. Seed coat (testa) - protects the : main organ = bones
endosperm and embryo inside : produces blood cells through bone marrow
b. Endosperm - short-term food supply of ➔ If you want more RBC, try high altitude training
the seed : Calcium is stored in your bones!! They release n collect :>
c. Embryo - has 3 parts : 2 Parts:
○ Cotyledon - serves as food a. Axial - gitna bones
reservoir b. Appendicular - lahat ng excess
○ Epicotyl - develops into stem 4.) Digestive
○ Hypocotyl - develops into : main function = digestion and absorption
roots : main organ = idk lahat ata
: Germination (sprout) : break down of molecules (catabolysm)
○ Growth of a young plant from a seed : passes the molecules to the blood; also eliminates solid
waste
Human Body Systems 5.) Circulatory
- Body systems work together : main function = transport of nutrients, oxygen, and
ex. AIDS → you may get respi, repro, digestive, and hormones to cells throughout the body (same w/
integumentary diseases/illness cardiovascular)
: main organ = heart <3
Tissues : 2 types:
- Group of similar cells performing a specific function a. Closed - blood flows through closed vessels
- 4 types: b. Open - blood flows through open spaces called
a. Epithilial - for covering and protection lacunae and sinuses
b. Connective - support; almost all body parts are 6.) Cardiovascular
made up of this : main function = to transport oxygen, nutrients, waste
c. Muscular - movement throughout the body
d. Nervous - control and communication : Blood System
○ Fav blood type ng lamok = O
Organs ○ Antigen - any substance that causes your immune
- Group of tissues that work together to perform closely system to produce antibodies against it
related functions ○ Antibody - immunoglobulins; fights the foreign
substances that are invading the body
Organ Systems 7.) Respiratory
- Group of organs that work together to perform a specific : main function = moves oxygen from the outside
function environment into your body
- For Support, protection, and mobility : main organ = lungs
= integumentary, muscular, skeletal : edema = “manas”
- Response = nervous : emphysema = you have fluid in your alveoli
- Nutrition = digestive 8.) Urinary
- Transport of materials = circulatory : main function = collects wastes produced by cells and
- Gas exchange = respiratory removes them from your body
- Elimination of waste = excretory : main organ = kidneys
- Regulation of activities = endocrine : ureter → urinary bladder → urethra
- Reproduction = reproductive 9.) Immune/Lymphatic
- Immunity to diseases = immune : main function = fights foreign invaders
10.) Endocrine
1.) Integumentary : main function = to regulate the activity of cells or organs
: main function = prevention of injury and protection of the : main organ = glands
whole body : hormones
: main organ = skin : interaction of systems
: helps in the regulation of body temp and elimination of : pituitary = growth
waste : ovary and testes
: flexion creases = lines sa skin 11.) Reproductive

Coleen Santos, 11HA17

 - Population Growth Rate = change in the number of
Ecosystem individuals over time
Ecology
- Study of the interaction of organisms and their environment Biotic Potential
Types - Rate at which a population increases when there are no
1.) Aquatic limits on its rate of growth or its innate capacity for increase
2.) Terrestrial - Ability of a population to grow continuously when they live in
an ideal condition
Principles of Ecosystem - Max rate of growth of a population
1.) Speciation - Thomas Maltus
: formation of new organisms : overpopulation will lead to chaos because everyone will
: for new species to arise, populations or segments of a fight for resources
population must become isolated - Problem = overpopulation
: 2 types of Isolation
○ Geographic Isolation - physical separation of Environmental Resistance
members of a population as a result of changes in - Sum of all the environmental factors that restrict biotic
an environment potential
- Lumayo from a place ; Darwin’s finches - Carrying capacity = max population size an environment can
○ Reproductive Isolation - inability of formerly support
interbreeding organisms to produce offspring Biosphere
- separation of 2 species Biomes
2.) Adaptation - Major ecosystems that occur over wide areas on land
: process by which species become better suited to its ecosystems
environment
: ability to change in order to survive
3.) Diversity
: variety of ecosystems
: Size of the ecosystem and its distance from the equator
determines diversity
○ Area - more species in larger areas
○ Climate - # of species increase from poles towards
the equator
○ Niches - more niches = more diverse
○ Closer to the equator = more diverse
: reducing the area of an ecosystem decreases the variety of
physical habitat it contains - Terrestrial Ecosystems
: native - originated and thrives in a particular ecosystem : ecosystems formed by the interaction of biotic and abiotic
endemic - you can find it in a specific locale components on land
invasive - they don’t belong to a specific group : types
4.) Habitat ○ Grasslands
: where organisms live ○ Deserts
: a drastic change in the abiotic and biotic factors of a habitat ○ Forests
which affects one organism can affect the whole ecosystem ○ Tundra
5.) Interdependence - Aquatic Ecosystems
: organism’s survival and reproduction depend on its : types
interaction with other living members of its ecosystem ○ Freshwater
6.) Evolution : characterized by abiotic factors, primarily the
: interaction of organisms in an ecosystem influence the speed of the water movements
evolution of species : standing water = lakes and ponds
: Coevolution - occurs when 2 or more species evolve in : moving water = rivers and streams
response to each other (flowering plants and bees) ○ Marine or Ocean
: permanent change : shorelines
: barrier islands
➔ Adaptation and origin of new species are closely related : coral reefs
processes : open ocean
- Transitional Communities
Population Growth : estuaries
- Increase in a population : wetlands
- Influenced by both biotic potential and environmental ○ bogs/ ferns = covered with masses
resistance ○ swamps = there are trees

