22.

CVD (Part 1):

Atmospheric Pressure fLow-Pressure CVD
Kazuo Maeda, Semiconductor Process Laboratory

22.1 Particle Generation Due to CVD

This chapter will deal with the CVD technique, essential for semiconductor
manufacturing. There exist three different kinds of CVD techniques: CVD
under atmospheric pressure or low pressure, plasma CVD, and metal CVD.
This classification makes the particle contamination problem in the present
LSI production easy to grasp. Atmospheric pressure and low-pressure CVD
use thermal excitation for the film deposition reaction and do not use plasma
energy. The film deposition reaction is induced by heat (temperature) and
only chemical reactions participate in the process. Plasma CVD (including
ECR) is enrolled with plasma discharge, and at low temperature thermally
impossible reactions are achievable in the plasma.
Due to this difference in the reaction mechanism, separate treatment of
the problems of particle contamination and film quality control for both meth-
ods is necessary. Generally speaking, the particle contamination and film
quality is influenced in atmospheric pressure CVD and low-pressure CVD by
the reactor construction, method of gas supply, temperature distribution, and
source density. In addition to this, for plasma CVD the materials used inside
the reactor, their degree of purity, and the conditions of plasma discharge
also play an important role. The choice of reaction gas, method of plasma
excitation, and control of the plasma region are also involved. Therefore, the
plasma CVD system is technically more involved than thermal CVD. Due
to different discharge conditions and other factors the compounds' partial
pressures change and the initiation of the plasma destroys gas molecules and
creates many different activated species, which leads to a very complicated
film deposition reaction mechanism on the substrate. Plasma CVD will be
covered in the following chapter. On the other hand, for metal CVD very
specific materials and source gases are used for film deposition, which makes
it different from other forms of CVD, especially concerning the control of
particle contamination.
Comparing atmospheric pressure CVD with low-pressure CVD, the for-
mer is even simpler with regard to reaction control and apparatus. For low-
pressure CVD an evacuation system is needed; for atmospheric pressure CVD
this is not the case. This point is one important difference concerning par-

T. Hattori (ed.), Ultraclean Surface Processing of Silicon Wafers

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1998
318 Kazuo Maeda

ticle contamination control. As we shall point out below, to clean the re-
action chamber in low-pressure CVD, there also exists a combination with
the method of plasma excitation. In such a system, a similar approach to
the particle suppression problem as in the plasma CVD system is necessary.
Regardless of whether atmospheric pressure, low-pressure, or plasma CVD is
used, for the CVD technique the improvement 0f film quality and suppression
of particle contamination are extremely important. This is due to the fact
that the CVD film itself remains in the device (chip) as structural material.
In the following section the basic structure of the atmospheric pressure and
low-pressure CVD apparatus and the relation to particle contamination is
explained.

22.2 Overview of Atmospheric Pressure

and Low-Pressure CVD

22.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure CVD

Figure 22.1 shows the atmospheric pressure CVD system actually used in
LSI production. Part (a) shows the continuous deposition system using the
conveyor belt under atmospheric pressure. The reactions take place in the gas
flow. The gas comes out of the gas nozzles and the film deposition reaction
occurs on the heated wafer surface. The exhaust gas escapes to the top.
Part (b) shows the deposition system in a single chamber. The gas comes
from below and spreads homogeneously on the whole wafer surface. In order
to obtain better film uniformity on the wafer surface the heater moves back
and forth at a certain rate. The possible wafer temperature for atmospheric
pressure CVD is limited by the apparatus to around 500°C.
These systems are the most general methods of depositing insulating films
between different metal conductor layers. Both systems are used at present
for TEOS-0 3 Si0 2 films and BPSG films. System (a) is also used for the
production of SiH4-0 2 Si0 2 films. Atmospheric pressure CVD is the old-
est method of depositing insulating films; however, it is known that particle
contamination is significant. In system (a) the reaction

leads not only to Si0 2 film deposition on the wafer surface, but, since the
reactivity of SiH4 is very high, it also generates wall deposits. These wall
deposits fall onto the wafer surface and attach to the wafer as particles. SiH4
and O 2 react in the space between the gas nozzle and the heated wafer surface
and create SiH n (OH)4-n by-products before Si0 2 is finally obtained.
This is the main reason for particle contamination during the reaction.
Therefore, atmospheric pressure CVD used to be called the "particle gener-
ator". At present, for atmospheric pressure CVD the TEOS-0 3 reaction is
 22. Atmospheric Pressure/Low-Pressure CVD 319

gas
U!
gas notch

wafer

conveyor belt -
4
moving direction
(a) continuous deposition (face up)

