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IN-SITU Vs PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION: A COMPARATIVE

INVESTIGATION OF THEIR EFFECTIVENESS OF ON HOUSING DEVELOPMENT
PROJECTS

Thesis · September 1996

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 THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

IN-SITU Vs PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

A Comparative Investigation of their Effectiveness of on Housing Development Projects

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN BUILDING
SCIENCE

NAME: LUNGU ALICE SUZYO

COMPUTER No.: 91313104

DATE: 20TH SEPTEMBER 1996

 THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

IN-SITU Vs PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

BY

ALICE SUZYO LUNGU

2
 IF YOU KNOW THE WHY FOR LIVING,

YOU CAN ENDURE ALMOST ANYTHING.

(Leslie C. Brown).

3
 DECLARATION
I ALICE SUZYO LUNGU declare that this thesis is my original work, and has not been
produced or presented before at this University or any other institution for this purpose or
any other. Work by other authors has been duly acknowledged.

SIGNED BY:

SUPERVISOR MR FRANK C KAPAMBWE ............................................

AUTHOR ALICE SUZYO LUNGU ............................................

4
 DEDICATION
To my beloved parents, THOMAS and CECILIA LUNGU, all family members Mary,
Peter-Thomas, Cathy, Linda, Towela, Rhoda Mulopwe, Lemmy, and my loving and
caring grandmother, Jessie Zimba.

To everyone I say thank you very much for all that you have done for me. You have
given me the reason to go on in life even in the most troublesome times.

To God Almighty for being there all the time (Isaiah 41: 9, 10)

5
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It must be noted that work of this volume is hardly ever the effort of one person.
Therefore it is for this reason that I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the
following people without whose invaluable advice and constructive criticisms this work
would not have been possible:

Mr P Z Botah (Late): Supervisor and Thesis Co-ordinator

Mr F C Kapambwe: Co-supervisor

Mr W Shakantu: Lecturer, CBU.

Mr P M Mukalula: Lecturer, CBU.

Special thanks also go to Messers Ngoma and Mwanza of Civil Engineering Department,
CBU for their efforts in supplying me with literature material, Mr Mbebeta of Chipata-
Mchinji Railway Project, Chipata for encouraging me to do this topic, Mr. B.C. Mabo for
letting me use the computers at BERG, Mr. F. Kapambwe for talking over the late Mr.
Botah’s supervisory role of my thesis, and also the Zambian Government for the
sponsorship throughout my programme.

Finally I would like to thank all my friends and classmates: Alice Banda, Kakulubelwa
Mulalelo, Dorica Daka, Gertrude Mwewa, Mutinta Mwape, Monde Mukela, Susan Zuze,
Burchell Mwanshimbala, Harrison Njamu, John Kapenda, Sambo Zulu, Henry Musonda,
Potipher Kaunda and Bwalya Kona, and Catholic Students Community (CASC) members
for all that they have been and meant to me.

6
 ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to determine which form or method of construction, precast
concrete or in-situ concrete is cost, time and quality effective on housing development
projects. As such a hypothesis was formulated and it states that, ‘precast concrete
construction on a housing development project offers a better alternative to
achieving cost, time and quality effectiveness’. This hypothesis was made in an attempt
to offer a temporary solution to the research problem identified. The problem was that the
method of construction used on some housing projects contributes to structural failure of
these houses hence directly contributing to the housing shortage.

The literature reviewed shows that among the most widely used building materials such
as wood, burnt bricks, mud blocks or bricks and concrete, concrete is the strongest and
long lasting material. For this reason too concrete was chosen as the construction material
to be used in the study of the mentioned construction methods. All the authors whose
works were used agree that precast construction gives better quality products, in the most
reasonable time and at an economic cost.

The research findings show that precast construction on housing projects is time and
quality effective. However, as far as cost effectiveness is concerned it could not be
determined because comparisons by respondents were mainly speculative. Nevertheless,
precast concrete construction can make headway in achieving the cost effectiveness if the
recommendations made are implemented.

7
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .....................................................................................................4
DEDICATION .........................................................................................................5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................6
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................7
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................8
LIST OF ACRONYMS ........................................................................................10
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................10
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ..................................11
1.1 INTRODUCTION/ BACKGROUND ............................................................ 11
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM ......................................................... 11
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................................................. 12
1.4 HYPOTHESIS ................................................................................................. 13
1.5 OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................. 13
1.6 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY ................................................................. 13
1.7 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ........................................................ 14
1.8 CHAPTER SYNTHESIS ................................................................................ 14
1.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY.................................................................. 14
CHAPTER TWO: CONCRETE AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL ......16
2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 16
2.2 CONCRETE AND ITS CONSITUTENT MATERIALS ............................. 16
2.2.1 Cement ........................................................................................................... 17
2.2.2 Aggregates ..................................................................................................... 18
2.2.3 Water ............................................................................................................. 19
2.2.4 Admixtures ..................................................................................................... 20
2.2.5 Reinforcing Steel ........................................................................................... 21
2.3 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE .................................................................... 22
2.4 CHOOSING CONCRETE FOR CONSTRUCTION ................................... 23
2.5 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER THREE: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY .....26
3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 26
3.2 IN-SITU CONSTRUCTION. ......................................................................... 26
3.2.1 The Construction Process.............................................................................. 26
3.2.2 Importance of In-Situ Concrete Construction ............................................... 28
3.3 PRECAST CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................... 29

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 3.3.1 Uses of Precast Concrete Elements ............................................................... 30
3.3.2 Innovations in Precast Concrete Construction ............................................. 31
3.3.3 Types of Precast Construction....................................................................... 31
3.3.4 The Construction Process.............................................................................. 32
3.3.5 Importance of Precast Construction ............................................................. 32
3.4 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER FOUR: AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES USED ON HOUSING PROJECTS..36
4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 36
4.2 RESEARCH AREAS: CASE STUDIES ........................................................ 36
4.3 RESEARCH METHODS................................................................................ 37
4.3.1 Questionnaires ............................................................................................... 37
4.3.2 Interviews ...................................................................................................... 38
4.4 RESEARCH RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ................................................... 38
4.4.1 Case Studies - Documents ............................................................................. 38
4.4.2 Questionnaires ............................................................................................... 40
4.4.2.1 Project Designers ............................................................................................ 41
4.4.2.2 Developers ...................................................................................................... 41
4.4.2.3 Architects ........................................................................................................ 42
4.4.2.4 Occupants (tenants) ........................................................................................ 44
4.4.3 Interviews ...................................................................................................... 45
4.5 RESEARCH DATA INTERPRETATION AND HYPOTHESIS
EVALUATION ............................................................................................................ 46
4.6 LIMITATIONS................................................................................................ 47
4.7 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............52
5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 52
5.2 RECAPITULATION ...................................................................................... 52
5.3 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................... 52
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................ 53
5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH............................ 54
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................55
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................57

9
LIST OF ACRONYMS
CSO Central Statistics Office
GRZ Government Of The Republic Of Zambia
NHA National Housing Authority
NHP National Housing Policy

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Findings from Case Studies................................................................................. 38
Table 2: Responses from Project Designers ...................................................................... 41
Table 3: Responses from Developers ................................................................................ 42
Table 4: Responses from Architects .................................................................................. 43
Table 5: Responses from Occupants ................................................................................. 44
Table 6: Responses from Building Contactors .................................................................. 45

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE A) FOR PROJECT DESIGNERS .............. 57
APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE B) FOR DEVELOPERS ............................. 60
APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE C) FOR OCCUPANTS .............................. 63
APPENDIX D: QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE D) FOR DESIGNERS GENERALLY ....... 64

10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION/ BACKGROUND

Housing shortage has been a problem that has dogged Zambia since independence.
During the colonial era the majority of natives were confined to rural areas apart from a
few that were employed in the mines. These were housed in shelters which were of a
temporary nature. The declaration of independence on October 24, 1964 opened the
floodgates for unregulated rural-urban migrations from all corners of former Northern
Rhodesia, now Zambia. As much as previously disadvantaged citizens wanted to have
opportunities to improve their lives, the new government had not prepared itself for the
unprecedented influx of people in terms of houses and other social facilities.
Furthermore, the kind of development that dominated in Zambia following the years after
independence was more concentrated in the urban areas leaving the rural areas
undeveloped and underdeveloped, a situation that has exacerbated the rural-urban drift.
What followed later was a situation where housing was not available for everyone who
wanted to live in the cities, and in a very short period an emergence of shanty
compounds.

In trying to address the housing shortage government has come with various programmes
including squatter upgrading, and site and service schemes. Regardless of the good
intentions in designing such programmes, they have not yielded the intended results.
Reasons for their failure not only include poor planning, lack of stakeholder involvement
and participation but also inadequate funding.

1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM

As at 1990, the population census revealed that Zambia’s population stood at 7.3 million
(CSO, 1990). Four years later, the unpublished agriculture and housing census showed
that there were approximate 1,444,143 housing units for a total of 1,460,000 households
of at least five (5) persons countrywide (NHA, 1994). This represents a shortfall of
approximately 16,000 units. In 1995 the population was estimated at 9 million,
representing a growth rate of over 3% per annum. If the same growth rate was
maintained, the population is projected to reach 16.2 million by 2010, a “Shelter for All”
year (GRZ, 1996). Although the population keeps increasing each year the housing stock
never does. If anything it keeps reducing. In 1995 when the National Housing Policy was
being drafted the total housing stock was estimated at 1.3 million.

Considering the ever increasing population, and undoubtedly the number of households,

11
there is a serious shortage of housing units. Other than the growing population this
shortage has been compounded by the fact that many of the already existing house units
are dilapidated and beyond repair. Statistics also show that at least 5% (72,250) of the
existing housing stock was going to be obsolete by the year 2010 (CSO, 1990). Out of
this figure some of these houses have already been demolished (some Mindolo mine
houses). Although some of these houses have become disposable they have not been in
use for more than twenty (20) years (NHA, 1994).

Since the whole world is marching towards achieving shelter for all by the year 2010,
Zambia is expected to build an additional of nearly 1.2 million and replace more than
72,000 units between 1990 and 2010. Considering such a magnitude of housing units to
be constructed in so short a period, speed of construction becomes a prime factor. The
total cost of construction of each unit and finally that of the whole project should also be
considered when undertaking such projects to avoid abortive works. Finally it would not
pay to build 1.2 million houses that would not last more than half a century. Therefore,
quality must be borne in mind during the design stages, when producing materials and
when erecting the units. It was John Griggs, one time president of the Concrete Society
who said:

To achieve quality we must draw quality, we must intend quality, we must contrive quality,
we must plot quality and we must desire quality. (Concrete, 1993).

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

During a preliminary survey the author undertook a tour of some Council and ZCCM
townships. This survey was meant to determine the extent of the problem to be
investigated. These townships included Chimwemwe and Kapata in Chipata, Wusakile,
Mindolo and Chamboli in Kitwe, and Kantanshi and Kankoyo in Mufulira.

All these townships had similar problems except for Chamboli. The problems ranged
from subsiding foundation walls, cracked floors and walls, and efflorescence of concrete.
Chamboli Township on the other hand had none of such problems though nearly all
houses needed external finishes. However, the houses in Chamboli looked stronger and
durable. It was discovered that these houses were built with precast concrete units unlike
the others in the mentioned townships which had been built of concrete blocks, burnt clay
bricks or unburned mud blocks.

In the background to the problem it was mentioned that some of the houses that have
become disposable have not been in existence for more than 20 years. Probably the rest

12
would not have been in existence for more than fifty (50) years before they are obsolete.
The questions therefore that beg for answers are, why is it that such houses reached a
disposable stage after such a short period? Would it serve any purpose if the government
embarked on a large, long-term costly housing project if houses will not last more than
20 years? In trying to address the first concern it could be safe to assume that perhaps the
building materials used in the construction of the houses, were of low quality and as such
were easily affected by corrosive agents and thus weakening the structures. On the other
hand, the method of construction used could have contributed to the structural failure of
the houses under study. Finally, the second question can well be answered by saying that
it would only serve a purpose if and only if another method of construction other than in-
situ construction was used on any housing project the government embarked on.
Therefore having been presented with facts concerning the housing situation in the
country the problem identified was as follows: the method of construction used on
house developments contributes to the structural failure of most houses.

1.4 HYPOTHESIS

To effectively carry out this study the following hypothesis was formulated: “Precast
concrete construction offers a better alternative to achieving cost, time and quality
on a housing development project.”