Coleen Santos, 11HA17

 ○ Marshes = dominated by grass but are immersed - Law of Thermodynamics
in water (3) Open - can exchange mass and energy
- 4 subsystems:
Flow of Matter in the Biosphere ○ Atmosphere
○ Nitrogen Cycle ○ Lithosphere
: ​nitrification ​- process by which ammonia or ammonium is ○ Geosphere
oxidized into nitrates ○ Hydrosphere
: ​denitrification -​ process in which denitrifying bacteria attack
nitrates to obtain oxygen as a source of energy and release Hydrosphere
gaseous nitrogen - Water is made up of hydrogen atoms and oxygen (H2O)
: ​eutrophication ​- a condition where the oxygen content in a - Differ in the arrangement of water molecules
body of water is reduced due to the growth of algae; nitrates - Sublimation = solid → gasa
enrich the water, causing algal bloom - Precipitation
○ Oxygen Cycle : so much water has condensed that air can’t hold it anymore
○ Carbon Cycle : Rain, snow, sleet, hail
○ Water Cycle (Phases of Change) - Water is limited
: S → G = Sublimation - *Salinity = concentration of chlorine
: S → L = Melting - Important Roles of the Hydrosphere
: L → G = Vaporization (1) Moderate Climate
: L → S = Freezing (2) Heat Transfer
: G → S = Deposition (3) Organisms need water to transport nutrients and waste
: G → L = Condensation (4) Water is essential in many of the Earth’s processes (mineral
* Relative humidity = % of water vapor in air formation, erosion, weathering)
* Humidity = amount of water vapor - Freshwater Systems
a. Ground water
Competition : free water beneath the Earth’s surface or
- When organisms of the same or different species fight for near-surface can be dry, but deeper parts are
resources saturated with water
- 2 types; *saltwater intrusion - movement of saline water
a. Intraspecific = same into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to
b. Interspecific = different contamination of drinking water
*water contamination - turbidity
Predation b. Ocean vs. Sea
- Organism captures and feeds on other organisms : seas are smaller than oceans and are usually
- Predator = kills and eats located where the land and ocean meets
Prey = the one being killed n eaten xDDdDD : typically, seas are partially enclosed by land
Auq na
Defense against Enemy
a. Mimicry - imitating another to gain the benefits enjoyed by Ocean Currents
that species ➔ Factors
b. Camouflage - method of cryptic or concealing coloration that (1) Earth’s rotation
allows an otherwise visible organism or object to remain (2) Wind
indiscernible from the surrounding environment through (3) Temperature
deception (4) Salinity differences
c. Cooperation - eat together (5) Gravitation of the moon
➔ Important in determining the climates of the continents,
Symbiotic relationship between 2 individuals of different species especially those regions bordering on the ocean
a. Mutualism - both benefits
b. Commensalism - one benefits; other is unaffected ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation)
c. Parasitism - one benefits; other is harmed ➔ Christ Child
- ecto = outside ➔ Water begins to turn warm by the end of December
endo = inside
Monsoon
Earth ➔ Prevailing wind patterns affecting a large area
- Best position in the solar system (not too hot or cold) ➔ Northeast (Amihan)
- Large enough to hold atmosphere : cold wind from China and Siberia
- Allows water to exist as solid, liquid, or gas ➔ Southwest (Habagat)
- Interaction of spheres : rainy days
- Thermodynamic systems:
(1) Isolated - does not allow transfer of mass / energy Low Pressure Area (Cyclones)
(2) Closed - allows transfer of energy but not mass; the Earth