+-+-+ shaking movement

I heater] wafer

1 11JJ11J11 1

1i 1
gas Fig. 22.1. Model of the atmospheric
(b) single chamber system (face down) pressure CVD system

used almost exclusively. This reaction avoids the above-mentioned reaction

by-products in the gas phase. The reaction occurs almost exclusively on the
surface of the substrate. Since particle contamination must be minimized for
LSI production, it has been concluded that atmospheric pressure CVD us-
ing SiH4 -0 2 gas causes the main problems. However, after TEOS-03 became
common, atmospheric pressure CVD once again became important, as well
as low-pressure CVD and plasma CVD.

22.2.2 Low-Pressure CVD

Figure 22.2 shows an example of the low-pressure CVD system. In general,

low-pressure CVD is performed in the "cold wall" or the "hot wall" system.
The hot wall system consists of a horizontal or vertical furnace with inserted
quartz tubes. Many wafers are treated at the same time in batch processing.
At present, due to the production of wafers with large diameter, the use of
the vertical furnace system is dominant. The cold wall system is basically
a single-chamber system at low pressure. Low pressure is mainly used to
improve the uniformity of the film thickness. Cold wall systems for batch
processing are also in use.
320 Kazuo Maeda

I
iill
wafer \ ~ furnace

gas=: ~~~~)
gas horizontal
furnace
1===1 ~r1z
. .
1
tube
shower head
quartz
tube
quartz tube
(double wall)

....
Q)
.0
..,.......fu rn ace
wafer E
!II
.s:::.
(.)
heater

1
exhaust
vertical
furnace 1
11 1as wafer
(vacuum) g exhaust
(vacuum)
(a) cold wall system (b) hot wall system

Fig. 22.2. Model of the low-pressure CVD system

The hot wall system has been developed for treating many wafers at the
same time. At present CVD films of polysilicon, Si3 N 4 , and Si0 2 at about
600-800 °C through thermal decomposition of TEOS are produced. Because
the reaction is performed under low pressure, the amount of reaction gas
can be increased, and, as shown in the figure, the gas can flow uniformly
in the space between all the wafers, leading to a homogeneous gas supply
and making batch processing possible. Compared with atmospheric pressure
CVD, the control of reactions in the gas phase is better for low-pressure CVD.
However, during the exchange of vacuum pressure and atmospheric pressure
during loading and unloading the wafers, particles must be generated and
introduced by the turbulence of gases. At present, the following reactions for
the deposition of Si0 2 films are performed:
SiH 4 -0 2 (at about 400°C)
SiH4 -N 2 0 (800°C)
TEOS-0 2 (800°C).
Here, the SiH4 gas is at present also replaced by TEOS.
 22. Atmospheric Pressure/Low-Pressure CVD 321

22.3 Particle Generation

22.3.1 Characteristics of Particles in Atmospheric Pressure

and Low-Pressure CVD

Atmospheric pressure/low-pressure CVD uses thermal activation for the re-

action and not the energy of the plasma. Therefore, no problems with metals
sputtering on the wafer surface due to collisions with ions or radicals can
occur. Furthermore, with SiH4 and TEOS gas, no corrosive gases such as
halogenated chemicals are used. Therefore, for the inner walls of the reac-
tion chamber, when no direct contact with the wafer occurs, even if they
are metallic, contamination must not be caused. The materials used for the
apparatus can be chosen based on the temperature of the film deposition
reaction, and atmospherically no problems occur. So one would expect that
in atmospheric pressure/low-pressure CVD Si0 2 film deposition Si0 2 would
attach itself almost exclusively to the surfaces. However, the method of clean-
ing the inside of the reaction chamber from attached and accumulated Si0 2
with an RF plasma excitation in the reaction chamber and etching with freon
gas leads to the same considerations as are necessary for plasma CVD. This
also means that the composition of the particles differs. In particular, the
cleaning with NF3 gas leads to a distinct deterioration of the reaction cham-
ber. Particles attaching to the reverse side of the wafer also cause problems.
If a metallic or SiC susceptor is used on the bottom of the wafer, this ma-
terial can attach to the wafer's reverse side. This problem is the same for
plasma CVD or dry etching systems. The particles occurring in atmospheric
pressure/low-pressure CVD differ from those occurring in plasma CVD, and
furthermore the creation mechanism is simpler.