1.5 OBJECTIVES

To achieve the above hypothesis the following objectives were established:

 To review existing literature and give an overview of concrete as a construction

material.
 To review existing literature and carry out a comparison of the two construction
techniques; in-situ concrete construction and precast concrete construction.
 To investigate which of the two forms of construction offers the least cost per
unit, shorter construction time and better quality on a housing development
project.
 To make conclusions and recommendations based on the findings of the
objectives.

1.6 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

The importance of this study is two-fold. First, its theoretical relevance lies in its
contribution to knowledge in the application of construction methods on housing projects.
Thus in this case if the hypothesis is confirmed, it will become part of the underlying
theory concerning construction methods applied on housing development projects. If on

13
the other hand the hypothesis is not confirmed, researchers will use this research as a
basis to continue with the investigation as it is the first of its kind to be conducted in
Zambia. Second, the practical relevance of this research is based on the fact that the
results from this study can be usefully and adequately utilised by society when choosing
construction methods to be used on housing projects.

1.7 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

In this study various methods of data collection were used to evaluate the stated
hypothetical statement. These included both primary and secondary data. Primary data
was collected by means of case studies, questionnaires and interviews. The aim of the
primary data was to determine the practical aspects of the construction methods/
techniques under discussion based on the Zambian case. Secondary data on the other
hand was gathered through intensive literature review of published and unpublished
books, reports and journals. The purpose of this background reading was to sharpen and
deepen the theoretical framework of the research and to be acquainted with latest
developments in construction technology.

1.8 CHAPTER SYNTHESIS

The study was divided into five chapters. Chapter one introduces the research by
providing a background to the study; problem formulation; statement of the problem;
hypothesis and objectives; scope of the study; importance of the research; and the
methodology that will be employed in undertaking the research. Chapter two reviews the
existing literature to examine the concrete as a construction material by reviewing its
basic principles and importance in construction. Chapter three is another literature review
which specifically looks at looks at two forms of construction under study comparing
their construction processes and importance in construction as far as the traditional
management maxims of cost, time and quality are concerned.

The fourth chapter presents the findings collected from field surveys as regards the two
forms of construction under discussion. It also presents the analysis based on collected.
Finally, chapter five, the concluding part of the study, presents general conclusions and
recommendations, and also makes proposals for further research in areas deemed very
important to complement this study but which were not covered due to time limitations.

1.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study is the first of its kind to be conducted in Zambia to the best of the author’s

14
knowledge. Therefore there was no literature on precast concrete construction with
reference to Zambia. Such a limitation resulted in using literature based on developed
countries only. Time limit coupled with inadequate funding of the research, were other
obstacles as far as the smooth operation of this research was concerned. A study of this
magnitude and where comparative studies are conducted requires not a period of less than
twelve months. Even more case studies become representative when they are conducted
in many different areas. However, due to inadequate funds such ventures were not
possible.

15
CHAPTER TWO: CONCRETE AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Building materials on a construction site constitute a very large portion (percentage)

proportionate to the total building/ construction costs. In his unpublished thesis Mubanga
(1994) estimates that the cost of building materials on a building project -accounted for
about 60% of the total cost. The high cost of building materials is compounded by many
factors. Everett (1989) argues that the total cost of building materials on a project site
rises due to factors such as poor handling and pilfering.

As regards the cost of concrete, it has been estimated that concrete frames (beams,
columns, floors, etc.) accounted only for ten percent (10%) of the total cost of building
(Southcott, 1996). However, serious cost implications can be encountered on the more
expensive elements like cladding. Since this study revolves round concrete construction,
it is important to look at concrete as a construction material and the role it plays in
construction.

2.2 CONCRETE AND ITS CONSITUTENT MATERIALS

The discovery of concrete by the Romans led to its use on construction projects. It
remained in use from that moment until the collapse of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless,
at the end of the second half of the eighteenth century the knowledge of concrete
construction was revived (Allen, 1985). Since then concrete technology has evolved from
plain in-situ to reinforced, precast and pre-stressed concrete (Taylor, 1977).

Concrete1 is the most versatile and widely used construction material in the whole world.
Its universal availability lies in the fact that its major constituent materials are readily
available in nearly all parts of the world (Squires, 1994). Furthermore, concrete is a
heterogeneous2 material made up cement, aggregate, water and admixtures. Therefore
that
concrete can be defined as a construction material is composed of aggregates
chemically bonded together by means of cement and water. As already mentioned above,
concrete technology has evolved over the years from plain in-situ to reinforced precast
and pre-stressed. This evolution also means that the use of concrete would keep on

1 A mixture of Portland cement, aggregates, and water. In some cases, additives known as admixtures are
added to the concrete to improve its properties.
2 It is made up of different constituent materials.

16
growing as long as the constituent materials are available and the technology keeps
advancing to higher levels.

2.2.1 Cement
Cement3 bonds the aggregate in the concrete mix when it comes into contact with water.
However, the type and quality of cement is known to affect the strength and durability of
concrete. It is for this reason that the type of cement to be used on building/ construction
project ought to suit the environment in which it shall be used. For instance, when
building acid plants in mine areas, cement with acid-resistant properties must be used.
Furthermore, cements are made from local raw materials in many parts of the world, and
as a result there is a high possibility that colours of cement will differ from region to
region and from country to country. Therefore, it imperative that cement intended for a
building project is purchased from the same manufacturer throughout the project (Monks,
1984). While seeking high early strength, it is also worth noting that Portland cement
with a high rate of hardening has a strong tendency to effloresce and to crack under
restraint at an early age (Taylor, 1977). Nonetheless, many of the cements have been
developed to ensure good durability of concrete. Though, it is not certain yet as to
whether the constitution of cement can provide a complete answer to the durability4 of
concrete (Neville, 1988).

The most common type of cement used in construction works is Portland cement, which
can be classified into various categories (Shirley, 1987; Neville, 1988).

1. Ordinary Portland Cement

It has a medium rate of hardening, and is suitable for all kinds of construction
works except in under water construction (Monks, 1984).

2. Rapid Hardening Portland cement

RHPC is similar in composition to OPC but is more finely ground. Its fineness
though does not affect its setting time (Monks, 1984). In fact it increases the rate
at which the concrete gains strength and leads to early hardening (Shirley, 1987).
It is used where temperatures are extremely cold.

3 A binding material that bonds the aggregates together to form mortar or concrete
4 The ability of concrete the ability of concrete to serve its designed purpose structurally and aesthetically
without need for remedial action. Remedial action though does not include maintenance works (DeVries,
1993).

17
 3. Ultra-rapid Hardening Portland cement
UHPC has a chemical composition similar to that of OPC and RHPC but is
much finer than either of them. The fineness of the cement imparts an
exceptional rate of early strength development (Shirley, 1987).

4. Sulphate Resisting Portland cement

SRPC is used in areas that are susceptible to sulphate attacks such as in seas and
oceans (Barnbrook, et al., 1975). It is darker than OPC but its properties are
quite similar to those of OPC (Shirley, 1987).

5. Low Heat Portland Cement

LHPC produces concrete that gains strength and evolves heat more slowly than
the other cements (Barnbrook, et al., 1975). It is mostly used in massive concrete
construction where excessive heat may accumulate and rise to damaging levels
(Allen, 1985).

6. White Portland Cement

WPC is used where concrete is required for visual effects or decorating purposes
(Shirley, 1987). Particularly it is used in tropical countries for architectural
purposes because it is not liable to staining as it has a low content of soluble
alkalis (Neville, 1988).

2.2.2 Aggregates
Aggregates constitute roughly about three-quarters of the volume of concrete and hence
have a huge effect on its strength and durability (Allen, 1985). Aggregates are non-
cementitious particles constituting between 50% and 80% of the volume of concrete
(Shirley, 1987). Illston (1994) describes them as inert fillers which occupy 70-80% of the
total volume of concrete. In either scenario, the volume of aggregates is quite
phenomenal and likely to exert greater influence on the properties of concrete. Therefore,
considering such a large volume of concrete being occupied by aggregates, it is
imperative that the aggregates are free from impurities like pyrites which would impair
the appearance of concrete (Monks, 1984). Aggregates must also be strong and durable
(Taylor, 1977). Neville (1988) argues that the grading of aggregate affects the strength
and durability of concrete. The shape and texture of the aggregate affects the bond
between cement paste and aggregate, and so is the strength of concrete.

Aggregates are classified into two main groups, natural and artificial aggregates. Natural

18
aggregates come from natural rock such as granite, quartzite, quartz and limestone. These
are further divided into two categories of fine and course aggregates (Neville, 1988).
Natural aggregates are also known as normal-density aggregate whose density ranges
from 1450 to 1750 kg per cu. metre (Shirley, 1987). Artificial aggregates are lightweight
and may occur naturally as clay or may be manufactured such as pulverised fuel ash (pfa)
(Neville, 1988). These are sometimes called high-density aggregates with densities up to
4800 kg cu. metre (Shirley, 1987). As regards aggregates, it is important to note that
variations that occur in grading, particle shape and texture, moisture content and
cleanliness of the aggregates all affect the workability of the concrete (Monks, 1984).

2.2.3 Water
Water plays a very important role in the mixing and curing of concrete. Therefore, the
proportion and quality of water used is of paramount importance. Water only hydrates the
cement but also turns it into a paste thereby making concrete workable (Shirley, 1987). It
is for this reason that water used in concrete mixing must portable5 water (Taylor, 1977).
Water with a pH value ranging between 6.0 and 8.0 and is free from organic matter may
also be considered for use provided it does not contain salts such as potassium and
sodium or other heavy metals like iron. However, it must be noted that sometimes water
of drinking quality may not be suitable for concrete mixing because it may contain some
sugars (carbon content) which may alter the rate of hydration of cement. Moreover, too
much chlorine found in drinking water may contribute to chloride attacks on the concrete.

Although water is certainly a necessary ingredient in concrete mixing, only a small

proportion is required to hydrate cement. Based on the computations by Madderom
(1980), only about 9 litres of water are really required to hydrate one 50kg-bag of cement.
“Additional water, called water of convenience, is required to make the concrete
workable enough to be handled by the contractor” (Madderom, 1980, p. no pape). For
this reason, the amount of water in the concrete must be adequately regulated because too
much water would affect the workability of concrete (Neville, 1988). Excess water causes
segregation, settlement and porosity, low strength and durability, poor bonding qualities,
shrinkage and cracking (Taylor, 1977). Furthermore, excess water may cause bleeding of
concrete. Although, bleeding is not always bad as it helps to lower the water-cement

5 Water of drinking quality and free from all impurities that may affect the rate of hardening, strength and
durability of concrete (Taylor, 1977).

19
ratio. In addition, it densifies the concrete. On the other hand, concrete that bleeds too fast
or too long can cause a number of problems among which are sand streaks in walls, weak
horizontal construction joints, and voids beneath reinforcement bars and aggregate
particles (Anon, 1988).

2.2.4 Admixtures
There are times when a property or properties of concrete have to be modified to suit the
conditions or environment in which it has to be used. These modifiers which are applied
as an aqueous solution are known as admixtures6 (Orchard, 1979). They are sometimes
referred to as additives though additives are chemicals normally added to cement during
manufacturing (Barnbrook, et al., 1975). Admixtures are particularly added to concrete
mixes to modify some of its properties. Therefore it is important that these admixtures are
proportionally and thoroughly mixed to avoid undesired results. Since admixtures just
help to modify concrete properties, even small quantities of them are capable of
producing significant changes to the workability or other properties of concrete mix
(Monks, 1984). Shirley (1987) identified these admixtures as air-entrainers, accelerators,
retarders and water-reducers.

Air-entrainers entrain a controlled quantity of air in the form of microscopic bubbles

which are distributed uniformly in the cement paste. Air-entraining admixtures are
usually preferred in very cold regions where they are added to the concrete to increase its
workability by providing freeze-thaw resistance to the concrete (Illston, 1994). In large
quantities of concrete, air-entrainers are used to create very lightweight non-structural
concrete with thermal insulation properties (Allen, 1985).

Sometimes the rate of hydration of cement has to be increased in order to obtain an early
strength of concrete. In such cases an accelerator is used. Accelerators can only be used
in areas where temperatures are very low (Taylor, 1977). However, it is important to note
that accelerating strength development at an early age is likely to lessen the amount of
strength gain that can take place (Shirley, 1987).