Coleen Santos, 11HA17

 ➔ Region where the atmospheric pressure is lower than that of d. Thermosphere - ions (responsible for
surrounding locations communication)
* Kennelly-Heaviside Layer = ionosphere that
High Pressure Area (Anticyclones) reflects radio waves
➔ High humidity = mainit rawr e. Exosphere - where your satellites are found
* Karman Line - boundary between Earth’s
Tropical Cyclones and Wind Speeds atmosphere and outer space
➔ From Atlantic (Hurricanes)
➔ From Pacific (Typhoon) Smog
➔ From Indian (Cyclone) - Convergence of hot and cold air
- Hazardous to health
Coriolis Effect - Was first discovered in London during the Industrial
➔ Area around the equator rotates faster than the poles Revolution
- NOx + VOC + sunlight = OZONE
Tornado/Twisters
➔ meeting/convergence of cold and hot air Kyoto Protocol
➔ Forms a vortex - International treaty that sets binding obligations on
➔ Called see watersprouts if it comes from water industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse
gases
Ocean Zonation
1.) Neritic Acid Rain
: edge continental shelf; zero visibility - Nitrogen Oxide and Sulfur Dioxide
2.) Oceanic - Pollutants reduced in the atmosphere
★ Epipelagic (Euphotic) - Ocean Acidification
: sunlight zone : decrease in the pit of the Earth’s saltwater
: receives lots of sunlight : pH is salt based
: seals, sea lions, sea turtles, rays, and sharks : corals will die
★ Mesopelagic (Dysphotic)
: twilight zone Geosphere
: sunlight decreases rapidly - Skeleton of the Earth
: dim light due to limited amount of sunlight - Solid Earth that includes the continental and oceanic crust as
: plants, lilly fish, octopus and squid well as the various layers of the Earth’s interior
★ Bathypelagic (Aphotic) - The geosphere is not static or unchanging
: midnight zone - Lehmann Discontinuity
: animals that live here lack eyes : boundary between the inner and outer core
: sunlight does not penetrate at all - 3 main parts
: viperfish, anglerfish, striped eel, tripod fish a. Core
★ Abyssopelagic : made up of iron and nickel
: deep sea : 2 parts
: blind shrimps, small squids, hagfish ?? me as a ○ Inner - magnetic
fish djfhskhdfksdhfksfk - Iron-nickel alloy
★ Hadalpelagic - Hot, solid and spherical
: trenches; deep part of the sea ○ Outer - cause of the Earth’s magnetic
: sea cucumber and tube worms field
- Iron, nickel
- Very hot, liquid
Atmosphere b. Mantle
- Transition between Earth and the vacuum of space : biggest layer
- “Atmos” = air : composed primarily of peridotite (dense,
- Insulates the Earth and warms it coarse-grained igneous rock, consisting of olivine
- Made up of 2 basic gases: and pyroxene)
1.) Nitrogen - 78% non consumable and not directly : Parts
usable (need fixations or nitrogen fixing bacteria) ○ Lower Mantle
2.) Oxygen - 21%; flammable : asthenosphere
- Layers:​ > plate tectonic theory - critical role in
a. Troposphere - the lowest layer; where all weather the movement of plates
activities happen > balances temperature and pressure
- Ozone layer prevents the escape of heat which causes rocks to have little
b. Stratosphere - CFC strength and be easily deformed
c. Mesosphere - middle layer; where meteors will : hot, exhibits plasticity
burn

Coleen Santos, 11HA17

 : higher pressure that causes the : heavier plate dives beneath the more buoyant
formation of minerals that are different plate
from the upper layer : subduction zones
○ Upper Mantle : types
: litosphere ○ Oceanic-Continental
: rigid/solid : subduction; trenches, destructive
: Moho Discontinuity earthquakes, rapid uplift of mountain
→ boundary that separates the upper ranges, building of ​volcanic arcs
mantle from the Earth’s crust ○ Oceanic-Oceanic
c. Crust : lulubog; forms ​trenches​ and volcanic
: 2 Types arcs
○ Continental - where we live in ○ Continental-Continental
➔ Relatively thicker and less : forms ​mountain range
dense (2) Divergent Boundaries
➔ Light colored : moves away
➔ Granitic : most occur along the crest of oceanic ridges
○ Oceanic - dark-colored : can occur within a continent and form a rift
➔ Basta umaabot sa water ○ Seafloor spreading - formed by cooled
➔ Borderline of land and water magma
➔ More dense and thin ○ Oceanic ridges - under/deep down the
➔ Basaltic sea
- Tectonics ○ Continental rifting - land
: process that deforms the Earth’s crust (3) Transform Fault Boundaries
- Tectonic Plate : slipping
: plates that move around on top of the asthenosphere : plates slide horizontally past one another
: large scale movements of the Earth’s lithosphere : shallow earthquakes
- Continental Drift Theory - Earthquakes
: theory that explains how continents shift position on the : sudden movement/ vibration of the Earth caused by the
Earth’s surface release of energy in rocks
: not accepted because there was no logical reason on how : intensity = damage
the land moved Magnitude = lakas/force
: proposed by Alfred Wegener : seismic waves have higher frequency
○ Continents were originally part of a huge landmass a. Body waves
called Pangaea - underneath the ground; before surface waves
○ Surrounded by a single ocean called Panthalassa - stronger
- Countries under the Pacific Ring of Fire are more prone to ○ P-waves (Primary Waves)
earthquakes because it’s where most geologic processes : fastest wave
occur (earthquakes, volcanism, mass movement) : can travel through solid (fast) and liquid
(medium)
Lithosphere ○ S-waves (Secondary Waves)
- Solid outermost layer of the Earth : cannot travel through liquid
- Includes the crust and upper mantle b. Surface waves
- Not a continuous layer - on the Earth’s surface
- 7 Plates - lower frequency
a. Eurasian - damaging and destructive
b. Indo-Australian ○ R-wave (Rayleigh Wave)
c. Pacific : vibration in horizontal and vertical
d. North American plane
e. South American ○ L-wave (Love Wave)
f. African : back and forth vibration
g. Antarctic
- Plate tectonic Theory Rock Cycle
: proposes that the lithosphere is divided into major plates - 3 types of Rocks
and smaller plates resting upon the lower soft layer called a. Igneous
asthenosphere : formed by volcanic activity
: the 7 large plates glides over the mantle ○ Extrusive or volcanic rock
- Tectonic Plate Movements - when molten rock solidifies at the
(1) Convergent Boundaries surface
: meeting of lands ○ Intrusive or plutonic rocks
: 2 plates move towards each other - formed and crystallized at depth
: crust is destroyed b. Sedimentary