22.3.2 Sources of Particle Generation

Table 22.1 shows the different places, causes and kinds of particles occurring
in atmospheric pressure CVD, classified according to whether they are related
to the hardware or the processing [1]. Low-pressure CVD differs from atmo-
spheric CVD due to the vacuum exhaustion system. Apart from the structure
inside the reaction chamber, for all CVD methods the differences between the
hardware elements are small. The most striking differences emerge from the
chemical and physical processes in the reaction chamber.

22.3.3 Hardware Sources

When performing CVD in vacuum (low-pressure CVD and plasma CVD), it

is necessary to exhaust the chamber after insertion of the wafer and to return
to atmospheric pressure after the deposition. Particles attached to the walls
inside the reaction chamber can attach to the wafer and particles floating in
the atmosphere can come inside the chamber due to the pressure change. To
322 Kazuo Maeda

Table 22.1. Causes and composition of CVD-generated particles

Place of particle Causes Composition
generation
Hard- Wafer carrier - Particle transport from carriers Si, AI, silica, resist,
ware and others
Transport - Particle generation from the Metal, organics
mechanisms/ mechanism
robots - Particle transport due to Metal, silica, Si
contact with robots
Pipes/ - Residue inside the pipe Metal
values - Degradation of packing Organics
materials
Reaction - Degradation of showerhead Metal, silica, SiC
chamber - Degradation of susceptor Metal, silica, SiC
- Degradation of chamber walls Metal, silica
Ventline - Back-diffusion of oil Organics
- Degradation of pipe walls Metal
Wafer - Breakage of Si wafers Si
Pro- Gas supply - Reaction of gas and parts or CVD film
cess system the inside walls of pipes materials
Inside the - Film deposition on showerhead, CVD film
chamber chamber walls and susceptor materials
- Transport of these deposited films
- Transport of reaction by-products
in air
Vent line - Transport of deposited material CVD film
to the ventline and then to the materials
wafer surface

avoid these problems, the vacuum load-lock system has been established. At
present the load-lock system is also in use for large-diameter wafer furnaces for
low-pressure CVD batch treatment. For plasma CVD, it is necessary to take
special care of the materials used for the robot system and other hardware.
This is not the case for low-pressure CVD, which works without participation
of the plasma. Atmospheric pressure CVD is even simpler, since it is not nec-
essary to use a robot to place the wafer in the vacuum. Of course, the final
reason for contamination due to hardware, as indicated in the table, is deter-
mined by the chemical reactions during film deposition. However, it has also
been realized that for atmospheric pressure CVD a particle contamination
reason similar to the one due to the transition from vacuum to atmospheric
pressure occurs.
As shown in Fig. 22.3, switching the MFC (mass flow controller) from
"on" to "off" leads to a sudden acceleration in the gas flow and an increase
in the number of particles [2]. However, filters are often inserted in the CVD
 22. Atmospheric Pressure/Low-Pressure CVD 323

l)~~----'-~--'-----~~----'-----'-----'
u
o
o
~ 15~----+4-+---r-----+++----r-----+-----~
OJ
..c
E
~ 10~----++~.--r-----+r-~--r-~--+-----~
....
OJ
..c
E
::J
5~----~~+--r----~--~--~~~+-----~
Z
OJ
U o~~~~ __~~~~~~~~~~-*~~~~
:e 0 10 15 20 25 30
&. Time (x 100 sec) Fig. 22.3. Number
of particles generated
switch
" bulb switch
" MFC ' ...............
switch MFC
in the gas for atmo-
spheric pressure CVD
• :particle size over 0,3 iJm • : particle size over 0,5 iJm [2]

distribution system just before the reaction chamber, and the gas distribution
system itself has the effect of controlling abrupt velocity changes.
Therefore, this does not cause particle contamination on the surface of
the wafer or deterioration of the atmosphere in the reaction chamber.