Retarders on the other hand, are more used in hot weather when concrete may experience
rapid hardening due to rapid loss of water which in turn causes loss of workability

6 “Chemicals that are added to the concrete immediately before or during mixing and significantly change
its fresh, early age or hardened state to advantage” (Illston, 1994)

20
(Shirley, 1987). In this instance, retarders may be used to slow down the rate of setting
and eventually the rate of hardening of concrete, and ultimately enhance the strength and
durability of concrete at an early age (Neville, 1988; Illston, 1994).

Lastly, water-reducing admixtures also known as plasticisers are added to concrete to

achieve a certain level of workability at a lower water-cement ratio (Illston, 1994). These
admixtures are used to improve the quality of concrete and to obtain specified strength at
lower water content. In essence, water-reducers help to reduce the amount of mixing
water in the concrete while maintaining the same level of workability necessary to
achieve high strength concrete (Shirley, 1987). Water-reducers are very vital where water
is in limited quantities. The basic role of water-reducers is thus to deflocculate cement
particles agglomerated together and release the water tied up in these agglomerations,
producing more fluid paste at lower water contents. However, it should be noted that too
much water-reducers may lead to more water reduction in the concrete. Furthermore, the
setting time of the concrete may be retarded.

2.2.5 Reinforcing Steel

Plain concrete is said to have no useful strength of its own although it has very adequate
compressive strength (Allen, 1985). Fling (1987) explains that the tensile strength of
plain concrete lies between 10-15% that of its compressive strength. To create a balance
between these two forces concrete has to be reinforced with mild steel which is stronger
in tension than in compression. When reinforced, concrete makes the best use of the
properties of plain concrete and reinforcing steel while compensating for their less
desirable features.

The cohesive and adhesive relationship between concrete and steel could not be better.
Allen (1985) therefore describes the compatibility between the two materials as a
fortuitous accident. This statement is supported by Fling (1987) who explains that the
chemical bond and mechanical anchorage prevent slippage of reinforcing steel relative to
concrete. The other reason is that concrete and steel nearly have the same thermal
coefficients of expansion. Neville (1988) explains the bond between concrete and steel as
a result of friction and adhesion between particles. This bond is affected by shrinkage of
concrete relative to steel. Reinforcing steel can be in form of bars or welded fabric wire.
Because concrete is corrosive when it comes into contact with moisture adequate cover
must be provided to the concrete (Barnbrook, et al., 1975).

21
2.3 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Concrete has several properties which make it very a desirable construction material.
These include strength, capacity for volume changes, durability, deformation, thermal
conductivity and autogenous7 healing. The strength of concrete as tested in a cube test
does not reflect its strength in performance in a structure. Actually it is believed that its
strength is in fact less than that indicated in a cube test (Orchard, 1979). Even after more
than a decade, Orchard’s observation is still echoed. Bamforth and Price (1994)
concluded on the strength of concrete that no matter how well concrete performs in a
cube strength test, it is the overall performance in a structure that determines its service in
life, and that this depends as much on its treatment during construction as on the mix
design. Variations in the moisture content and temperature cause volume changes in
concrete. When fresh concrete dries for the first time it shrinks by about 0.4 mm/M and
expands on subsequent wetting though it does not go back to its original linear
dimensions. These volume changes can be reduced by decreasing the amount of water per
unit volume of fresh concrete mix (Shirley, 1987). The permeability of concrete also
affects the movement of moisture in hardened concrete. The more porous the concrete the
more permeable it is to moisture.

The durability of concrete is affected by such factors as weathering abrasion, chemical

attacks and permeability. The crushing strength of concrete alone does not guarantee its
durability. Therefore the type of mix, proportions of constituent materials and water-
cement ratio must be borne in mind (Barnbrook, et al., 1975). There are certain types of
cements which are susceptible to sulphates and other chemical attacks and so are the
concretes made from the same. Aggregates and water that have impurities, vegetable
matters or otherwise reduce the durability of concrete by inducing chemical
decomposition of the foreign matters in concrete (Shirley, 1987).

High permeability will induce a high rate of moisture content in concrete and so will the
rate of corrosion on steel. Corrosion weakens the bond and anchorage of steel onto
concrete, and this could result in cracking of concrete along the reinforcement. Therefore
permeability in concrete must be as low as possible, and to attain that concrete must be
fully compacted and properly cured. The lower the permeability of concrete the higher is
its durability (Barnbrook, et al., 1975). However, the durability of a concrete structure

7 This is the ability of concrete for self-healing (Neville, 1988).

22
cannot be easily and accurately determined. It can only be speculated how long a good
quality concrete would last (Waine & Long, 1990). These give an example of Axmouth
Bridge at Seaton in the southeast of Devon to illustrate the durability of concrete. This
concrete structure was built over a hundred years ago with what has been proved to be
relatively poor and badly mixed concrete made from a very coarse poor quality cement.
Therefore it means that if a low quality concrete structure could stand for over a century,
high quality concrete structures can last even many more centuries.

Concrete undergoes deformation when loaded or stressed. The immediate deformation

that occurs as a result of applied stress is called elastic deformation. There is also drying
shrinkage which occurs over a long period of time and is independent of applied stress.
Another form of deformation is creep which occurs as a result of slow recovery of
concrete though it does not entirely regain its original linear dimensions (Barnbrook, et
al., 1975). These deformations depend largely on factors such as the age of concrete, its
mix proportions and constituent materials (Shirley, 1987). Another important attribute of
concrete is its resistance to fire. Concrete has a thermal conductivity of about one-tenth
that of steel; it is relatively low. This implies that a rise in surface temperatures is not
entirely transmitted to the interior (Shirley, 1987). However, the degree of thermal
conductivity varies with the composition of aggregates in the concrete (Neville, 1988).
Natural (mineral) aggregates are less resistant to temperature rises than artificial
aggregates which show no sudden changes in volume on heating thus giving concrete an
excellent fire resistance (Shirley, 1987).

Finally concrete has the ability to heal on its own. There are certain cracks that are caused
by sudden finite movements. If allowed to close up without tangential displacement, the
cracks will close up completely under moist conditions (Orchard, 1979). This ability of
self-healing is known as autogenous healing (Neville, 1988). This process is enhanced by
hydration of unhydrated cement paste in the concrete, and the rate depends on the age of
concrete. The younger the concrete the higher the strength regain through autogenous
healing.

2.4 CHOOSING CONCRETE FOR CONSTRUCTION

The constituent materials of concrete are locally and readily available in almost all parts
of the world (Allen, 1985). This abundance of constituent materials makes concrete a
universal and widely used material. Its universality in a way shows that as a construction
material concrete is cheap. Though concrete may be cheap, its production can cause far-

23
reaching repercussions on the environment. Environmentalists have observed with
concern that quarrying depletes the earth of its natural rock strata. Moreover, quarries that
are left unburied collect water into which people sometimes drown. De Vries (1993)
explains that the waste from concrete disposal is another major problem as seen by
environmentalists. However, concrete waste need not be an environmental problem
anymore because it can be crushed and, recycled and used as aggregate. In fact crushed
concrete can be used in place of hard-core as site-fill for building or engineering purposes
(Southcott, 1996).

Recently there has been an increased interest in the use of crushed reclaimed concrete as
aggregate, and so must be the use of cement replacements (Squires, 1994). The
production of cement is another hazardous operation to the environment as there is an
emission of dust into the atmosphere. Nevertheless cements can be replaced with such
materials as pulverised fuel ash (pfa), ground granulated blast-furnace slag (ggbs) and
micro-silica. For instance pfa a by-product of coal can be used as aggregate in its raw
form and as a cementitious material in its processed form.

Concrete is a durable material for construction and as a result concrete buildings last for a
long time (Everett, 1989). A good example of such durability of concrete is the Axmouth
Bridge (Waine & Long, 1990). However, the durability of concrete is affected by factors
such as corrosion of steel and chlorides attacks. Bamforth (1996)explains that reinforcing
steel corrodes when it comes into contact with moisture. Therefore adequate cover must
be provided to the steel. He adds that modern Portland cements affect durability to a
certain extent because they offer less resistance to chlorides than those used fifty years
ago. Nevertheless, blended Portland cement can be combined with cement replacements
to offer great resistance to chloride attacks.

Concrete is a non-flammable material (Neville, 1988). However, its ability to resist fire
largely depends on the aggregate composition. For instance, natural aggregates heat up
faster than artificial ones (Shirley, 1987). Concrete is said to be a non-rotting material as
compared to steel and timber. Sometimes there could be a collection of organic matters in
the concrete and these could weaken the strength of concrete as they rot. It is for that
reason that constituent materials of concrete should be free from impurities of all kinds
(Taylor, 1977).

The flexibility of concrete makes it easy to be moulded into any shape (Allen, 1985).
Though its flexibility permits a wider variety of forms, it can result in added design effort

24
as different construction options need to be investigated (Southcott, 1996). Despite the
many attributes to the choice of concrete as a construction material some critics have
maintained that it is colourless and functional. Ridout (1991) however, argues that
concrete is not only functional but also artistic and sculptural in various ways. Concrete
need not continue being labelled a dull and colourless material anymore because it can be
coloured with pigments of various colouring (Carter, 1996). However, these pigments are
costly in terms of mixing because even a single colour calls for a sophisticated
formulation.

2.5 SUMMARY

Since its discovery in the Roman times concrete has continued to gain its universal
acceptability. Its properties of strength, durability, resistance to fire and chemical attacks,
volume changes, deformation due to loading and autogenous healing have made it a very
important construction material. As a heterogeneous material, concrete constitutes a
number of materials; cement, aggregates, and water. Sometimes concrete properties
require modification depending on the conditions in which concrete is to be used. In such
cases admixtures are added to concrete when mixing. Reinforcing steel is also used in
concrete to supplement the concrete with the tensile strength it requires to perform
adequately. These constituent materials, admixtures and reinforcing steel are important
because they affect the performance of both wet and hardened concrete. Thus they must
be treated and handled with care.

There are many factors that underlie the choice of concrete as a construction material. Its
constituent materials are locally and readily available hence making it cheap to obtain.
Concrete structures of various shapes can be built and can also last long before their life
spans come to an end. Lastly concrete does not burn nor rot.

However, at times the use of concrete has been overshadowed by prejudices such as it
being dull, colourless, lifeless and functional. Concrete production also has been branded
as an environmental hazard which if not checked would cause far-reaching ecological
effects. Nevertheless innovations in concrete technology have improved and are
improving the image of concrete in use and production.

25
CHAPTER THREE: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter looks at construction methods, which in this study shall mean the techniques
used in the construction of structures. These methods have therefore been divided into
two and include in-situ8 and precast9 concrete construction.

3.2 IN-SITU CONSTRUCTION.

In-situ concrete construction dates way back to the discovery of concrete by the Romans.
It involves the use of large quantities of water on a building site because fresh concrete
cannot be workable if it loses moisture (Allen, 1985). Concrete masonry construction
(CMC) also falls under this category of in-situ construction. Taylor (1977) describes
concrete blocks as precast members and goes on to say these can be factory manufactured
or site-cast. Despite this argument concrete masonry construction involves large
quantities of water on site. Allen (1985) explains that mortar is as much a part of masonry
as the masonry units themselves. It accounts for 20% of the masonry work and it can only
be used when it is wet and fresh. This statement confirms that CMC is a 'wet system’10.

Over the years in-situ concrete construction has evolved from plain and reinforced
concrete in the last half of the nineteenth century (Allen, 1985) to pre-stressed concrete in
the first half of the twentieth century (Taylor, 1977). Despite having undergone such an
evolution in-situ construction has had to adapt to various changes in order to compete
with other systems of construction such as steel and precast construction. There has been
an extensive prefabrication of reinforcing steel, mechanisation of finishing operations,
reusable formwork and many other techniques (Allen, 1985).

3.2.1 The Construction Process

The construction process of an in-situ concrete project starts the moment it is initiated to
the time it is completed; it begins the moment the contractor starts spending money on the
project until it is handed over as a finished product (Seeley, 1987). The process includes

8A process where concrete is poured into forms or moulds in the actual position in which the concrete
will permanently remain after the forms have been removed (Allen, 1985).
9 Involves casting elements in positions other than those in which they will finally be erected (Allen,
1985).
10 A form of construction that involves the use of large quantities of water such as masonry and
plastering (Allen, 1985).

26
preliminary works, site clearance, material and labour assembly, excavations and
earthworks, and concreting (Bentley, 1994).

