NEBOSH General Certificate in

Occupational Safety and Health

Unit GC2
Element 7: Chemical and Biological Health
Hazards and Risk Control
 Learning Outcomes
• Outline the forms of, the classification of, and the
health risks from exposure to, hazardous
substances.
• Explain the factors to be considered when
undertaking an assessment of the health risks
from substances commonly encountered in the
workplace.
• Explain the use and limitations of occupational
exposure limits including the purpose of long-
term and short-term exposure limits.
 Learning Outcomes
• Outline control measures that should be used to
reduce the risk of ill health from exposure to
hazardous substances.
• Outline the hazards, risks and controls associated
with specific agents.
• Outline the basic requirements related to the safe
handling and storage of waste.
Forms of, Classification of, and
Health Risks of Hazardous
Substances
 Forms of Chemical Agents
• Solid.
• Dust.
• Fume.
• Gas.
• Mist.
• Vapour.
• Liquids.
• Fibres.
The physical form greatly affects the hazard presented
and the route of entry into the body.
 Forms of Biological Agents

• Fungi:
e.g. farmer’s lung.
• Bacteria:
e.g. Legionnaires’ disease, leptospirosis.
• Viruses:
e.g. HIV, Hepatitis B.
 Classification of Chemicals
Hazardous to Health

• Physico-chemical effects:
e.g. highly flammable, explosive or oxidising.
• Health effects:
e.g. toxic, carcinogenic.
• Environmental effects:
e.g. harmful to aquatic life.

European Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 on

Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances
and Mixtures (CLP).
 Classification of Chemicals
Hazardous to Health
• Acute Toxicity
− Small doses cause death or serious illness.
• Skin Corrosion/Irritation
− Destroys living skin tissue or causes
inflammation.
• Serious Eye Damage/Eye Irritation
− Destroys eye tissue or causes inflammation.
• Respiratory or Skin Sensitisation
− Cause asthma or allergic dermatitis.
 Classification of Chemicals
Hazardous to Health
• Germ Cell Mutagenicity
− Causes hereditary genetic mutation.
• Carcinogenicity
− Causes cancer.
• Reproductive Toxicity
− Causes sterility, or is harmful to unborn child.
• Specific Target Organ Toxicity
− Causes damage to specific body organs.
• Aspiration Hazard
− Harmful if inhaled into the lungs.
 Other Health Effects
Sensitising chemicals:
• Respiratory sensitisers:
‐ Causes occupational asthma, e.g. flour dust, isocyanates.

• Skin sensitisers:
‐ Cause allergic dermatitis, e.g. epoxy resin.

Dermatitis - non-infectious skin condition where the skin

becomes dry, flakey, cracked and painful.

• Primary Contact Dermatitis:

‐ Skin reacts at point of contact only, remove agent and
skin recovers.

• Secondary Allergic Dermatitis:

‐ Sensitisation reaction; dermatitis all over skin.
 Acute and Chronic Health Effects
Acute:
• Short-term effect. Acute and
chronic effects:
• High levels of exposure.
e.g. organic
• Short exposure time. solvent, alcohol
• Quick effect, e.g. exposure to high
concentration of chlorine gas.
Chronic:
• Long-term effect.
• Lower levels of exposure.
• Long exposure time, e.g. multiple exposures to
asbestos.
Assessment of Health Risks
 Group Exercise
How can a chemical or biological organism
enter the body?

Which is the highest risk route of entry and

why?
 Routes of Entry
• Inhalation:
‐ Inhalable dust (all particles).
‐ Respirable dust (only smaller particles).
• Ingestion.
• Absorption through the skin.
• Injection through the skin:
‐ Needle-stick.
‐ Cuts and grazes.
‐ Bites.
 Defence Mechanisms
The body has two main defence mechanisms to
combat attack by biological agents and damage by
chemicals:
• Cellular (internal) defence - cells fight bacteria
and other toxins from blood, respiratory and
ingestion entry routes.
• Superficial (external) defence - protects against
toxins that enter through the skin and
contaminants in the nose and throat.
 Respiratory Defences
• Sneezing and
coughing.
• Nasal hair/mucus.
• Mucociliary
escalator.
• Macrophages/
phagocytes.
• Inflammatory
response.
 Skin Defences

• Waterproof barrier
comprised of:
‐ Outer layer of dead
cells (epidermis).
‐ Sebum - biocidal
properties.