Coleen Santos, 11HA17

 : result from the uplift and weathering which are
transported and deposited in different areas
: they carry with them records of the nature of the
environment at the time the sediments are
deposited (strata)
: fossils are found in sedimentary rocks
c. Metamorphic
: came from preexisting rocks called parent rocks
: Metamorphism - process of transformation of
parent rocks; intense pressure
Geomorphic Processes
(1) Exogenic Processes
: external processes that occur at or near the surface of the
Earth
: responsible for transforming rock into sediment
: aka gradational process
: Types
a. Degradation
○ Weathering
: physical breakdown or alteration of
rocks at or near the Earth’s surface
: a degradation process that does not
involve movement of materials
: no transportation involved
:​ Physical/Mechanical​ - breaking up of
large rocks into smaller fragments
without changing the rock’s mineral
composition
Chemical ​- decomposes rocks through
chemical change
○ Mass Wasting
: mass movement of rocks, soil, and
regolith
○ Soil Erosion
: removal of materials at a greater rate
b. Aggradation
○ Deposition
: aggradation or accumulation of
weathered sediments to create different
landforms
: sediments, soil, sand, and rocks are
added to a landform
(2) Endogenic Processes
: internal processes that occur beneath the Earth
: result in reshaping of Earth’s landforms
: large-scale landform building and transforming process
: Types
a. Igneous
○ Volcanism - eruption of magma onto the
surface of the Earth
○ Pacific Ring of Fire
b. Tectonic
○ Folding
: 2 forces push towards each other from
opposite sides
: happens only in sedimentary rocks
○ Faulting
: fault line
: types
○ Normal - divergent boundary
○ Reverse/thrust - convergent
○ Strike-slip - transform
○ Oblique - combination of the 3
- Why is the Geologic time scale important?
1. The Earth is 4.6 B years old
2. Rocks record geological and evolutionary changes
throughout Earth’s history
3. Without a time perspective, events have little
meaning
- Uniformitarianism
: major assumption in geology
: events in the past occurred the same way that they are
occurring today
- Geologic Dating
○ Absolute (u know the date)
- determines how many years old something is
- radiometric
- Radioactive decay (half-life)
→ amt of time it takes for half the atoms of a
substance to decay into another element
→ when the nuclei of unstable atoms break down
○ Relative (u know the order of events but not the
dates)
- used to determine if one thing is younger/older
that another
- superposition, index fossils, correlation of rock
layers
- AYOKO NAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA OH
YEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAH
- comparing of rock units
- Principles:
(1) Original Horizontality
: sedimentary layers are deposited in
approx. horizontal sheets
(2) Superposition
: rock layers above is younger than the
ones below it
(3) Cross-cutting relationships
: any feature that cuts across rocks is
younger than the youngest rock that is
cut
(4) Inclusion
: objects enclosed in a rock must be
older that the time of rock formation
- Fossils
: preserved remnants
: found in sedimentary rocks ONLY
: metamorphism or heat of melting will destroy any kind of
fossil
: types
○ True fossil - fossils of the actual animal or animal
part formed when the ?
○ Mold fossil - when the sediment fills the inside or
outside the dead organism’s body
○ Cast Fossil - when minerals and sediments enter a
cavity or mold and hardens
○ Trace Fossils (ichnofossils) - impressions of rocks
that showed various activities → footprints
Coleen Santos, 11HA17