Concreting on site takes a larger part of the construction process as it involves a number
of operations before raw materials are converted into a finished product. These operations
include batching, mixing, transporting, placing and compacting, curing and formwork
(Barnbrook, et al., 1975). Batching refers to the measurement or calculation of the
quantities of constituent materials of concrete before they are mixed (Taylor, 1977).
These mix proportions of materials are determined either by volume or weight as the case
may be with cement (Barnbrook, et al., 1975). In most cases aggregates are not
completely dried and the moisture in them could influence the volume of such aggregates
in the mix. Therefore it is important to determine the amount of moisture present in the
aggregates so that adequate adjustments can be made (Shirley, 1987).

The constituent materials of concrete need to be carefully and thoroughly mixed in order
to achieve consistent workability, water-tightness, control of quality and strength (Taylor,
1977). Thorough mixing of concrete is essential to uniform colouring and consistency
(Barnbrook, et al., 1975). Shirley (1987) adds that mixing can be done mechanically or
manually, though mechanical mixing is preferable on large projects to reduce on time and
improve on efficiency. When concrete has been thoroughly mixed it requires to be
transferred from the point of mixing to where it is needed for pouring (Shirley, 1987).
Therefore it may require to be transported vertically and horizontally, or horizontally
using various equipment such as pumps, buckets and wheelbarrows (Bentley, 1994).
However, Taylor (1977) cautions that it is important to take necessary precautions when
transporting ready-mixed concrete to preserve its workability. Barnbrook, et al. (1975)
also emphasise on the importance of careful transportation of concrete to avoid
segregation. Furthermore, concrete may be contaminated with other matters which could
affect its performance. More importantly, wet concrete is not a liquid but slurry, an
unstable mixture of solids and liquid. It is for this reason that it should be handled and
placed with extreme care so as to avoid separation of aggregates and mortar (Allen,
1985).

Before concrete is poured, formwork must be erected. Since the appearance of cast-in-
place concrete is directly dependent upon the quality of formwork, it means that
formwork must be coated with release agents to avoid the concrete sticking to formwork
(Monks, 1984). It is important that when placing concrete the operation should be
continuous for each section of the work (Taylor, 1977; Monks, 1984). Once started,

27
placing of concrete should not be delayed until the formwork is completely filled. It is
unquestionable that air bubbles are trapped in concrete after it is placed in the formwork.
If left uncompacted, the concrete would develop have voids which would weaken the
strength and durability of concrete (Neville, 1988). Thus, concrete must be compacted
using vibrators to dispel trapped air. If it is placed in layers, each layer must be
thoroughly compacted (Taylor, 1977). However, when vibrating concrete it should never
be moved or allowed to flow as this would cause segregation (Barnbrook, et al., 1975).

Concrete must be placed continuously as earlier mentioned. However, if it is not possible

to do so, construction joints must be provided (Taylor, 1977). Construction joints are
provided when there is an interruption in concreting thus making it necessary for fresh
concrete to be placed against, and to bond an earlier portion which has already hardened
(Shirley, 1987). The reaction between cement and water causes concrete to harden, and in
this reaction water is lost. The rate at which moisture is lost from concrete affects the
strength of concrete (Shirley, 1987). Therefore it is important to ensure that water is
retained in the concrete so that it attains the maximum strength before formwork is
stripped. This process of retaining the moisture content in concrete is known as curing
(Allen, 1985). When concrete has fully cured and is strong enough to support its own
weight and other loads, formwork can be stripped and reused elsewhere (Taylor, 1977).

3.2.2 Importance of In-Situ Concrete Construction

The importance of in-situ concrete construction can be well looked at by considering the
effects it has on a particular project. The fluidity of in-situ concrete offers unlimited
sculptural possibilities on site. Examples of such sculptural works are Le Corbusier’s
Chapel of Notre Dame at Ronchamp du Haut in France and the J. F. Kennedy airport in
New York (Allen, 1985). However, since concrete has to be cast in place it involves large
volumes of formwork so that it stays in place. There is also the cost of release agents to
be considered. Release agents are coated to the inner faces of formwork so that concrete
does not stick to it (Monks, 1984). In fact formwork on most construction projects costs
more than concrete, and sometimes even more than concrete and reinforcing steel
combined together (Peurifoy, 1976). Hartland (1990) confirms that formwork is one of
the most expensive elements in concrete construction. However, latest report statistics
have shown that the cost of formwork varies between 35% and 38% that of concrete
(Pallett, 1994).

Structures built of in-situ concrete are said to offer a monolithic architectural character

28
(Allen, 1985). The monolithic nature means there is an even distribution of loads in all
directions. The structures are also rigid and therefore need no extra structural resistance.
However, because in-situ structures are built without movement joints there is a
likelihood of built-up stresses which may cause failure of concrete. Movement joints are
vital as they open and close up to relieve stresses in the concrete (Shirley, 1987).

Longer-span portal frames can be cast in place using in-situ concrete. For instance the
Romans built long-span barrel vaults and domes with plain in-situ concrete. The
Pantheon in Rome spans about 46m in diameter. This was made possible because of the
structural suitability of concrete to work in compression (Allen, 1985). Working at high
heights requires the use of scaffolding whose cost is added to that of walling (Wainwright
& Wood, 1981). The cost of scaffolding includes hiring or purchasing charges per hour,
erecting and dismantling (Chudley, 1991). Casting long-spans elements may be one of
the greatest achievements in in-situ concrete construction. There are however, other
problems associated with this kind of construction. Since each element is cast in place
and often by relatively ineffective methods and under variable weather conditions, quality
of the product is not guaranteed (Allen, 1985).

In in-situ concrete construction the production of concrete is carried out on site (Shirley,
1987) and it means large volumes of plant and equipment are to be hired or purchased
and operated. The cost of plant and machinery contributes greatly to the total cost of the
construction. The fact that concrete production is done on site makes in-situ concrete
construction relatively slow as compared to precast or steel construction. This is so
because each level must be formed (though blockwork is not formed), reinforced, poured,
cured and stripped of the formwork before the building process can proceed (Allen,
1985).

3.3 PRECAST CONSTRUCTION

The emergency of concrete and in-situ construction played a very important role in the
development of the Roman Empire. With concrete many structures of varying lengths and
shapes could be developed. It was in the 1930s that precast concrete emerged as a
construction material (Coville, 1990). The knowledge of concrete construction had just
been rediscovered after the fall of the Roman Empire (Allen, 1985). What therefore could
have led to the use of precast concrete at the beginning of the twentieth century?
Richardson (undated) answers this question when he writes that precast concrete
construction removes the restraints encountered in in-situ construction. However, the use

29
of precast construction came to a temporary stop during the Second World War because
precast concrete factories could not operate. Nonetheless, after the war was over Europe
embarked on a reconstruction programme to replace the many houses that had been
destroyed during the war. This reconstruction programme had to be started and finished
quickly, and in such a case precast concrete was recommended.

The question that ought to be asked next is, 'where and when can precast concrete
construction be applied?' Reynolds (1971) explains that precast construction can be used
where erection of false work is not required and where the working periods are limited.
Taylor (1977) recommends the use of precast construction where speed of construction
and efficient economy is to be achieved when he writes, "It is a current theory that for
quick service and economy, superstructure should not be built but should be assembled
from precast structural elements..." Precast construction is also sought after where there is
a repetitive production of modular and standardised prefabricated and standardised
building elements.

Site production and assembly takes large space on site. In-situ concrete and in-situ steel
construction operate in a similar way, and hence have similar problems associated with
these methods of construction. It is for this reason that Clapson (1994) argues that there is
an urgent need to transfer a major proportion of production from the site to the more
favourable environmental conditions of the factory, subject to a substantial degree of
standardisation, automatic and semi-automatic numerically controlled machines can be
put into service to produce prefabricated assemblies for site delivery. This in a way
applies to precast concrete construction as it operates in a similar way as prefabricated
steel construction.

3.3.1 Uses of Precast Concrete Elements

Richardson (undated) writes that precast concrete elements can be made to serve two
important purposes, and these are structural and structural/visual. Structural elements are
those that make up the structural frame and transmit loads directly to the foundations,
whereas structural/visual elements are those meant for structural as well as architectural
(decorative) purposes such as cladding.

Architectural precast cladding could bring to a project a variety of design and functional
abilities (Coville, 1990). The dual functions of cladding are echoed by Gregerson (1992)
as he contends that other than serve its architectural purpose, cladding can also assume
the function of load bearing wall panel. When such a case happens there is no need for

30
separate structural element.

3.3.2 Innovations in Precast Concrete Construction

Precast concrete construction has undergone various advances and innovations over the
years. To ask what is new in precast concrete technology one has to look at what is new
in architecture. The technology of precast concrete has over the years responded to
architectural styles, moved from classicism to post modernism (Coville, 1990). For
instance precast cladding was known only for its diversity of expression, thermal,
acoustical and fire resistance properties. However, what was not considered were its
structural capabilities. It has been proved that cladding can as well be used for structural
functions as load bearing wall panels, thus eliminating or reducing on the need for
structural cores (Gregerson, 1995).

For many years precast concrete has been overshadowed by prejudice. It has been
branded as unstylish and aesthetically unpleasant. However, recent developments have
added to its capabilities other than the functional ones. Precast panels can be finished
with stone veneers (Coville, 1990). They can also be produced using a variety of textures
and colours at reasonable costs. By varying the proportions of aggregates and types of
pigments in the concrete mix or by using mould impressions to replicate textures, the
casting process lends itself to simulating natural stone. In fact when precast panels are
used to simulate stone the process can significantly reduce project costs (Anon., 1995).

3.3.3 Types of Precast Construction

The technology of precasting can be looked at in two ways depending on how elements
are cast. The first method is the off-site casting. In this category literally all members are
cast in the factory under controlled weather conditions. Even the necessary connections
are cast into the concrete. This therefore means there is no need for grouting (Allen,
1985).

The second type is the on-site casting which includes tilt-up and lift-slab construction.
Tilt-up involves the casting of all elements such as wall panels, beams, columns and slabs
on the ground (in moulds) before they are lifted into position and grouted (Taylor, 1977).
This method of construction is speedy and less costly as it dispenses much of factory
overhead costs. Where weather conditions are unfavourable casting can be done in
shelters (Richardson, undated).

Tilt-up construction has long been cost effective and time saving method of constructing

31
industrial and warehouse shells. With improvements in window and surface treatments
there has been an increased use of tilt-up construction for office buildings. Though, the
surface quality of tilt-up buildings is not as good as that of architectural precast.
Nonetheless, it can be achieved by using plastic form-liners in the moulds (Anon., 1989).
Tilt-up construction is in fact growing increasingly in the UK today because of the many
advantages derived there from. These include speed of erection, efficiency and
economies, inherent fire resistance, good sound insulation and greater thermal inertia
(Southcott, 1996).

3.3.4 The Construction Process

To a larger extent the success of precast construction depends on the degree of
professional interaction involving the designer, contractor and manufacturer (Coville,
1990). The designer makes detailed drawings which he sends to the manufacturer who in
turn makes shop drawings. Before the precasting process commences the shop drawings
are sent back to the designer for checking if they conform to the specifications. When
everything is all right the manufacturer goes ahead with production (Allen, 1985).

The construction process on a precast concrete project differs from that on in-situ
concrete only when it comes to production and erection of elements. In precast
construction process production is the manufacturer's primary responsibility. The
contractor though can be allowed to monitor the production. After all he is the one to
assemble the elements. In short one can say the construction process includes preliminary
works, site clearance, earthworks and excavations, concreting and erection.

The erection of precast elements depends largely on connections. These must be as

simple to make as possible considering the safety and stability of the structure (Monks,
1984). The speed and efficiency of the erection process depend on the skilled design and
careful manufacture. The performance of a precast structure though is a function of
careful assessment of loads and the capacity of precast elements to sustain these loads.

3.3.5 Importance of Precast Construction

The fact that precast concrete emerged barely a century after the rediscovery of the
knowledge of concrete, is evidence enough that it is important in construction. As earlier
discussed, precast was introduced to remove the restraints encountered in in-situ
construction (Richardson, undated). Repetitive production of modular standardised
elements associated with precast concrete construction reduces the costs through the use
of permanent moulds (Chudley, 1991). It is argued however, that capital costs of the

32
precision moulds and factory overheads are high. Taylor (1977) dispels that claim and
explains that these costs are apportioned over a number of units cast repetitively. Besides,
repetitive production assures planned continuity of output and fast assembly without any
delays. Allen (1985) in fact equates the speed of construction to that of steel construction
as there is no formwork to be erected and stripped. Richardson (undated) stresses the
importance of connections which he says can cause delays that are unfathomed. Despite
the connections, precast concrete construction loses the structural rigidity due to the
absence of monolithic construction, and this may result in extra costs (Reynolds, 1971).