• Inflammatory
response.
 Assessment of Health Risks

1. Identify the hazardous substances present and

the people who might potentially be exposed.
2. Gather information about the substance.
3. Evaluate the health risk.
4. Identify any controls needed and implement
them.
5. Record the assessment and action taken.
6. Review.
Factors to Consider When Assessing
Health Risk
• Hazardous nature of substance.
• Potential ill-health effects.
• Physical forms.
• Routes of entry.
• Quantity.
• Concentration.
• Number of people.
• Frequency of exposure.
• Duration of exposure.
• Control measures.
 Sources of Information
Product labels (set requirements):
• Name of substance.
• Hazardous components.
• Risk phrases indicating danger.
• Precautions.
• Details of supplier.
 Sources of Information
Guidance Documents
• HSE Guidance Note EH40:
‐ Sets UK legal Workplace Exposure Limits (WELs).
‐ Maximum concentrations of airborne substances.

• EU list of indicative limit values:

‐ Sets EU legal limit values for 19 chemicals.

• American Conference of Government Industrial

Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values (US):
‐ Guidelines, not legal standards.
 Group Exercise
Manufacturers’ Safety Data Sheets

Outline the type of information you would need to

know about a domestic weed killer in order to assess
the risks.
 Safety Data Sheet Contents
1. Details of substance and
supplier
2. Hazard identification
3. Composition of substance
4. First-aid measures
5. Fire-fighting measures
6. Accidental release
measures
7. Handling and storage
8. Exposure controls/PPE
9. Physical/chemical
properties
10. Stability and reactivity
11. Toxicological information
12. Ecological information
13. Disposal requirements
14. Transport information
15. Regulatory information
16. Other information
 Limitations of Information

• Information sources provide general

information only.
• Don’t consider the specific conditions of use.
• Individual susceptibility.
• Mixed exposures.
• Based on current knowledge.
 Hazardous Substance Monitoring
Monitoring personal exposure to hazardous substances is
sometimes necessary to quantify the concentration of a
substance that a worker is potentially exposed to.
For example, personal dosimetry for dust exposure:
• A filter and air pump is worn by worker whilst working.
• Gives average value over time that can be directly
compared to the WEL.
 Role of Monitoring
When:
• Failure or deterioration of the controls can
result in serious health effects.
• To ensure a WEL is not exceeded.
• To check effectiveness of control measures.
• After any change occurs which could affect
control.
 Limitations of Monitoring

• Accuracy of results.
• Variations in personal exposure:
‐ Habits and practices.
• Absence of a standard:
‐ Not everything has a limit.
• Other exposure routes:
‐ WELS are airborne ONLY.
 End-of-Section Quiz

1. What are the four main routes of entry

chemicals can take into the body?
2. How is the respiratory system defended?
3. What information would you find on a
safety data sheet?
Occupational Exposure Limits
 Occupational Exposure Limits
• Around the world, there are different Occupational
Exposure Limits (OELs) for hazardous substances:
‐ There is no global standard.

• In the UK, they are called Workplace Exposure Limits

(WELs).

• They set a maximum limit of exposure that can’t be

exceeded over a given time period.

• WELs have legal status under the COSHH Regulations.