22.3.4 Process Sources

The most important point in the thermal CVD process is the control of the
chemical reaction in the chamber. As shown in Figs. 22.1 and 22.2, the ma-
terials used for the reaction chamber are metal and the quartz tube; also
present are the susceptor, heater, nozzle, gas distributor, and showerhead.
The deposition reaction on the wafer occurs in the chamber. The CVD film
deposition reaction occurs not only on the wafer surface, but, of course, ev-
erywhere that the temperature is high enough. Even when the temperature
is not high enough, gas turbulence occurs in the chamber. Therefore, by-
products can attach randomly inside the reaction chamber. These particle
accumulations are the main reasons for particle contamination during CVD
film creation. Concerning plasma CVD, it is possible to restrict physically the
region where the plasma-induced reaction occurs. On the other hand, tem-
perature is the driving force for the reaction in thermal CVD; therefore it is
difficult to restrict the region in which the film deposition reaction occurs.
Figure 22.4 shows the relative light intensity of laser scattering with parti-
cles near the wafer surface, depending on the wafer temperature [3]. The sys-
tem under consideration is atmospheric pressure CVD similar to that shown
in Fig. 22.1a. Below 350°C the parameter corresponding to particle density
decreases considerably. Of course, there is a close relation between the particle
density counted near to the wafer surface and the number of particles attach-
ing to the wafer. The reaction by-products near the wafer fall on the wafer
324 Kazuo Maeda

Fig. 22.4. Temper-

ature dependence of
the number of particles
generated in air near
the wafer surface [3]

with a certain probability, or they accumulate in the gas and are transferred
to the wafer surface after a random walk.
There is also a close relation between the gas flow in the reaction cham-
ber and particle contamination. The gas flow in low-pressure CVD is fast;
therefore an accumulation of particles is almost impossible. In atmospheric
pressure CVD , after the reaction the supply gas is exhausted through an
exhaust pipe, and the reaction occurs under atmospheric or slightly higher
pressure. Therefore, turbulence due to heat radiation and convection can
occur.
As shown in Fig. 22.5 [1], there is a large difference in the gas flow depend-
ing on whether the wafer is face up or face down. When the heater is face up,
large turbulence occurs between the heater and the showerhead. In this tur-
bulence the particles are floating randomly in the gas. Therefore, instead of
uniform film deposition the tendency for particle contamination increases. In
contrast, in the face down configuration convection is small and the reaction
gas can be supplied in an almost laminar gas flow.
Figure 22.6 compares the particle contamination of atmospheric pressure
CVD and low-pressure CVD [4]. For hot wall low-pressure CVD, a thicker
oxide film accompanies an increase in the number and size of attached parti-
cles. However, for atmospheric pressure CVD there is no such relation to the

low
tempe-
rature I shower head I heater II
wafer high
tempe-
rature

H H H H H ~~~ction ~, if n t it r}J
f t t t tt laminarflow
It.t~'}.)~~J"
.I,f"-~"-"-">li~wonvection
--
t t
t t t t t t t t reaction
I I
turbulence gas
high
tempe-
I heater shower head low
tempe-
rature wafer rature

(a) face up (heater downside) (b) face down (heater upside)

Fig. 22.5. Comparison of face down and face up configurations in atmospheric
pressure CVD [1]
 22. Atmospheric Pressure/Low-Pressure CVD 325

_ 10- I'm
3- IOl'm
c::J 1- 31'm

(a) low pressure CVD

_ 1 0 - I'm
_ 5- 10 l'm
c::J 3- 51'm
c::J 1- 31'm

Fig. 22.6. Relation between CVD

film thickness and the number of par-
ticles deposited on a wafer [4]

film thickness: the number varies randomly. The contamination of the wafer
surface with reaction by-products or the adhesion of accumulations from the
chamber walls on the wafer happens in some regular manner during hot wall
low-pressure CVD. For atmospheric pressure CVD, this happens accidentally
and is difficult to predict. All the presented data are based an an example in
which SiH4 source gas has been used.