The standardised nature of precast construction makes it unsuitable for odd-shaped

structures, and thus they lose the three-dimensional sculptural possibilities (Allen, 1985).
Chudley (1991, p. 95) concurs that systems building is less flexible in its design concept
than in purpose-made structures. One sculptor, Page, disagrees with such claims that
precast concrete lacks the three-dimensional sculptural possibilities. In fact he believes
that now precast concrete has become more sculptural and artistic than ever before. It is
capable of producing a variety of textures and colours at reasonable costs. To achieve
desired finishes on precast concrete elements, moulds with specific impressions can be
used and hence there is no need for extra time and cost to get that desired texture (Anon.,
1995).

Production of precast concrete elements is conveniently done at ground level and thus
eliminating the use of scaffolding (Chudley, 1991). Despite the fact that precast concrete
structures are lightweight, the elements are heavy and bulky to transport over roads, and
even to hoist in place/ position. As a result their sizes and proportions are restricted
(Allen, 1985). Nonetheless, since production is done away from the construction site it
means there is enough space on site (Chudley, 1991).

Factory production assures better quality control of precast concrete elements and finally
that of the whole product as compared to that of in-situ concrete (Taylor, 1977). As
precast concrete is cast in smooth moulds, it usually has excellent surface properties. The
result of such excellence in surface finish is the reduction in the amount of plastering
(1985, p. 468). Some people though, have claimed that precast concrete generally has a
dull finished texture. However, this is not absolutely true because latest innovations in
precast concrete technology have added to its capabilities. Wall panels can be finished in
stone veneers (Coville, 1990). Ellis, et al. (1996) writes that pigmented precast units can
be sandblasted or etched to produce a pleasant textured finish.

33
Precast elements produced in the factory are steam cured and therefore are ready in 24
hours. The result is speed of erection (Allen, 1985). Preliminary and full load tests of
these precast elements are also carried out to determine the actual strength dimensional
stability, impermeability and deflection of the members (Taylor, 1977). As earlier
mentioned in chapter two it is not the performance of concrete in a cube strength test that
determines its service in life but its performance in a structure (Bamforth & Price, 1994).

There is a possibility of reusing precast members a number of times if they are

dismantled carefully and without any breakage. As a result formwork costs per unit area
are reduced (Allen, 1985). The possibility to reuse precast concrete though depends on
their durability which also depends on how concrete was treated in the factory. Precast
elements are said to be more durable than in-situ elements. However, the experience in
London’s Bristol city council would prove otherwise. During the post war period 1948-58
Britain embarked on a reconstruction project involving 1.5 million housing units, and
precast concrete was used. By 1987, practically 39-49 years later 200,000 of these houses
needed immediate repair. It was discovered that the cause of the problem was with the
way concrete had been treated. There had been inadequate cover to reinforcing steel so
that when it came into contact with moisture it started corroding thus affecting the
concrete. Due to the cold weather chlorides had been used to speed up setting of concrete
during manufacture. The chlorides had weakened the strength of concrete because it
became permeable to moisture which affected the steel (Webb, 1987).

3.4 SUMMARY

The technology of concrete construction is practically looked at in two ways, in-situ or

precast. In-situ construction begun with the discovery of concrete whereas precast
construction was introduced barely a century after the rediscovery of concrete knowledge
to remove the restraints caused by in-situ construction.

In-situ construction rather has a very long construction process as compared to precast
construction whose construction process is shortened by the fact that production of
elements is done in factories and just assembled on site. Another significant difference
between these two methods is the nature of their construction process. In-situ
construction is a ‘wet’ system whereas precast is a ‘dry’ systems building.

In-situ construction is known for its flexibility which enables it to enjoy quite a number
of advantages. However, there are some disadvantages too associated with the nature of
in-situ concrete and these add up to the increased costs, delayed production and times as

34
well as compromised quality. Precast construction embarks on the advantages offered by
its repetitive production of factory modular standardised and prefabricated elements.
These include reduced costs of production and erection, guaranteed quality of building
elements and speed of construction. Nonetheless, not all is green for precast concrete
because it is not as flexible as in-situ concrete construction hence resulting only in
standardised structures. Structures also lose their structural rigidity due to the absence of
monolithic construction.

35
CHAPTER FOUR: AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES USED ON HOUSING
PROJECTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION

This is the research chapter based on the third research objective which seeks to
investigate which of the two forms of construction offers the least cost per unit, shorter
construction time and better quality on a housing development project. In the previous
chapter a great deal has been said about the construction technologies on the three
traditional maxims of management; cost, time and quality. Two case studies were
identified for each construction method used. These were Masala-Chinese and Mushili-
Chinese Projects, both low cost housing development projects in Ndola. The former, built
using in-situ concrete construction (concrete blocks), was on-going project at the time of
research. The later on the other hand, although originally meant to be a precast concrete
project, was built using prefabricated aluminium insulated panels. Despite the lack of a
genuine precast concrete construction project at that time, the Mushili-Chinese project
was settled for to be included in the research and provide a basis for comparison against
the in-situ concrete construction project.

Further comparative studies were made between precast concrete and prefabricated
modular construction. It was found that prefabs (building materials) were 40-50%
cheaper than precast concrete. Such prefabricated materials had never been used in
Zambia before, and as such their use presented a challenge to construction technologies
applied on housing development projects. The technology presented was thus adopted
and put on a trial basis. Because of the challenges presented by this technology to the
construction industry as a whole, the author decided to adopt it for the study.

4.2 RESEARCH AREAS: CASE STUDIES

Before adopting the areas of field research quite a number of factors were taken into
consideration. These included proximity of project sites which meant that they could have
similar problems, accessibility to offices of information, and convenience in visiting sites
and monitoring progress of development. Besides the above mentioned reasons location
was deemed to be very important if the research was to be representative of Zambia. The
areas of study had to be centrally located and geographically accessible to all other
provinces. Considering all those factors, Lusaka and Copperbelt provinces were adopted
as areas of study particularly in the towns of Kafue, Kitwe, Lusaka, Mufulira and Ndola.

36
The two projects identified as case studies were both in Ndola. It was important to have
these case studies in the same town and near each other because it was easy to visit them
at almost the same time. Besides visiting time, it was important that similar factors
prevail such as distance from the centre of the town. These case studies concentrated on
examining the three traditional maxims of management (cost, time and quality), and in
some cases look at the factors which contribute to the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of
these maxims. Most importantly the site observations were meant to determine quality
which is not quantified. Hence quality in this case was to be determined by the
differences in workmanship between similar products or works.

4.3 RESEARCH METHODS

Two main methods of data collection were used, and these were questionnaires and
structured interviews.

4.3.1 Questionnaires
Four types of questionnaires were designed for four sets of respondents. These included
project designers, developers, occupants (tenants) and architects (designers). The
questionnaires for the project designers and developers were actually meant to find out
more about the costs of the projects, the duration and the perceived quality of the
buildings. As for occupants, these were mainly from Kwacha townships of Kitwe and
were randomly selected from both precast concrete and in-situ concrete houses. These
houses were built at almost the same time, and it was important to use such houses
because time is a very influential factor as far as performance of building structures is
concerned. From the occupants the author intended to establish quality of the houses in
relation to their period of existence, which they lived as affected by their periods of
existence, building materials used, weather conditions and other factors.

The inclusion of Architects was motivated by the fact that in many cases they prescribe
the method of construction. Most often the client is not even consulted or educated on the
method to be adopted. Therefore, to find out how much consultations are made with
clients when choosing construction method to be used on a housing project, a
questionnaire was specifically designed for architects. It was the author’s intention to find
out whether or not they specified the use of precast concrete construction on housing
projects more than they did in-situ concrete, and to find out the underlying reasons for the
specification of the technology methods.

37
4.3.2 Interviews
In traditional methods of tendering, contractors have no part in determining the method of
construction to be used on a construction project. However, in the design and build set up
a contractor is involved from the very beginning and thus, takes part in choosing the
method of construction to be used on the project. Nevertheless, the contractor’s
performance is ultimately affected by the type of construction technology to be used on a
project. Therefore, the aim of the interviews with contractors was to find out the
construction technology they were most familiar with, the benefits and problems they
experienced if they had used precast concrete construction before.

4.4 RESEARCH RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.4.1 Case Studies - Documents

The two projects identified as case studies were both Chinese donor funded. Whereas the
Masala-Chinese project was constructed on behalf of Ndola City Council, the Mushili-
Chinese project was jointly funded by the Chinese Army and the Zambian Army. The
former a low cost housing development project, used concrete (for foundations, slabs, and
the like) built in-situ and concrete blocks, which qualified it to falls under in-situ concrete
construction. A total number of 118 housing units were to be built in fourteen (14)
months. At the time of the research almost 80% of the works were completed and only
60% service works had been done. The Mushili-Chinese project, another low cost
housing project comprised 13 semi-detached houses with a total number of 26 housing
units for the Defence Forces. As earlier mentioned, the project was to have been
constructed using precast concrete. However, due to financial restraints prefabricated
materials were chosen instead. Nevertheless, the total construction period was expected to
last six (6) months. During the time of the research, about 90% of all construction and
services works had been completed. Table 1 below shows important information
concerning the two case studies.

Table 1: Findings from Case Studies

VARIABLES MASALA MUSHILI
Housing units (number) 118 26
Project duration (months) 14 6
Duration covered (months) 9 14
Estimated cost (Kwacha) 4 Billion 300 Million
Actual cost (Kwacha) 4.22 Billion 291 Million
Cost per unit (Kwacha) 35,762,796.61 11,192,307.69
Unit area (square metres) 60 120
Projected life span 70-100 40-50
Source: Compiled by Author

38
A. Construction costs
1. The cost per unit of an in-situ house as shown from the table above is K
35,762,796.61 and each unit covers a floor area of 60 square metres.
2. A prefabricated house unit covering 120 square metres costs K 11,192,307.63.
3. Since a prefabricated house was said to be 40-50% cheaper than a precast
concrete house therefore the latter costs between K22.4 M and K27.99 M
(Project manager, Mushili).
4. There seems to be quite a big difference in the costs per unit of the two types of
houses. This could be due to number of elements as far as the methods of
construction are concerned. Although neither of the project managers provided
a breakdown of the elemental costs there is no doubt that a number of elements
cost much more on the in-situ concrete project than on the other project. For
instance:
i) Substructure
The type of foundation used on the in-situ concrete project was strip
foundation whereas the other project had thickened slabs. Therefore it is
possible that a large sum of money was absorbed into the substructure of
the in-situ concrete project as compared to that which was spent on
thickened slabs.
ii) Blockwork/ Brickwork
200mm and 100mm concrete blocks were used on load bearing and
partition walls respectively on the in-situ project. The prefabricated houses
however, had 100mm thick panels for both load bearing and non-load
bearing panels. The cost of such building materials definitely had an effect
on the total construction costs per unit because concrete blocks cost per
cost whereas prefabs cost per metre square.
iii) Roofing
Purlins and rafters from local timber were used for roof structure and
asbestos as roofing sheets on the in-situ concrete project. Meanwhile steel
trusses and steel sheets made form containers were used as roofing
structure and sheets respectively on the prefabricated project.
iv) Labour
The main contractor and entire site management team for the in-situ
project were contracted from China. Their contract allowed for
fluctuations in time, prices of materials and costs of operations. As for
skilled and unskilled-skilled labour operatives were employed on an
individual and casual basis. The prefabricated project on the other hand
was manned by the Zambia Army though assisted by specialists from the
Chinese Army Force on a non-contractual basis. Labour was provided for
by soldiers who were paid from their salaries. From the information
gathered in the case studies, the cost per unit of a prefabricated house is
31.3% that of an in-situ concrete house. Considering also the floor areas
covered by both types of houses, precast/prefabricated unit is cheaper than
an in-situ house.

39
B. Construction time
1. The Masala-Chinese housing project was said to be right on time. At the time
of this research nine (9) months had already passed, about 80% of construction
work had been completed and 60% services installed. All-in-all the project is
expected to last fourteen (14) months.
2. The Mushili-Chinese project took a total of fourteen (14) months that is eight
(8) months more than scheduled. The main reason behind such an unfathomed
delay was lack of funding by the Zambian government for a period for six (6)
months. This caused all construction works to come to a complete stop for a
period of six months. However, despite the extension in time the total
construction sum remained unchanged.

C. Quality
Although it is quite difficult to determine quality during the construction process
observations were made on how much remedial work was done on each project.