 Workplace Exposure Limits

“The maximum concentration of an airborne

substance, averaged over a reference period, to
which employees may be exposed by
inhalation”
 Short-Term and Long-Term Limits

Time period Combat ill-health effects of:

Short-Term ● Acute effects

Exposure Limits 15 minutes ● Very high exposure for a
(STEL) short time
● Chronic effects
Long-Term Exposure
8 hours ● Lower exposure over
Limits (LTEL)
longer period
 Significance of Time-Weighted
Averages
A worker might be exposed to different levels of
a hazardous substance throughout the working
day.

The STELs prevent them being exposed to

harmful levels of the substance over short
periods of time where this would cause acute
effects.

The LTELs prevent them being exposed to

harmful levels over the full working day where
 Limitations of Exposure Limits
Being below a limit does not prove it is safe:
• Only concerned with inhalation.
• No account of individual sensitivity or susceptibility.
• No account of synergistic or combined effects.
• Invalid if normal environmental conditions change.
 International Standards

UK: Workplace Exposure Limits

EU: Indicative Limit Values
USA:
- The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH) sets Threshold Limit Values (TLVs).
- The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
recommends Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs).
- The American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) has developed
Workplace Environmental Exposure Limits (WEELs).
- The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) enforces
Department of Labour Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs).

There is no global standard!

 End-of-Section Quiz

1. What are OELs? What are they known as in

the UK?
2. What is the difference between:
• An 8-hour TWA?
• A 15-minute STEL?
Control Measures
 The Need to Prevent or
Control Exposure

• Prevention of exposure is the best.

• If not possible to prevent exposure,

adequately control it.

• Ensure WELs/OELs are not exceeded.

 Principles of Good Practice
● Minimise emission, release and spread of hazardous
substances.
● Consider routes of exposure.
● Use control measures proportionate to the risk.
● Choose effective and reliable control measures.
● Use PPE where control cannot be achieved by other means.
● Check control measures regularly.
● Inform and train employees.
● Ensure new control measures do not increase overall risk.
In the UK, these eight principles are a legal requirement as set
out in Schedule 2A to the Control of Substances Hazardous to
Health Regulations 2002.
 Group Exercise
A gardener is spraying a weed killer in a domestic
garden in windy conditions.
The gardener has no means of washing his hands,
etc., and the house owners have children and a dog.
The weed killer is an organophosphate labelled
‘toxic’.
Using the ‘hierarchy of control’, discuss how the risk
may be reduced.
 The Practical Control of Exposure
• Elimination or substitution.
• Process change.
• Reduce exposure times.
• Enclosure or segregation.
• Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV).
• PPE.
• Personal hygiene and protection.
• Health surveillance/monitoring.
 Elimination or Substitution and
Process Change
• Elimination or substitution:
‐ Eliminate process, e.g. outsource painting.
‐ Change work, e.g. screw rather than glue.
‐ Dispose of unwanted stock.
‐ Substitute hazardous for non-hazardous, e.g. irritant to non-
hazardous floor cleaner, or corrosive to irritant.
• Process change:
‐ Apply solvent by brush instead of spraying.
‐ Vacuuming rather than sweeping.
 Reduce Exposure Times
● Double the time, double the dose; half the
time, half the dose.
● Minimise the time period over which
people are working with hazardous
substances.
● Link to WELs.
 Enclosure or Segregation
Enclosure
● Totally enclose the substance.
● Prevent access to it.
Segregation
● Keep people away.
● Designated areas.
Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV)
 Group Exercise
Discuss how the effectiveness of LEV may be
reduced.
 The Effectiveness of LEV
Will be reduced by:
• Poorly positioned intake hoods.
• Damaged ducts.
• Excessive amounts of contamination.
• Ineffective fan.
• Blocked filters.
• Build-up of contaminant in the ducts.
• Sharp bends in ducts.
• Unauthorised additions to the system.
 Inspection of LEV Systems

Routine visual inspection:

• Integrity checks, e.g. filters, contaminant build-up, etc.

Planned preventive maintenance:

• e.g. replacing filters, lubricating fan bearings, etc.