Rock Cycle
- 3 types of Rocks
a. Igneous
: formed by volcanic activity
○ Extrusive or volcanic rock
- when molten rock solidifies at the
surface
○ Intrusive or plutonic rocks
- formed and crystallized at depth
b. Sedimentary
: result from the uplift and weathering which are
transported and deposited in different areas
: they carry with them records of the nature of the
environment at the time the sediments are
deposited (strata)
: fossils are found in sedimentary rocks
c. Metamorphic
: came from preexisting rocks called parent rocks
: Metamorphism - process of transformation of
parent rocks; intense pressure
Geomorphic Processes
(1) Exogenic Processes
: external processes that occur at or near the surface of the
Earth
: responsible for transforming rock into sediment
: aka gradational process
: ​Types
a. Degradation
○ Weathering
: physical breakdown or alteration of
rocks at or near the Earth’s surface
: a degradation process that does not
involve movement of materials
: no transportation involved
:​ Physical/Mechanical​ - breaking up of
large rocks into smaller fragments
without changing the rock’s mineral
composition
Chemical ​- decomposes rocks through
chemical change
○ Mass Wasting
: mass movement of rocks, soil, and
regolith
○ Soil Erosion
: removal of materials at a greater rate
b. Aggradation
○ Deposition
: aggradation or accumulation of
weathered sediments to create different
landforms
: sediments, soil, sand, and rocks are
added to a landform
(2) Endogenic Processes
: internal processes that occur beneath the Earth
: result in reshaping of Earth’s landforms
: large-scale landform building and transforming process
: ​Types
a. Igneous
○ Volcanism - eruption of magma onto the
surface of the Earth
○ Pacific Ring of Fire
b. Tectonic
○ Folding
: 2 forces push towards each other from
opposite sides
: happens only in sedimentary rocks
○ Faulting
: fault line
: types
○ Normal - divergent boundary
○ Reverse/thrust - convergent
○ Strike-slip - transform
○ Oblique - combination of the 3
- Uniformitarianism
: major assumption in geology
: events in the past occurred the same way that they are
occurring today
- Geologic Dating
○ Absolute (u know the date)
- determines how many years old something is
- radiometric
- Radioactive decay (half-life)
→ amt of time it takes for half the atoms of a
substance to decay into another element
→ when the nuclei of unstable atoms break down
- Carbon-14 dating
→ to determine the age of fossils fewer than
50,000 years old
○ Relative (u know the order of events but not the
dates)
- used to determine if one thing is younger/older
that another
- Superposition, index fossils, correlation of rock
layers
- AYOKO NAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA OH
YEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAH
- comparing of rock units
- Principles:
(1) Original Horizontality
: sedimentary layers are deposited in
approx. horizontal sheets
: If layers are folded, episode of
deformation must have occurred after
rocks formed
: age of folding is younger than youngest
deformed rock unit
(2) Superposition
: rock layers above is younger than the
ones below it
: may not apply to rocks that have been
folded
: youngest on top; oldest on bottom
(3) Cross-cutting relationships
: any feature that cuts across rocks is
younger than the youngest rock that is
cut
(4) Inclusion