22.4 Particle Reduction Strategies

22.4.1 Particle Reduction Strategies for Atmospheric Pressure
and Low-Pressure CVD

The following points concerning control over particles are valid for all semi-
conductor producing systems:
1) Remove particles that are attached to the wafer surface.
2) Avoid the transfer of particles that accumulated in the gas phase or on
the walls of the reaction chamber to the wafer surface.
3) Avoid the generation of particles in the gas phase and the deposition of
them on the chamber wall.
Concerning 1, it is possible to remove particles by scrubbing of the wafer,
but this procedure has the danger that it could even increase the number of
326 Kazuo Maeda

particles. It is difficult to remove particles included in the film itself. Con-

cerning 2, the approach to avoiding attachment of created particles in the gas
phase or reaction by-products that accumulate in the inside of the chamber
is at present the principal method of particle control. The countermeasures
are:
(i) exhausting reaction by-products
(ii) increasing the adhesion of the wall deposits in order to avoid particles
attached to the walls falling onto the wafer, and removal of parts that
have split off or fallen down
(iii) using a face down arrangement and avoiding cross currents,
(iv) using a powder trap in the exhaust system.
Concerning 3, there exist two approaches. In order to obtain the film
deposition reaction without accumulation inside the chamber, the following
points, among others, are important.
(i) frequent in situ cleaning
(ii) restriction of the reaction zone to the wafer surface only
To restrict the deposition region to the surface of the silicon wafer, it
is important to keep the temperature higher just on the wafer surface, to
restrict the plasma discharging region, or to use surface catalytic reaction
mechanisms.
Restriction of the area of activating temperature is difficult due to radia-
tion, gas flow, and convection. Therefore, with SiH4 -0 2 systems it is impos-
sible to perform a limited surface reaction.

22.4.2 Hardware Revision

In the following we describe the actions actually performed on the hardware

used for atmospheric pressure and low-pressure CVD. For atmospheric pres-
sure CVD, the following actions are performed. The points are valid both for
TEOS or SiH4 as source gas.

1) Face down wafer loading: here it is possible at least to prevent particles

onto the wafer due to gravity (Alcan-Tech Co.).
2) Installing the wafer near to the mixing point of the gases: for the SiH4 -0 2
reaction in particular, these gases are ejected from separated nozzles and
mix just over the wafer surface. But this is not a wafer surface reaction,
it is only a reaction near the wafer surface.
3) In situ cleaning: for atmospheric pressure CVD as shown in Fig. 22.1a with
a stainless steel conveyor belt, the attached Si0 2 is continuously washed
out with hydrofluoric acid solution (Watkins-Johnson system).
4) Frequent maintenance, exchange of parts and cleaning.
 22. Atmospheric Pressure/Low-Pressure CVD 327

On the other hand, for low-pressure CVD, we mention the following coun-
termeasures:
1) Avoid separation of particles by heating the exhaustion/venting system
of the exhaust pipe and the valves [5J.
2) Use a load-lock system.
3) For the vertical furnace, use double quartz tubes, inject the gas from the
bottom, and exhaust from the top between the pipes. In this way, no
powder can adhere to the wafer surface [5J (Fig. 22.2b).
4) Avoid turbulence during venting and exhaustion of the chamber (slow
evacuation/ slow venting).
5) Remove the particle accumulation on the walls (Si0 2 , Si3 N 4 , polysilicon)
with plasma etching performed after film deposition.
6) If no plasma is used, clean the inside with CIF 3 . This is only effective for
polysilicon films.

22.4.3 Process Control

Process control means the control of the chemical reaction, which is a control
element for thermal CVD, but is difficult for plasma CVD. This control aims
to restrict the reaction mainly to the wafer surface. In particular, with the
use of TEOS-0 3 it is possible for atmospheric pressure CVD to restrict the
reaction mainly to the wafer surface. If the reaction happens only on the wafer
surface, there is no need to worry about transfer of particles in the gas or
about accumulations causing particle creation. This is the ideal of CVD film
creation restricted only to the wafer surface. If the reaction were performed
catalytically on the wafer surface, not only would the particle contamination
be minimized, but at the same time the step coverage would be improved and
selective CVD would be possible. For TEOS-0 3 atmospheric pressure CVD
it is known that if the concentration of 0 3 is high enough, the step coverage
shows a flow shape [3J. This shows that at about 400°C the TEOS-0 3 reaction
has a controlled mechanism that produces polysiloxane as an intermediate by-
product. The conditions of ozone concentration for obtaining the flow shape
of the step coverage and a reaction model are shown in Fig. 22.7.
This method can be used at present for face down atmospheric pressure
CVD. Also, beyond the wafer surface deposited particles have been observed.
But they have only a small chance of floating onto the wafer surface. This
is due to the fact that the face down system is used and the adhesion of the
accumulated particles is very high. In the face down system if particles attach
only to the wafer transport system their number decreases, since some of them
naturally fall down again. Furthermore, after the film creation reaction the
number of particles decreases naturally because they fall down. It has been
shown that particles of small size that do not fall naturally due to gravitation
can be removed with heat and N2 purging working against the electrostatic
force.
328 Kazuo Maeda