Periodic testing:
• Ensure air velocities are adequate.
• COSHH requirement every 14 months.
 Dilution Ventilation
• Diluting the contaminant.
• Changes the air.
• Passive dilution - vents.
• Active dilution - powered fans.
• Used where:
– WEL is high.
– Formation of gas or vapour is slow.
– Operators are not close to contamination.

• Important to know whether contaminant is lighter or

heavier than air.
Dilution Ventilation
 Limitations of Dilution Ventilation
• Not suitable for highly toxic substances.
• Compromised by sudden release of large quantities of
contaminant.
• Do not work well:
‐ For dust.
‐ For point sources.
• Dead areas may exist:
- Areas where there is little air movement.
 Respiratory Protective Equipment
(RPE)

Two types:
• Respirators:
‐ Filter contaminated air from the atmosphere around
the wearer.

• Breathing Apparatus (BA):

‐ Provide breathable air from a separate source.
Filter Facepiece Respirators
Half-Mask or Ori-Nasal Respirator
Full-Face Respirator
Powered Respirator
 Compressed Airline BA
• Air under pressure.
 Self-Contained BA
• Pressurised cylinder.
 Selection, Use and Maintenance of
RPE
Factors to consider:
• Concentration of the contaminant and its hazards.
• Physical form of the substance.
• Level of protection offered by the RPE.
• Presence or absence of oxygen.
• Duration of time that it must be worn.
• Compatibility with other items of PPE.
• Shape of the user’s face.
• Facial hair.
• Physical requirements of the job.
• Physical fitness of the wearer.
 Selection, Use and Maintenance of
RPE
Users should understand:
• How to fit the RPE.
• How to test it to ensure that it is working effectively.
• The limitations of the item.
• Any cleaning requirements.
• Any maintenance requirements, (e.g. how to change
filter).
 Other PPE
Hand protection:
• Gloves, gauntlets.
• Chemicals, biological agents, infection
through cuts.
Eye protection:
• Spectacles, goggles, visors.
Body protection:
• Overalls, aprons, whole-body
protection.
 Personal Hygiene and Protection
Regimes
• Hand-washing routines.
• Careful removal and disposal of
PPE to prevent cross-
contamination to normal
clothes.
• Prohibition of eating, drinking
and smoking in work areas.
• Washing facilities.
• Changing facilities.
• Rest and food preparation areas.
 Personal Hygiene and Protection
Regimes
Vaccination:
• Against biological agents, e.g.:
‐ Hepatitis B.
‐ Tetanus.
‐ Typhoid.
• Worker consent required.
• Immunity not always achieved.
• False sense of security.
 Health Surveillance
Health surveillance:
• Looks for signs and symptoms of disease.
• E.g. bakery workers have lung function tests to check for
asthma because flour dust is a respiratory sensitiser.

Biological monitoring:
• Looks for the contaminant in blood, urine or breath.
• E.g. lead in blood for a lead-worker.

Screening on first employment:

• To establish a ‘baseline’.
 Further Control of Carcinogens,
Mutagens and Asthmagens
COSHH states that adequate control hasn’t
been achieved unless:

• The WEL has not been exceeded.

• The eight principles of good practice have
been applied.
• Exposure is controlled to As Low As is
Reasonably Practicable (ALARP).
 Further Control of Carcinogens,
Mutagens and Asthmagens
In addition to standard control measures, the
following MUST be considered:
• Total enclosure of process or handling systems.
• Prohibition of eating, drinking and smoking.
• Regular cleaning.
• Warning signs.
• Safe storage, handling and disposal.
Specific Agents
 Asbestos
Naturally occurring mineral fibres used for fire-
resistant building and lagging materials:
• Blue (crocidolite).
• Brown (amosite).
• White (crysotile).
Diseases:
• Asbestosis.
• Lung cancer.
• Mesothelioma.
• Diffuse pleural thickening.
 Group Exercise

How was asbestos used in industry and buildings?