Coleen Santos, 11HA17

 : objects enclosed in a rock must be : An Oxygenated Atmosphere
older that the time of rock formation : atmosphere became oxygenated
: eukaryotic life began and diversified
(multicellularity)
- Fossils : motion of continental drift
: preserved remnants
: classified based on their formation b. Phanerozoic
: found in sedimentary rocks ONLY : visible life
: metamorphism or heat of melting will destroy any kind of (1) Paleozoic Era
fossil : old life
: to be preserved, organisms have to be : the cambrian explosion and fossil
✓ Buried rapidly after death record
✓ Preserved from decay : succession of marine organisms
: ​Types : appearance of amphibians
○ True fossil/Imprint - fossils of the actual : appearance of land plants and giant
animal/animal part ferns
○ Mold fossil - when the sediment fills the inside or : succession of reptiles
outside the dead organism’s body : Pangaea and Panthalassa
○ Cast Fossil - when minerals and sediments enter a : The Great Dying
cavity or mold and hardens → world’s climate became very
○ Trace Fossils (ichnofossils) - impressions of rocks seasonal
that showed various activities → footprints → late Paleozoic extinction
○ Imprint - a film of carbon remains after the other (2) Mesozoic Era
elements of an organism have decayed : middle life
: the age of reptiles and dinosaurs
Geologic Time Scale : age of dinosaurs
: breakup of pangaea
- Why is the Geologic time scale important? : Triassic → Jurassic → Cretaceous
1. The Earth is 4.6 B years old : Gymnosperms are seed-bearing plants
2. Rocks record geological and evolutionary changes that do not depend on free standing
throughout Earth’s history water for fertilization
3. Without a time perspective, events have little (3) Cenozoic Era
meaning : new life
: age of mammals and homo sapiens
- 4 Divisions of the Geologic Time Scale : age of mammals
a. Precambrian Era : mountains were uplifted and volcanic
: stromatolites activity was widespread
- Most common precambrian fossils : era that marks the existence of man
- Distinctively layered mounds or columns : Angiosperms - flowering plants with
of calcium carbonate covered seeds; replaced gymnosperms
- Not the remains of actual organisms but : Mammals - replaced reptiles
are the material deposited by algae : 2 Periods
(1) Hadean Eon (Chaotic Eon) ● Tertiary
: unseen era ● Quaternary
: the sculpting of Earth
: Earth’s surface was continually
bombarded by meteorites and the very The Universe
hot mantle caused severe volcanism
: ocean and atmosphere were formed, Big Bang Theory
and the core, as well as the crust were - By Alexander Friedman and George Lamaitre
stabilized - According to the theory
(2) Archaean Eon ✓ Universe started with expansion 13.7 B years ago
: ancient (Gya) through a colossal explosion
: Earth Cooling and Primitive Life ✓ There was nothing and due to a random
: Earth was warm and the atmosphere fluctuation in an empty void, there was a great
contained mostly methane and little to explosion or expansion which sent space, time,
no oxygen matter, and energy everywhere
: most of Earth was covered with ocean ✓ All the matter and energy in the universe are
: continent formation began crammed into a tiny compact called singularity
(3) Proterozoic Eon - Big bang Timeline
: earliest life (1) Inflationary epoch (10^-35 to 10^-33 s )