1. The Masala-Chinese project (in-situ) had a total of 16.95% remedial works

representing a total of twenty (20) houses out of 118 housing units.
2. The Mushili-Chinese (prefabricated) project on the other hand, had 11.54%
remedial works representing only two (2) houses.
The percentages relating to remedial works are very misleading. Although there is a very
small difference between 11.54% and 16.95% in the actual fact it appears prefabricated
construction gives better quality during construction.

D. General Observations
From the information gathered from the case studies above show that a precast
concrete/prefabricated house unit is relatively cheaper than an in-situ concrete unit. It also
appears that the floor areas are far too large to be considered on a low cost level (they
range from medium to high cost). In the defence of construction time, it is not easy to
compare these two projects because one project certainly took longer than was expected
whereas the other one was not finished at the time of the research. Even though there was
an extension in the construction period for the prefabricated project the total construction
sum of the whole project was not affected. On the matter of quality of the building
product, it was evident that prefabricated modular construction offered better quality
during construction. This is because there were only two houses on which remedial works
were done as compared to twenty on the other project.

4.4.2 Questionnaires
Four types of questionnaires were administered to various groups of people who included
project designers (architects), occupants, and contractors to get their perceptions on the

40
cost, time and quality of construction. These represented a 100% response each.

4.4.2.1 Project Designers

The questionnaire for project designers of the two case study projects, mainly
concentrated on three things: cost, time and quality. Asked on the efficiency of
construction methods, their responses were as follows in Table 2 below.

Table 2: Responses from Project Designers

VARIABLE Number Of Responses To Indicate Efficiency
In-Situ Precast
Cost 1 1
Time _ 2
Quality 1 1
Source: Compiled by Author

A. Cost of Construction
The question on which construction method was more cost effective than the other had
the following responses: those who worked on the in-situ concrete project said it was
cheaper than precast/prefabricated construction. Meanwhile those that worked on
prefabricated construction project said it was cheaper than in-situ construction.

B. Construction time
When asked which method of construction gives shorter construction time on a housing
project, both said precast/prefabricated modular construction was faster than in-situ
because there was no waiting period for concrete to cure and thus erection of
precast/prefabricated elements continues without delays.

C. Quality
The question on which construction method gives better quality during construction and
in the long run had the following responses: those who worked on the in-situ project said
in-situ concrete construction gives better quality than precast/ prefabricated modular
construction, and the designers of the prefabricated project said vice versa.

4.4.2.2 Developers

It should be noted that the questions for developers are similar to those for the project
designers. This was made deliberately because it is obvious that designers and developers
worked together to consider the cost, time and quality factors. However, despite working

41
together and reaching a consensus developers could have their own opinions concerning
the cost, time and quality of construction (see Table 3).

Table 3: Responses from Developers

VARIABLES Number Of Responses To Indicate Efficiency
In-Situ Precast/
Cost 1 1
Time _ 2
Quality _ 2
Source: Compiled by Author

A. Cost of construction
On the question of total construction costs developers of case study one indicated that in-
situ was cheaper than precast/prefabricated modular construction. The other developers
said vice versa because from their comparative studies of the two methods precast
concrete construction was 20-30% cheaper than in-situ construction. Further comparisons
proved that prefabricated modular construction was 40-50% cheaper than precast
concrete construction.

B. Construction time
The question on which method was time efficient both developers said
precast/prefabricated modular construction gives shorter construction time than in-situ
construction. This response corresponds with what the project designers said.

C. Quality
Asked which method offered better quality on housing development projects both
developers indicated that precast/prefabricated modular construction gives better quality
than in-situ construction both during construction and in the long run. This response is in
contrast to that by project designers who both that the methods they had used on their
respective projects offers better quality than the other method.

4.4.2.3 Architects

The questionnaires were administered to designers in Lusaka, Ndola and Kitwe. The
questions mainly emphasised on were the methods of construction usually specified, most
economical method, the method that takes reasonable construction time, and the method
that gives value for money (see Table 4).

42
Table 4: Responses from Architects
Variables Number Of Responses
In-Situ Precast Composite
Method of Construction 6 2 2
Cost 3 5 2
Time 3 7 _
Quality 4 5 1
Source: Compiled by Author

A. Method of construction
Asked which method of construction they usually specified, 60% of designers said they
specify the use of in-situ construction on housing projects with or without consultations
with the clients. 20% usually specify precast construction while the other 20% specifies a
combination of the two above.

B. Cost of construction
On the question about which of the above mentioned methods was most economical on
housing projects, 50% said precast construction is more economic than either in-situ or
composite construction. 30% said in-situ construction is cheaper than the other two
methods whereas only 20% said composite construction is cheaper. Most professional
architects perceive precast construction to be cheaper than in-situ construction. The
project designers of the two projects on the other hand, each said the method employed
on their project was cheaper than the other. Even though, the indicators from the case
studies show that precast/prefabricated construction is relatively cheaper than in-situ
concrete construction. However, in spite of the fact that architects perceive precast
concrete construction to be cheaper than in-situ construction most of them do not specify
its use on housing projects because of the following reasons:

i) There are very few precast concrete manufacturing firms.

ii) The few firms that are there are mainly located on the Copperbelt and Lusaka
provinces so that transportation costs are very high to other provinces.
iii) Precast concrete construction is of specialist nature, and there are no such
specialist contractors that are known.
iv) It is very difficult and expensive to obtain the machinery used in the assembly of
precast elements.

C. Construction time
Which construction method gives shorter construction time? 70% said precast
construction takes shorter total construction time than the other methods, and the

43
remaining 30% said in-situ construction gives shorter construction. A majority of
professional architects said that precast/prefabricated construction took shorter
construction time than in-situ construction, and so did the project designers and
developers.

D. Quality
Which construction method gives better quality? 50% said precast construction gives
better quality than in-situ or composite construction, while 40% said in-situ gives better
quality and 10% said composite construction offers better quality than the other two
methods. These results show that precast concrete construction gives better quality than
in-situ or composite construction both during the construction process and in the long
run.

4.4.2.4 Occupants (tenants)

As earlier said the occupants of precast concrete and in-situ concrete houses were
involved in this research in order to establish the quality of the houses after a period of
time in existence. Therefore, the questions asked were quality related (see Table 5).

Table 5: Responses from Occupants

VARIABLES Number Of Responses
In-Situ House Precast House
Poor thermal insulation 3 2
Poor sound insulation 5 3
Cracked walls 5 _
Cracked floor slabs 5 2
Efflorescence of concrete 6 _
Moisture permeability 2 _
Source: Compiled by Author

From the responses above it is evident that precast concrete construction gives better
quality houses than in-situ construction. As observed from the responses 30% in-situ
houses as compared to 20% precast ones have poor thermal insulation. 50% in-situ
houses have poor sound insulation whereas only 30% of precast concrete houses have
such a problem. Concerning the structural stability of the houses, 50% in-situ houses viz.
20% precast houses have cracked floor slabs, and 50% in-situ houses have cracked walls.
Furthermore, 60% in-situ houses have their plaster peeling off and the concrete
efflorescing. Finally 20% in-situ houses have a high permeability to ground moisture.
From the observations above precast concrete houses would appear to be of better quality
than in-situ houses.

44
4.4.3 Interviews
A sample size of ten contractors was interviewed in Ndola, Kitwe, Kafue and Mufulira.
The questions asked concerned the methods of construction they were most familiar with,
which method they thought was most economical, gave shorter construction time and
which one offered better quality. Below in Table 6 were the responses:

Table 6: Responses from Building Contactors

VARIABLES Number Of Responses To Indicate
In-Situ Precast
Method (Familiar With) 6 4
Cost (Most Efficient) _ 4
Time (Shorter) 2 8
Quality (Better) 4 6
Source: Compiled by Author

A. Construction Method
On the question of whether they had used precast concrete construction before, 60% of
contractors have always used in-situ construction whereas only 40% have used precast
concrete construction. This shows that designers’ choice of construction methods
contribute to the contractors’ application of various construction technology methods.

B. Cost of construction
The question about which of the method they had used was cheaper, 40% of contractors
are convinced that precast concrete construction is cheaper than in-situ concrete
construction. The other 60% could not make comparisons between the two methods since
they had only used in-situ construction.

C. Construction Time
Which method gives shorter construction time? 80% said precast construction gives
shorter construction time than in-situ construction, whereas the remaining 20% said in-
situ construction takes less construction time than precast concrete construction.
According to the findings above it is indisputable that precast construction takes shorter
construction time than in-situ concrete construction.

D. Quality
On which method gives better quality both during construction and in the long run, 60%
indicated that precast concrete construction gives better quality than in-situ construction.
40% however, said it was vice versa. The results show that precast concrete construction
gives better quality than in-situ concrete construction.

45
4.5 RESEARCH DATA INTERPRETATION AND HYPOTHESIS
EVALUATION

In chapter one, the problem that was identified was that in-situ-concrete construction,
which was used on some residential houses contributed to their structural failure so early
in their life spans. Therefore, if the government (companies or individuals) is to embark
on large, long-term housing development projects, an alternative construction method had
to be adopted. Thus, the researcher formulated the following hypothesis ‘precast
concrete construction on a housing development project offers a better alternative to
achieving cost, time and quality effectiveness’. The research was guided by three main
objectives (see Section 1.5) that endeavoured to establish which of the two construction
method, in-situ or precast concrete construction was more cost, time, and quality effective
than the other.

Analyses of data gathered from documents on the case studies, questionnaires, and
interviews revealed the following main findings:

1. A prefabricated modular house is 31.% the cost of an in-situ concrete house.

2. There seems to be a big difference in the costs per unit between in-situ and
prefabricated houses because of the differences in their substructures, building
materials, and labour costs.
3. Professional architects and contractors indicated that precast concrete
construction would be cheaper than in-situ construction.
4. Professional architects, contractors, project designers, and developers indicated
that precast concrete construction generally took shorter construction time than
in-situ construction.
5. The prefabricated project too longer than scheduled while the in-situ concrete
construction was on time.
6. The Prefabricated project had better quality in terms of workmanship than the
in-situ concrete project.
7. Precast concrete construction produces building structures that are durable,
stable, reliable, and strong as compared to in-situ concrete construction.
From the above research findings the cost aspect of construction using either method of
construction was based on respondents’ perceptions and not actual comparative studies or
observations through experience. Only very few contractors (40%) have used and are
actually using precast concrete construction. Although they indicated that it was cost
effective, that indication does not authenticate the underlying concept which says precast
concrete construction is cheaper that in-situ concrete construction. This is mainly because
they only represent 36.4% of those who perceive it to be cost effective.

46
Regarding the question on construction time, 76% of the respondents indicated that
precast concrete construction takes shorter durations on construction projects than in-situ
concrete construction. Of all the responded the question on quality, 58.3% indicated that
precast concrete construction gives better quality than in-situ concrete construction. To
further authenticate that, a visual survey of some in-situ and precast concrete houses in
Kwacha Township in Kitwe showed that precast concrete houses were durable, stable,
reliable and strong.

Having considered and analysed the research findings, it could be stated that the
hypothesis was only partially supported. It was neither true nor false. However, the
precepts that it is time efficient and quality effective could not be ignored. The aspect of
cost proved rather challenging to draw conclusions as these two projects used were first
of all donor funded. There was a problem with disclosure of important information which
would have been very useful for this study. Secondly, the conditions under which the two
projects operated were not the same. For instance, the Zambia Army project excluded
labour costs as these were in form of salaries paid to soldiers who worked on the project.
Already there was a distortion in the total cost of the project. What was perceived as the
total cost was actually not correct. Finally, the Zambia Arm project was not a precast
concrete project but of prefabricated non-concrete materials. However, although not a
perfect substitute, it offered a good case of constructing with factory-made building units.

4.6 LIMITATIONS

1. Non-availability of a proper precast concrete project

At the time of the research, there were no proper precast concrete projects
anywhere in the two provinces chosen for the study. This made the study to shift
the real basis on this aspect alone. However, a prefabricated construction project
was identified in Ndola’s Mushili area. This is very similar in methods and
techniques as to those used in precast concrete construction, and offered a good
basis for comparison.

2. Abstract cost comparisons

The project designers and developers of Mushili prefabricated project said that
comparative studies had been made between in-situ and precast construction
where it was discovered that the latter was 20-30% cheaper than the former. There
was no way of verifying this as there was no documentation of the cost
comparisons. Thus, having no basis to calculate the cost per unit of a precast

47
 concrete house, approximate costs had be estimated using the above statistics in
relation to a prefabricated house as well as an in-situ house. As a result conclusive
remarks on the cost effectiveness of precast concrete versus in-situ concrete
construction could not be made based on abstract information.