 Asbestos
Use:
• Asbestos cement roofs.
• Ceiling tiles.
• Fire break walls.
• Floor tiles.
• Downpipes.
• Pipe lagging.
 Controls Associated with Asbestos
In general:
• Work must be notified to the enforcement agency (the HSE in UK).
• Work area sealed in an enclosure.
• Negative pressure ventilation system with efficient filters.
• Entry via an airlock.
• PPE and RPE and decontamination on leaving.
• Asbestos waste:
‐ Securely double-bagged.
‐ Labelled.
‐ Disposed as hazardous waste.
• Dust levels monitored inside and outside sealed work area.
• Worker exposure must not exceed control limit.
• Health surveillance provided.
 Managing Asbestos in Buildings
The Control of Asbestos Regulations 2012 require:
• Occupiers/owners must be aware of presence of
asbestos.
• Need an Asbestos Management Plan.
• Maintain Asbestos Register - identify locations.
• Record of regular inspections.
• Monitoring condition.

Left alone and undisturbed, asbestos will not cause harm

to anyone.
 Blood-Borne Viruses (BBVs)
Any virus present in and transmissible by blood; e.g.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and hepatitis
virus.
• Hepatitis B and C:
‐ Transmitted in blood and other body fluids.
‐ Risk to health care workers, fire-fighters, police, refuse
workers, etc.

• Symptoms:
‐ Jaundice, liver damage.
‐ Can be a chronic disease.
 Blood-Borne Viruses (BBVs)
Typical controls for hepatitis:
• PPE: gloves, eye protection.
• Disposal of material as clinical waste.
• Prevention of needle-stick injuries.
• Decontamination and disinfection.
• Vaccination (Hep B only).
• Accident procedures, e.g. needle-stick injuries.
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Colourless, odourless gas:
• By-product of combustion, e.g. poorly maintained
boilers.
• Inhalation hazard.
• Prevents red blood cells absorbing oxygen.
• Chemical asphyxiation:
‐ Low levels (0.05%) - worsening headaches.
‐ High levels (1.3%) - rapid unconsciousness
and death.
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Typical controls:
• Competent engineers for gas systems.
• Maintenance and testing of boilers and flues.
• Good ventilation.
• LEV for workshop vehicle exhausts.
• Siting of equipment containing combustion
engines.
• CO alarms.
• Confined space entry controls.
 Cement
Used to make mortar and concrete.
Harmful effects:
• Irritation of the:
‐ Eyes.
‐ Respiratory tract.
‐ Skin.
• Corrosive burns to skin on
repeated/prolonged contact.
• Allergic dermatitis.
 Cement

Typical controls:
● Eliminating or reducing exposure.
● PPE - gloves, dust masks, eye protection.
● Removal of contaminated clothing.
● Good hygiene and washing skin on contact.
 Legionella Bacteria
Health Risk
• Water-loving soil bacteria.

• Infests water systems.

• Water sprayed to form a mist creates inhalation risk.

• ‘Flu-like fever followed by pneumonia.

• Legionnaires’ disease.
 Legionella Bacteria
Management controls:
● Risk assessment and written scheme of controls.
● Nominated responsible person.

Practical controls:
● Avoid water temperatures between 20°C and 45°C.
● Avoid water stagnation.
● Avoid using material that can harbour bacteria and provide them
with nutrients.
● Control the release of water spray.
● Keep water, storage systems and equipment clean.
● Use water (chemical) treatments where necessary.
● Carry out water sampling and analysis.
● Ensure correct and safe operation and maintenance of water
systems.
 Leptospira Bacteria
Leptospirosis:
• Infected urine from: rats, mice, cattle and horses.
• Contaminated water in contact with cuts, grazes, etc.
• Dairy farmers, sewage workers, water sports instructors.
• ‘Flu-like symptoms, jaundice, liver damage (Weil’s disease).