~ NigrationlFlow Flow shape step coverage

: It3ow
Hydrophobic
V' ~1,a: 0
Hydrophobic
on the
t1
surface

8'80
surface _ ~
0

~ Polymer formation

TEOS-tcn TEOS+o,
I I I I I I I t I'
I I I I I I I ' I I

Gas~=,
sites
~,

<b
(a) reaction model at high 03-concentration

~r-------------------------------~

Ozone concen1ration ('II)

(b) Influence of 0 3 to the step coverage

Fig. 22.7. Model of the film deposition reaction for atmospheric pressure TEOS-03
CVD

Figure 22,8 shows an example of these data. It should be mentioned that,

compared with other CVD methods , TEOS-0 3 face down atmospheric pres-
sure CVD has an extremely small level of particle contamination. This is due
to the restriction of the reaction to the surface and the control of the process.
 22. Atmospheric Pressure/Low-Pressure CVD 329

< 40 run data>

~~--------r---.----'----.----.~~~~
- - - 0.1e-o.2:5 ... ",
a_a._a, O.25-0.28,.m
-- .. - 0.28-0.30 ... ",I--+---I--~~-~,..----;---;
-0-- >0.30"",
___ bulk malerial

~~-------4----+---~---4----+----r--~

'O~--~~---+---~----~~~~---i-----t--~

...
Q)
.0
E
E -'0~~~--~---4---+---r~~~--~--i
Q)
13
tIII -ro~~ ____ ~ ____L-__ ~ __ ~~ __ ~ __ ~ __- J
a... o 5 10 15 ro 25 30 35
Run number
(a) particle data from transport only

< 100 run data>

~rt ,.. ...J: n" ..... -

0 0 I
L...I

0 0.211-0.* ... ",

•a
0 OAO-0.5O"",
l .etI-2.5O" m

... • r--
>2.501''''
bulk malenal
Q)
.0
E
::J
c:
-eo
~ Rl -l RI -2 1'12-1 R2-2 R3-1 R3-2
t (R is the number of 4 head-reactors)
III
a... Reactor lot #
(b) particle data after SiO:z (2000)\.) layer creation

Fig. 22.8. Particle data for face down-type atmospheric pressure CVD
(TEOS/0 3 -APCVD) [1]
330 Kazuo Maeda

22.5 Issues for the Future

I pointed out the problems of particle contamination when performing at-

mospheric pressure and low-pressure CVD, spelling out reasons for the gen-
eration of particles, describing the materials in use, and discussing the pos-
sibilities for removing undesired particles. As an example, we gave parts of
the data and explained in detail the TEOS-0 3 atmospheric pressure CVD
system for Si02 film creation. At present the different CVD methods in use
for the LSI process are atmospheric pressure, low-pressure, and plasma CVD
and ECR high-density (low-pressure) plasma CVD. Historically, for example,
the CVD method for Si02 deposition developed as atmospheric pressure - t
low-pressure - t plasma CVD. But along with the miniaturization of devices
it has come back once again. Now simplification of the process is again the
key, and the main direction is now the increase of the efficiency of the sys-
tem and avoidance of particle contamination. For the suppression of particle
contamination during CVD the control of intermediate molecules arising dUll-
ing the reaction and the control of the reaction itself are important points.
It is necessary to continue research on new CVD gas sources and to think
about the necessity of new film materials in the future in order to control the
chemical reaction.

References

[1] K. Maeda: Semiconductor World, 90 (4/1993) [in Japanese].

[2] K. Maeda: Semiconductor World, 64 (1/1993) [in Japanese].
[3] C. Dornfest: Extended Abstracts of ECS Meeting 85-1, 347 (5/1985).
[4] S. Iwamatsu: Semicond. Superclean Tech., Kogyo-Chosa Kai, Tokyo (1993) [in
Japanese].
[5] P. Burggraaf: Semiconductor International, 46 (9/1993).
[6] Y. Nishimoto et al.: JECS 137, 2883 (1990).