3. Inadequate housing construction projects

There were inadequate housing development projects at the time of the research,
and as such only two live projects could be found. As earlier mentioned one of the
two projects was not what had been anticipated to be. A research of this nature
which deals with actual or approximate figures needs more than two case studies
to come up with representative conclusions. Because of such a limitation it was
not easy to make conclusive remarks as regards the effectiveness of the
construction technologies used.

4. Non-representation of case studies

Both case studies dealt with were donor funded and as a result contractors were
part of the “package deal”. In other words there was no tendering for the jobs. The
contract sums were of a fixed nature for the prefabricated project whereas that for
the in-situ project allowed for fluctuations. Being donor-funded projects it was
difficult to tell which part of the donor funds was a grant or a loan. It must be
noted that not all housing development projects are or shall be donor funded,
because others are embarked on by private individual developers and institutions.
In such a situation contracts are tendered for with varying tender sums. Therefore
if there had been a wider variety of projects the research would have been
inclusive of donor-funded, private and public projects and thus be representative
of the construction situation.

5. Sensitive nature of projects

Being donor funded both the projects dealt with in this research were said to be
very sensitive to both the donor and the recipient countries. Because of such
sensitivity managers of both projects were very reluctant to release information
especially concerning the costs of the projects. When information about costs was
given it was in bits which sometimes did not even make sense. For that reason it
took a while to gather information concerning the costs of the projects. Even
though the authenticity of such information was doubtful because the project
managers could neither confirm nor deny.

48
 6. Lack of objectivity
About 22.2% of the respondents lacked objectivity in answering questions
especially concerning cost and quality of construction. Each project designer and
developer said the construction method used on his project was more cost and
quality effective than the other. This lack of objectivity created a bias in
responses, and as such accurate conclusions cannot be drawn from such
responses.

7. Degree of reliability
To some extent the cost per unit of an in-situ house as shown in the case study
represents the current situation in Zambia if and only if the type of houses dealt
with said to be medium cost and not low cost because their floor areas are far too
big. If a number of repeated trials were to be conducted for instance the cost per
unit of an in-situ house would probably range from plus or minus a few million
Kwachas. As for the prefabricated project all materials used in the construction
process except for plant and equipment, were foreign. If local materials had been
used the case would be different altogether. For this reason if a number of trials
were conducted based on similar projects constructed using local materials the
costs per unit would vary greatly, and thus distorting the results of the research.

4.7 SUMMARY

Chapter four was mainly concerned with interpreting and analysing the data collected
through case studies, questionnaires and interviews. The case studies were both Chinese
donor funded projects at Masala and Mushili. These projects were in-situ concrete and
prefabricated respectively. The aim of case studies was mainly to give a detailed and
accurate account of the two projects under study. Questionnaires were also used as
another source of information, and there were particularly four sets of questionnaires for
project designers and developers, professional designers, and occupants. These were
designed to get respondents’ perceptions as regards cost, time and quality of construction
depending on the methods of construction in question. Last but not least another form of
data collection was interviews. These were based on non-scheduled structured questions
for a variety of contractors. The main objective of the interviews was to find out the
method of construction with which most contractors were familiar. The author also
intended to get their views on which method of construction was cost, time and quality
effective. In carrying out this study two provinces of Lusaka and Copperbelt were chosen

49
particularly the towns of Kafue, Kitwe, Lusaka, Mufulira and Ndola. The choice of these
areas was dependent upon various factors such as proximity to project sites, accessibility
to offices of information, convenience in visiting project sites in order to monitor
progress, and finally the central locality of the two provinces to be representative of the
research.

As far as construction costs per unit are concerned, the indicators from the case studies
show that a prefabricated modular house is cheaper than an in-situ house. Although the
prefabricated construction project took longer time to complete than was expected
inconsistency in funding, it appears that it gave better quality at construction than the in-
situ project. The in-situ concrete construction project though unfinished at the time of
research, was right on time. However, though the Mushili-Chinese project lasted a total
construction period of two more than scheduled its total construction cost was within
limit.

Project designers and developers of each project said the method used on their respective
project was more cost effective than the other, and so it was with quality of the products.
However, both groups perceived precast concrete construction to take shorter total
construction time than in-situ construction as there is no waiting period for concrete to
cure. Although a majority of professional architects (designers) perceive precast concrete
construction to be cheaper than in-situ construction they do not usually specify it for use
on housing projects. The reasons cited were that there are few precast concrete
manufacturing firms, great distances from the few firms that exist, lack of specialist
contractors in the field of precast construction and, finally inadequate machinery. Despite
the fact that they did not usually recommend the use of precast construction on housing
projects, they still perceive it to give shorter total construction time and better quality
both at construction and in the long run.

From the number of in-situ concrete houses that were inspected almost all of them had
problems such as cracked walls and floors, poor sound and thermal insulation and
efflorescence of concrete. As for the same number of precast houses only two had
problems of cracked floors. It appears therefore that precast concrete houses are of better
quality than in-situ concrete houses. In spite of the fact that most contractors have only
been exposed to in-situ concrete construction they perceived precast concrete
construction to be cheaper than in-situ construction. They also said it gives shorter
construction time and better quality than in-situ concrete construction.

50
There were quite a number of limitations encountered during the research. These include
non-availability of proper precast concrete projects, abstract cost comparisons, inadequate
housing projects, non-representation of case studies, sensitive nature of projects, and
unreliability of responses and lack of objectivity by some respondents.

51
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter five is the final chapter of this study whose main aim is to make conclusions and
recommendations based on the research findings.

5.2 RECAPITULATION

The main aim of this study as shown in chapter one is to evaluate which method of
construction between in-situ and precast is cost, time and quality effective on residential
projects. Chapters two and three are based on the objective which intends to review the
literature by other authors. Chapter two specifically looks at concrete as the construction
material to be dealt with in regard to the methods under study. The two construction
methods were discussed in the third chapter.

Chapter four, the core of this study, concentrated on interpreting the data collected
through various methods, and analysing research results and findings. In this chapter the
hypothesis was evaluated to determine the extent to which the objectives had been
achieved; the research findings partially supported the hypothesis. Chapter five therefore
draws together the whole research by considering both the theoretical and empirical
aspects of this subject.

5.3 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

The following general conclusions can be drawn from this whole research:

1. One of the objectives of the study was to investigate which method of

construction gives the least cost per unit on a housing project. The literature
reviewed showed that precast concrete construction gives the least cost per unit
than in-situ concrete construction. The research findings also indicate that
professional architects and contractors perceive that to be the case. They said
precast concrete construction is cheaper than in-situ concrete construction because
there is no formwork to be erected and stripped. The cost of formwork and that of
labour contributes a considerable amount to the total cost of construction even
though the percentages vary greatly.
2. The research also indicated that precast concrete construction gives shorter total
construction time on a housing project than in-situ concrete construction. This
was shown by the overwhelming responses by project designers, developers,
professional architects and contractors. This research finding supports the authors
of the literature reviewed who say that precast construction is faster than in-situ
concrete construction because elements are assembled on site without any waiting
period for concrete to cure.
3. Quality of construction is measured by determining the durability, reliability,

52
 precision, stability and appearance of the building structure. However, at a
practical level quality is concerned with workmanship. The research results have
shown that precast concrete gives better quality than in-situ concrete. Professional
architects and contractors perceive precast concrete to give better quality than in-
situ concrete construction. The survey of some precast and in-situ concrete houses
support the fact that precast concrete gives better quality in terms of durability,
stability and reliability among others.
4. Professional architects do not specify precast concrete construction even though
they perceive it to be more cost, time and quality effective than in-situ
construction. The reasons given are that there are very few precast concrete
factories in the country thus making precast concrete elements not readily
available; the few factories that exist are mainly on the Copperbelt and Lusaka
provinces hence transportation costs are very because of long distances; and
finally there are no specialist contractors to carry out precast concrete
construction.
5. The majority of contractors interviewed indicated that they are ready to specialise
in precast concrete construction provided the architects specified it on any project.
Those who have used and are using precast concrete construction said it becomes
a problem when loads and connections are wrongly calculated. This revelation
supports what some authors said was the problem most encountered in erecting
perkiest elements. Such a problem they said causes unfathomed delays and extra
costs

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

Generally it appears that perkiest concrete construction could be a better alternative to the
research problem earlier mentioned in chapter one. However, there are various problems
that impede its application on residential projects. These include those that have been said
to be the reasons why professional architects do not specify the use of precast concrete
construction on residential projects. Other reasons are that developers lack knowledge of
perkiest concrete construction, and that crane is very difficult and expensive to hire or
purchase. Therefore having considered the problems above the following
recommendations were made in the hope of trying to change the trend as far as the
application of precast concrete construction is concerned.

1. Both individuals and companies should invest into precast concrete manufacturing
in the various provincial centres throughout the country. This will help solve the
problem caused by having few precasting plants and long distances.
2. Setting up crane hire schemes in provincial centres would also give a solution to
the problems encountered in hiring such machinery. Individuals and companies
should be encouraged to undertake such ventures.
3. In a situation where crane hiring schemes are not possible, contractors can
combine resources in joint ventures. A joint venture is a contracting system in
which two or more contractors combine resources to achieve a common goal.
Thus in this case those who have the necessary equipment can combine forces and

53
 carry out precast concrete projects.
4. Professional architects should educate developers on the benefits of using precast
concrete construction on residential projects. If they do, contractors concerned
will ensure they get the required equipment. When developers and would-be
developers know the benefits of using precast concrete they request that designers
specified it on their projects. This will create a demand for precast concrete
elements, and manufacturers will be forced to develop and expand their markets.
5. Concrete precasters should write about precast concrete construction in journals
or any other publications to educate the public about the same. They can also do
this by holding seminars and workshops for contractors and designers. This can be
done in conjunction with professional bodies such as Zambia Institute of
Architects (ZIA).
6. Trade institutes should introduce and teach in detail the techniques and methods
involved in precast concrete construction in the same as way brick or block
laying. Such training would enable specialisation in precast concrete construction.
This training can be done in conjunction with ZIA and the Copperbelt University
(CBU), and it should also be extended to CBU built environment students.

5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Due to the limitations mentioned in chapters one and four, this study merely touches on
the surface of the object of this study. Therefore there is need to carry out further research
into the comparative investigation of the effectiveness of precast versus concrete
construction on residential projects. The following areas have been suggested:

1. There is need to carry out this study again using proper precast concrete
projects and not substitutes such as prefabricated modular projects as was the
case in this study. The research would be more representative if more than two
pairs of in-situ and precast projects were used as case studies.
2. The cost of formwork is said to be more than that of concrete and sometimes
more than concrete and reinforcing steel combined together on an in-situ
concrete project. Other authors argue that it is between 35-38% the cost of
concrete. There seems to be a vacuum between theory and reality as far as the
cost of formwork is concerned. It is for this reason therefore that an
investigation should be carried out to determine the actual cost of formwork on
an in-situ concrete project and how it affects the total construction cost of such
a project.
3. The efficiency and effectiveness of precast concrete construction in
comparison to in-situ construction has to be tested on all types of projects.
Therefore it would be of great interest to both researchers and developers to
embark on this study based on commercial properties.
4. A study should be carried out on how to set up a concrete precasting plant. This
plant should be made in such a way as to minimise production costs so that
precast concrete elements will be affordable to all prospecting developers. If
they are unaffordable markets for such would be difficult to establish.