Coleen Santos, 11HA17

 : universe expanded from the size of an atomic
nucleus to 10^35 m in width
(2) Formation of the Universe
: universe possessed gravity, strong nuclear force,
weak nuclear force, and electromagnetic force
: universe was made up of fundamental particles
and energy (quarks, electrons, photons, and
neutrinos, among others)
(3) Formation of Basic Elements (3s)
: Protons and neutrons combined to form
hydrogen nuclei
: hydrogen nuclei began to combine in pairs to
form helium nuclei
(4) Radiation Era (10, 000 years)
: most of the energy was in the form of radiation
: diff wavelengths of light, x-rays, radio waves, and
ultraviolet rays
: formed the Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation
(5) Matter domination (300, 000 years)
: matter began to dominate at the end of the
radiation era
: lithium atom began to form
: electrons joined with hydrogen and helium nuclei
to make small neutral atoms
(6) Stellar Formation
(7) Birth of Stars and Galaxies (300 million years)
: slightly irregular areas of gas cloud gravitationally
attracted nearby matter and became denser
: dense gas clouds collapsed and eventually
gained enough mass to ignite and produce light
: huge gas clouds could be the birthplace for
dozens of stars
: group of stars = GALAXIEEEEES <333
- 4 Basic particles
1.) Strong nuclear force
: short ranged
: force that binds the ​nucleus
: quarks and gluons
2.) Electromagnetic Force
: long ranged
: can be attractive or repulsive
: binds the ​atoms
: electrically charged
3.) Weak Nuclear Force
: short ranged
: present in ​radioactive decay
: quarks and leptons
4.) Gravitational Force
: long ranged (to infinity)
: attractive force that binds the ​solar system
: all particles with mass
- Evidences
✓ Galaxies moving away
: Red Shift (Doppler Shift)
- Occurs because the light waves are
“stretched” which shows that the Earth
and the source are moving away from
each other
: Edwin Hubble (Hubble’s Law)
- Stars are not uniformly distributed in
space
- They gather together forming clusters
called ​galaxies
- Nearly all galaxies were moving away,
with the distance between distant
galaxies increasing with time
- HL states that the galaxies are retreating
from the Milky Way at a speed that is
proportional to their distance
✓ Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB)
: placed an end to the steady state theory
: Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
- Discovered a background radio
emission coming from every direction in
the sky
- This was speculated as the remnant
energy leftover from the formation of the
universe
- Scientists think that this radiation was
produced during the Big Bang
✓ Abundance of light elements
: helium, hydrogen, lithium, and beryllium
: confirmed the occurrence of the big bang
nucleosynthesis
- Unresolved Problems of the BBT
(1) Flatness
: the geometry of the universe is nearly flat
: bbt = there should be curvature as time grows
(2) Monopole
: bbt predicted the production of heavy stable
magnetic monopoles in the early universe
: no magnetic poles have been observed
(3) Horizon
: bbt = distant regions of space in opposite
directions of the sky are so far apart that they
could never have been in causal contact with each
other
: evidence showing the uniformity of cosmic
background temp shows that these regions must
have had contact in the past
- Other Theories
✓ Steady State Theory
: Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle
: universe has no beginning and no end
: universe is unchanging in time and uniform in
space
: contradicts CMB which stated that everything is
constant
✓ Inflation Theory
: extension of the Big Bang Theory
: Principles of Dark energy and dark matter
○ Dark energy - energy of the empty
space; causes the expansion of the
universe to accelerate
Coleen Santos, 11HA17
 ○ Dark matter - a hypothetical kind of
matter that cannot be seen with
telescopes
: offered solutions to the unresolved problems of
the Big Bang Theory
1.) Flatness
: it would appear flat because inflation
stretches any initial curvature of the
universe to almost complete flat
2.) Monopole
: monopoles dropped exponentially to
undetectable level during rapid
expansion
3.) Horizon
: exponential expansion in early
universe presupposes that the distant
regions were much closer to each other
prior to inflation
✓ String Theory
: the assembly of particle type is replaced by a
fundamental building block called a string with
dimensions confined to Planck length (roughly 1.6
x 10^-35 m)
: string may come in 2 forms; open or closed
: graviton - a particle carrying the force of gravity
: consistent with quantum gravity; it is able to
describe the interaction of strings
: “theory of everything”
✓ M-Theory
: Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow
: origin of the universe occurs as a result of the
contact of 2 hyperdimensional branes
: M-theory can allow for an infinite number of
parallel universes which have the possibility of
interphasing
The Solar System
- Contains the Earth-Moon system and many other planets
and their moons
- Consists of the Sun and all things in orbit around it
- 8 major planets
- Dozens of satellites (moons)
- Hundreds of thousands of asteroids
- Galaxies =​ gravitationally-bound system of stars, stellar
remnants, interstellar gas, and dark matter
- Milky Way​ = one of the billion galaxies in the observable
universe
= contains the Sun (and its collection of planets) and an
unimaginably large number of other stars: roughly 400 B
- Observable Universe​ = region of the universe from the
Earth’s vantage point
- Virgo Supercluster (Local Super Cluster)​ = contains
thousands of clusters of galaxies, including the Local Group
as one of its smaller members
- Local Galactic Group​ = a cluster of galaxies which includes
the Milky Way and about a dozen other galaxies. Most of
which are rather smaller than the Milky Way
Earth
- A ball of rock and metal on whose surface all geographically
exists
- Earth’s circumference is roughly 40, 075
- Eratosthenes
: “Earth isn’t flat”
Theories on the Origin of the Solar System
(1) Early Astronomy
○ Geocentric Model
: the moon, sun, and known planets (Mercury,
venus, Mas, and Jupiter) orbits around the Earth
○ Heliocentric Model
: Earth and other planets orbits around the Sun
(2) Descartes’ Vortex Theory
: Rene Descartes
: the Solar System was formed into bodies with nearly
circular orbits because of the whirlpool-like motion in the
presolar materials
: orbits = primary whirlpool motion
: satellites = secondary whirlpool motion
(3) Buffon’s Collision Theory
: George-Louis Leclerc and Comte de Buffon
: Planets were formed by the collision of the sun with a giant
comet