Typical controls:
• Preventing rat infestation - good housekeeping, pest control.
• Good personal hygiene.
• PPE, especially gloves.
• Covering cuts and grazes.
• Issuing ‘at risk cards’ to workers.
 Silica
• Component of rock (quartz).
• Quarries, pottery and construction industry.
• Inhalation hazard (respirable crystalline silica).
• Causes scar tissue to form in lungs (silicosis).
Typical controls:
• Alternative work methods.
• Dust suppression by water.
• LEV.
• RPE.
• Health surveillance.
 Wood Dust
• Inhalation hazard - causes irritation.
• May cause asthma.
• Some hardwoods can cause cancer.
Typical controls:
• LEV.
• Vacuuming rather than sweeping.
• RPE.
• Health surveillance.
Safe Handling and Storage of Waste
 Waste
Waste is:
“Something that is discarded or is going to be
discarded.”
 Group Exercise
Consider the waste produced by your company’s
service or process, or by a hospital or factory.
Discuss what are the main things that can go wrong
with the handling and storage of waste.
Suggest suitable control measures.
 Safe Handling and Storage
Factors to consider - solid wastes:
• The hazardous nature of the waste.
• Manual handling risks.
• Safe access to skips, bins, etc.
• Don’t store on unmade ground.
• Moving parts of compactors.
• Vehicle hazards, e.g. skip lorries.
• Security of the waste.
• Segregation.
• Documentation.
 Safe Handling and Storage
Factors to consider - liquid wastes:
• Containers located in bund, away from walls.
• Bunds have 110% capacity of largest container.
• Provision for rainwater.
• Transfer points, e.g. pumps bunded.
• Protect bund from damage.
• Bunds checked and maintained.
 Spill Containment Procedures

Whenever liquid wastes are present.

Measures include:
• Spill kits such as booms and absorbent
granules.
• Drain covers.
• Equipment for collection of spillage.
• PPE for workers involved.
• Safe system of work.
• Training in safe procedures.
 End-of-Section Quiz

1. What controls should be implemented to

ensure the safe storage of liquid waste?
 Summary
• Outlined the different physical forms of chemicals (solids, dusts,
fumes, gases, mists, vapours and liquids) and biological agents
(fungi, bacteria and viruses) that can be hazardous to health.
• Identified the classification of hazardous chemicals (acute toxicity,
skin corrosion/irritation, eye corrosion/irritation, respiratory or
skin sensitisation, carcinogenicity/mutagenicity/reproductive
toxicity, and specific target organ toxicity) and the meaning of the
terms ‘acute’ and ‘chronic’ when used to describe their effects.
• Explained the main routes of entry into the body (inhalation,
ingestion, absorption through the skin and injection through the
skin).
• Noted some principles for assessing risk from exposure to
hazardous substances and the sources of information used
(especially product labels, manufacturers’ safety data sheets and
guidance notes such as EH40).
 Summary
• Identified the requirement to undertake basic monitoring to assess
concentrations of hazardous substances in the workplace.
• Outlined the principle of Occupational Exposure Limits (OELS), such
as Workplace Exposure Limits (WELs) and the use of short-term
and long-term exposure limits.
• Outlined the principles of good practice for controlling exposure.
• Described a hierarchy of controls for hazardous substances:
eliminate or substitute the substances, change the process, reduce
exposure time, enclose or segregate, local exhaust ventilation,
dilution ventilation, respiratory protective equipment, other
personal protective equipment, personal hygiene, and health
surveillance.
• Outlined basic principles of local exhaust ventilation and dilution
ventilation.
 Summary
• Described types of respiratory protective equipment: respirators
(filtering facepiece, half-mask, full-face and power types) and
breathing apparatus (compressed air and self-contained types)
• Described the ill-health effects of asbestos, various chemicals, (e.g.
carbon monoxide) and biological agents, (e.g. Legionella) found in
workplaces and the general controls required.
• Identified basic issues associated with waste disposal.