54
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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John Wiley & Sons.
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Conform to 15-ft Space Planning Module". 1 November.
Anon., 1995. "Using the Past to Show the Way to the Future". British Resesrch
Establisment.
Anon, 1988. "Concrete Bleeding: Causes, Effects, and Control". s.l.:The Aberdeen
Group..
Bamforth, P., 1996. "Materially Affecting Durability". Concrete, 30(1), pp. 21-22.
Bamforth, P. & Price, B., 1994. "Concrete in the Oceans". Concrete, 28(3).
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Britain: CECA.
Bentley, J. I. W., 1994. Construction Tendering and Estimating. Great Britain: E & FN
Spon.
Carter, S., 1996. "Colour Vision". Concrete, 30(1).
Chudley, R., 1991. Construction Technology. 2nd ed. Singapore: ELBS.
Clapson, J., 1994. "Prefabrication and Productivity". Concrete, 28(1), pp. 9-10.
Coville, J. D., 1990. "New Developments Widen Capabilities of Precast Concrete: Its
Plasticity Allows it to Respond to a Variety of Architectural Styles". Buidling Design
& Construction, 31(4).
CSO, 1990. Digest: Population Census, Lusaka: Government Printers.
DeVries, P., 1993. "Concrete Re-cycled”. Concrete, 27(3).
Ellis, J., Warren, R. & Dryhurst, D., 1996. "Bringing Colour to Concrete". Concrete,
30(1), pp. 38-40.
Everett, 1989. Materials. 4th ed. London: Mitchell.
Fling, R. S., 1987. Practical Design of Reinforced Concrete. USA: John Wiley & Sons.
Gregerson, J., 1992. "Architectural can Play a Structural Role". Building Design &
Construction.
Gregerson, J., 1995. "Formed Finishes". Building Design & Construction.
GRZ, 1996. National Housing Policy, Lusaka: Government Printers.
Hartland, 1990. "Take Pride in Concrete". Concrete, 24(4).
Illston, J., 1994. Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behaviour. Second ed.
London: E & FN Spon..
Madderom, F. W., 1980. Excess Water can be a Costly Ingredient in Concrete. s.l.:The
Aberdeen Group.
Monks, W., 1984. Visual Concrete: Design and Production. London: CECA.
Mubanga, C., 1994. Towards reducing delays on construction projects in Zambia, Kitwe:
s.n.
Neville, A. M., 1988. Properties of Concrete. 3rd ed. USA: Prentice Hall.
NHA, 1994. National Housing Authority Estimates, Lusaka: Government Printers.
Orchard, D. F., 1979. Concrete Technology. 4th ed. London: ASP.

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Pallett, P. F., 1994. "Introduction to the Formwork Scene". Concrete, 28(2).
Peurifoy, R. L., 1976. Formwork for Concrete Structures. 2nd ed. USA: McGraw Hill.
Reynolds, C. E., 1971. Reinforced Concrete Designer's Handbook. 7th ed. London:
C.C.A.
Richardson, J. D., undated. Precast Concrete: Its Production, Transport and Erection.
Ridout, G., 1991. "Layman's Guide". Building.
Seeley, I. H., 1987. Building Economics. 3rd ed. Hong Kong: Macmillan.
Shirley, D. E., 1987. Introduction to Concrete. 3rd ed. Wexham Springs: CECA.
Southcott, M., 1996. "Reinforcing Links". British Research Establishment.
Squires, R., 1994. "Better Concrete, Better Environment with pfa". Concrete, 28(4), pp.
17-18.
Taylor, W. H., 1977. Concrete Technology and Practice. 4th ed. Australia: McGraw Hill.
Waine, D. N. & Long, G. R., 1990. "An Early Concrete Structure: Axmouth Bridge".
Concrete, 24(6).
Wainwright, W. H. & Wood, A. B., 1981. Practical Builder's Estimating. 4Rev ed.
United Kingdom: Hutchinson.
Webb, C., 1987. "Crumble Crete: Repairing the Legacy of Systems Building". Building,
3 July.

56
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE A) FOR PROJECT DESIGNERS

INSTRUCTIONS
I. Clearly tick the answer(s) where you are required to do so.
II. Where explanations are required spaces have been provided.

GENERAL
1. What form of construction are you using on this housing development project?
(a) in-situ
(b) precast
(c) composite (combination of both)

2. Why did you choose this form of construction?

(i) construction costs are relatively low
(ii) it offers shorter construction time
(iii) it gives better quality
(iv) any other variables____________________________________________
3. Indicate the level of importance in achieving the following aspects in this form of
construction.
DEGREE OF IMPORTANCE
FACTOR LEAST IMPORTANT QUITE IMPORTANT VERY IMPORTANT
COST
TIME
QUALITY

COST
4. What are the estimated construction costs for the following (State the amount): (i)
preliminary works ______________________________________________
(ii) earthworks and excavations _____________________________________
(iii) concrete works _______________________________________________
(iv) formwork ___________________________________________________
(v) blockwork ___________________________________________________
(vi) external works _______________________________________________
(vii) other works _________________________________________________

5. Were comparative studies done between in-situ and precast construction?

(a) Yes
(b) No

6 If in-situ/precast construction had been used what could have been the cost of concrete
for the project?

State amount: ___________________________________________________

7. If such studies were not conducted what do you think would be the cost of in-
situ/precast construction?
(a) less
(b) more
(c) same

8. What could be the reasons for the difference? State the reasons:

57
 (i) ___________________________________________________________
(ii) __________________________________________________________
(iii) __________________________________________________________
(iv) __________________________________________________________

9. Is formwork going to be used on this project?

(a) Yes
(b) No

10. If YES on what elements is it going to be used?

(a) lintels and sills
(b) slabs or floors
(c) walls
(d) column and beams
(e) none

11. What is the cost of formwork in relation to the total cost of concrete? State
(i) cost of timber ________________________________________
(ii) cost of labour (erecting and stripping) ____________________________
(iii) cost of release agents (oil) _____________________________________
(iv) cost of transport _____________________________________________

TIME
12. What is the expected duration of the project?
State: _______________________________________________________

13. According to your programme is the project

(a) on time
(b) delayed
(c) ahead of schedule

14. If not on time, by how many weeks?

State: ________________________________________________________

15. What could be the reasons not being on time? Indicate the reasons:
(i) quick /delayed delivery of materials
(ii) short/long waiting period for concrete to cure
(iii) less/more remedial works
(iv) efficient/inefficient plant and equipment
(v) quick/slow construction
(iv) any other: _________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

16. If in-situ/precast construction had been used, how long would the project take?
State duration: _________________________________________________

17. Give reasons for the difference.

(I) ___________________________________________________________
(ii) ___________________________________________________________
(iii) __________________________________________________________
(iv) ___________________________________________________________

58
QUALITY
18. What is the projected life span of these houses?
(a) below 50 years
(b) 50 to 70 years
(c) 70 to 100 years
(d) over 100 years

19. Give reasons for such a projection in (21) above.

(i) strength of concrete
(ii) durability of concrete
(iii) good workmanship
(iv) any other reasons
______________________________________________________________

20. Why is the expected rate of sound insulation of these houses?

(a) low
(b) medium
(c) high

21. What is the expected level of thermal insulation?

(a) low
(b) medium
(c) high

22. How often have remedial works been done?

(a) once a week
(b) twice a week
(c) once a month
(d) none at all

23. What are the reasons for such remedial works?

(i) structural failures
(ii) change of design specifications
(iii) non-availability of specific materials
(iv) change in taste by client
(v) any other reasons
______________________________________________________________

24. What are the expected annual maintenance costs for the houses?
State amount: __________________________________________________

59
APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE B) FOR DEVELOPERS

INSTRUCTIONS
I. Clearly tick your answer(s) where you are required to do so.
II. Where explanations are required space shall be provided.

GENERAL
1. What do you call this form of construction being used on this housing development?
project?
(a) in-situ
(b) precast
(c) composite (combination of both)
2. What do you think are the benefits to be gained by the use of such form of
construction?
(i) low construction costs
(ii) quick construction
(iii) strong and durable structures are achieved
(iv) good appearance of structures
(v) any other reasons:
_______________________________________________________________

3. How many houses are to be constructed in this project?

State number: ___________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

COST
4. What are the projected costs for the following (state the amounts):
(i) preliminaries ________________________________________________
(ii) earthworks and excavations ____________________________________
(iii) concrete work _______________________________________________
(iv) formwork __________________________________________________
(v) blockwork __________________________________________________
(vi) external works _______________________________________________
(v) other works __________________________________________________

5. How much work has been done so for?

(a) below 20%
(b) 20 to 30%
(c) 30 to 50%
(d) over 50%

6. How much has been spent so far?

State amount: ___________________________________________________

7. Was this the amount budgeted for that amount of work?

(a) YES
(b) NO

8. What are the reasons if the answer is NO?

(i) ____________________________________________________________
(ii) ___________________________________________________________
(iii) ___________________________________________________________

60
 (iv) ___________________________________________________________

9. What do you think the total construction costs would have been had in-situ/precast
construction been used on this project?
State amount: __________________________________________________

10. Give reasons for the answer in (9).

(i) __________________________________________________________
(ii) __________________________________________________________
(iii) __________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

TIME
11. How long is the project expected to last?
State duration: __________________________________________________

12. According to the programme is the project

(a) on time
(b) delayed
(c) ahead of schedule

13. If not on time, what is the margin?

State the number of weeks: _______________________________________

14. What are the reasons in (12) above? Indicate reasons

(i) quick/slow construction
(ii) quick/delayed delivery of materials
(iii) long/no curing periods
(iv) less/more remedial works
(v) efficient/inefficient plant and equipment
(vi) any other reasons _____________________________________________

15. What would have been the duration of the project if in-situ/precast construction had
been used?
State duration: _________________________________________________

16. What could be the margin?

State: _________________________________________________________

17. Give reasons for the answer in (16) above.

(i) _________________________________________________________
(ii) _________________________________________________________
(iii) ________________________________________________________
(iv) ________________________________________________________

QUALITY
18. What is the life expectancy of these houses?
(a) below 50 years
(b) 50 to 70 years
(c) 70 to 100 years
(d) over 100 years

61
19. Give reasons for the answer in (18) above.
(i) high quality concrete used
(ii) good workmanship
(iii) better form of construction used
(iv) high strength concrete used
(v) any other reasons _____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

20. Would you like the houses to be:

(a) plastered
(b) unplastered

21. Give reasons for the answer in (20).

(I) ________________________________________________________
(ii) ________________________________________________________
(iii) _______________________________________________________
(iv) _______________________________________________________

62
APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE C) FOR OCCUPANTS

INSTRUCTIONS
I. Clearly tick your answer(s) where you are required to do so.
II. Where explanations are required spaces have been provided.

QUALITY
1. What kind of house are you living in?
(a) in-situ
(b) precast
(c) any other

2. How long have you lived in this house?

(a) under 10 years
(b) 10 to 15 years
(c) 15 to 20 years
(d) over 20 years

3. What problems do you face in this house?

(a) too much internal noises
(b) too much external noises
(c) extreme hot and cold temperatures
(d) fire breakouts
(e) any other: __________________________________________________

4. How often do you experience major problems?

(a) every month
(b) twice a year
(c) once a year
(d) rarely
(e) none at all

5. What are these maintenance problems?

(a) cracked walls
(b) cracked floors
(c) exfoliating plaster
(d) efflorescence of concrete
(e) none at all
6. What kind of a house did you live in before moving into this house?
(a) in-situ
(b) precast
(c) any other

7. What problems did you experience there?

(a) cracking walls
(b) cracking floors
(c) exfoliating plaster
(d) efflorescence of concrete
(e) none at all

63
APPENDIX D: QUESTIONNAIRE (TYPE D) FOR DESIGNERS GENERALLY

INSTRUCTIONS
I. Clearly tick the answer(s) where you are required to do so.
II. Where explanations are required spaces have been provided.

GENERAL
1. What is the most prevalent form of construction that you usually specify on housing
development projects?
(a) in-situ
(b) precast
(c) combination of both

2. State reasons for your answer in (1)

(I) ________________________________________________________
(ii) ________________________________________________________
(iii) _______________________________________________________
(iv) ________________________________________________________

3. If you have used precast construction before, what are the major problems associated
with it?
(I) _________________________________________________________
(ii) _________________________________________________________
(iii) ________________________________________________________
(iv) ________________________________________________________

4. In terms of construction costs which of the three in (1) above is relatively cheaper?
State: _______________________________________________________

5. Give reasons for your answer in (4)

(i) _________________________________________________________
(ii) _________________________________________________________
(iii) ________________________________________________________

6. Based on the answer in (4), what would be the margin?

(a) below 10%
(b) 10 to 20%
(c) 20 to 50%
(d) over 50%

7. Do you think precast construction is cost effective on a single house project?

(a) Yes
(b) No

8. Give reasons for the answer in (7)

(i) _________________________________________________________
(ii) _________________________________________________________
(iii) _________________________________________________________
(iv) _________________________________________________________
9. Does precast construction offer quick construction time as compared to in-situ on a
housing project?
(a) Yes

64
 (b) No

10. If it does, by what margin?

State percentage: ________________________________________

11. Quality is defined by durability, strength, appearance, ease of maintenance and

practicality of the structure. Does precast meet all these aspects of quality?
(a) Yes
(b) No

12. If it does what are the major reasons you do not specify its use?
(i) __________________________________________________________
(ii) _________________________________________________________
(iii) ________________________________________________________
(iv) ________________________________________________________

65

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