: collision = release of material from the sun
: released material = planets (condensed material from the
sun)
(4) Kant-Laplace Nebular Theory
: Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon Laplace
: nebula = the great cloud of gas and dust
: nebula began to collapse because of the gravitational pull
: The spinning cloud flattens into a pancake-shaped object
with a bulge at the center
: As Nebula collapses further, local regions contract on their
own due to gravity → these became the sun and the planets
(5) Jeans-Jeffreys’ Tidal Theory
: James Hopwood Jeans and Harold Jeffreys
: sun and planets were produced by different mechanisms
known as the tidal theory
: planets were formed by the substance that was torn out of
the sun
** a speeding massive star passed near the sun n pulled off
material due to gravitational attraction
(6) Solar Nebula Theory
: main concern is to solve the Nebular Theory’s hypothesis
abt the angular momentum of the sun
: The Solar System was formed as a result of the
condensation of hydrogen gas and dust referred to as
interstellar gas a​ nd ​dust cloud
: an explosion of a star (supernova) must have caused the
dust and gas cloud to collapse, forming the sun and planets
: Different stages of the formation of planets
1.) Accretion of grain-sized particles to form
centimeter-sized particles which would later grow
to several kilometers in diameter
** objects formed will be called ​planetesimals
2.) Formation of more massive objects from
coalescing planetesimals
** massive objects are referred to as ​protoplanets
Coleen Santos, 11HA17
Properties of the Solar System - Interplanetary debris left from the formation of the solar
1.) The orbits of all planets are almost in the same plane; the system
Solar System is FLAT sana all - Material that is continually being ejected from the asteroid
2.) planetary orbits = nearly circular belt
elliptical orbits = depart slightly from being a perfect circle - Meteoroid​: object floating around in the outer space, asteroid
3.) Orbits of the planets are nearly the same plane as the or comet origin
rotation of the sun - Meteors​: space object burning up in the
4.) All planets revolve around the sun in a counterclockwise atmosphere/”shooting star”
direction. Most planets rotate around their axis in - Meteorites​: space object that made impact with the surface
counterclockwise fashion. of another place
5.) The distances of the planets from the sun can be expressed : remains of meteoroids when found on Earth
in a similar relationship called ​Bode’s Law.​ - Meteor Showers:​ swarm of meteoroids travelling in the same
- The calculated distances (using ​Bode’s Law)​ and direction at nearly the same speed as Earth
the observed distances of the planets from the sun
are almost the same, with the exception of
Neptune and Pluto
6.) The satellite systems of Jupiter and Saturn are nearly
identical in their arrangements with the Solar system Comets: Dirty Snowballs
- Distances of the satellites from the planets follow - Composed mainly of ice (frozen water and gases such as
the Bode’s law ammonia, methane and CO2) and nonvolatile dust (silicate
7.) The satellites and planets contain almost all the rotational minerals and carbon grains)
motion of the Solar System - Only become active when their orbits take them near the sun
8.) The Solar System also contains asteroids and comets - The sun’s heat causes the frozen gases ro sublimate,
forming vaporous jet of streams. These create a spectacular
Why do planets move in an Elliptical Manner? tail streaming out from the sun
- Force of gravity + tendency of a planet to remain in a - Types:
straight-line motion = a planet will have an elliptical orbit ○ Long-period
- Combination of Earth’s forward motion and its “falling” : take hundreds of thousand of years to complete a
motion that defines its orbit single orbit around the sun
: from the oort cloud
Auroras ○ Short-period
- Following a solar flare, the Earth’s upper atmosphere above : orbital periods of less than 200 years
the magnetic poles is set aglow for several nights : from the Kuiper’s belt
○ Aurora borealis - Northern lights : Halley’s comet (76 years)
○ Aurora australis - Southern lights : Encke’s comet (3 years)
- Oort Cloud
Asteroids : Leftover Planetesimals : cosmographical boundary of the solar system
- Made up of rocks and are sometimes referred to as minor : farther than the Kuiper’s Belt
planets : remain unexplored
- “Star-like” - Kuiper’s Belt
- Small bodies (planetesimals) remaining from the formation of : hosts short-period comets
the Solar System : Solar System’s “final frontier”
- They are atmosphere-free and orbits around the sun : at the outermost region of the Solar System
- Giuseppe Piazzi discovered the first asteroid - Trans-Neptunian Object (TNO)
- Main Asteroid : any object orbiting beyond Neptune
: located between Mars and Jupiter
: where most asteroids in the Solar System lie Classification of Planets
- Ceres - Planets are classified according to their composition and size
: first known asteroid - Types
a. Terrestrial
: MVEM (mercury, venus, earth, mars)
- Near-Earth Asteroids (NEAs) : Earth-like planets
: asteroids that can be perturbed out of their belt and can : inner planets
come close to Earth : composed mostly of dense, rocky, and metallic
- NEAR - Shoemaker (Near Asteroid Rendezvous - materials
Shoemaker) : smaller; no rings and few moons
: Eugene Shoemaker : move slowly
: monitors near-Earth asteroids b. Jovial
: landed successfully on Eros : JSUN (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)
: gas planets
Meteoroids: Visitors of Earth : made up mostly of hydrogen and helium

Coleen Santos, 11HA17

 : larger
: moves quickly
- Frost line
: distance of the solar nebula from the protostar
: radius of protostar increases = temp decreases
: cooler temp = more materials condense
: divides the inner warm regions (terrestrial) from the outer
cooler region (Jovian)

Classifications based on their Positions

1.) Relative to the Sun
: Inner planets = MVEM
: Outer planets = JSUN
: Asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter form the boundary
between inner and outer planets
2.) Relative to the Earth
: Inferior planets = inside the orbit of the Earth (Mercury and
Venus)
: Superior planets = outside the orbit of the Earth (MJSUN)

Dwarf planet: Smaller Worlds

- Characteristics
✓ Orbits around the sun
✓ Has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome
rigid body forces so that it assumes a nearly-round
shape
✓ Has not cleared the neighborhood around it
✓ Not a satellite
✓ Not large enough to sweep their orbits clear of
other debris
✓ Eris, Ceres, Makemake, Pluto, Haumea

Coleen Santos, 11HA17