SAE TECHNICAL

PAPER SERIES 2004-01-3560

Similarity Rules and Parametric Design

of Four Stroke MotoGP Engines
G. Cantore and E. Mattarelli
DIMEC, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy

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Similarity Rules and Parametric Design of Four
Stroke MotoGP Engines
Copyright © 2004 SAE International
ABSTRACT
The design of 4-stroke engines, complying with the new
Motorcycle Road Racing World Championship
regulations is discussed. Similarity rules and non
dimensional parameters from a database on racing
engines are used to define some general guidelines.
More specific information about friction losses and
combustion is derived from experiments, carried out on
a 3-cylinder MotoGP prototype engine. These
experiments provided the input needed to set up and
validate a base model for 1D thermo-fluid-dynamic
calculations. Engine simulation is employed for
optimizing several design parameters. A comparison
between the proposed methodology and a few design
criteria presented in literature is made. Finally, the brake
performances of some optimized engines are predicted .
INTRODUCTION
Interest on the part of motorcycle manufacturers for the
FIM Road Racing World Championship has been
growing recently, for the new technical regulations which
allow 4 stroke prototype motorcycles to race in the
former 500 cc – 2 stroke class (now called MotoGP).
These four stroke prototypes “must have an engine of
original design and must not use castings of the
crankcase, cylinder or cylinder head derived from the
industrial production.”[1]. The engine must be normally
aspirated, with a capacity included between 350 and 990
cc, without limitations on the number of cylinders. The
minimum weight of the motorcycle is determined in the
following way:
o 3 cylinders or less: 135 kg
o 3 cylinders or less with oval pistons:145 kg
o 4 and 5 cylinders: 145 kg
o 6 cylinders or more: 155 kg
2004-01-3560
G. Cantore and E. Mattarelli
DIMEC, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia
The fuel tank capacities for 4-stroke engines is 24 liters,
for 2002 and 2003 Championship. The limit will be
lowered to 22 liters for 2004 and beyond.
Only a few constraints are placed on engine-out noise
emissions. The noise level, measured “50 cm from the
end of the exhaust pipe and at 45 degree angle to the
pipe either to the side or above”, must be determined at
a mean piston speed of 11 m/s. The maximum values
allowed (115 dB/a tested prior to race and 120 dB/a after
race) leave a significant amount of freedom for the
exhaust system design.
It is quite obvious, even only by means of a first analysis
of the new technical rules, that four stroke engines can
be much more powerful than the former 2 stroke 500 cc
Grand Prix engines, generally rated at less than 150 kW.
Considering a four cylinder engine, having a stroke-to-
bore ratio equal to 0.5, assuming a BMEP of 13 bar at
the maximum mean piston speed of 24 m/s [2, 3], the
resulting maximum brake power will be 180 kW, at an
engine rotational speed of 16800 rpm.
This figure - which can be easily increased with less
conservative hypotheses - raises an important question:
are the riders able to use such a large amount of power
? It should be considered that, at all race tracks,
motorcycle engines run throttled for a very large part of
the lap, and the help provided to the rider by electronic
control devices is strongly limited. Furthermore, the
amount of power which can be discharged depends on
tyres, as well as on aerodynamics and weight
distribution across the motorbike. Obviously, assessing
the influence of these parameters is far from trivial, and
any result is related to the specific set-up of the
motorbike. However, the most widespread opinion
among designers and riders is that 170-180 kW is the
actual limit for useful maximum brake power. No
advantage is expected from exceeding this value, since
the rider would only be forced to keep the engine more
throttled during the race.
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
The limitation stated above should be kept in mind when
defining the main geometric and operating parameters of
a 4-stroke prototype engine. The methodology proposed
by the authors is to fix a target for maximum brake
power, then consider all the configurations which are
able to meet such a target. In order to make a fair
comparison among these configurations, it is also
necessary to define the level of technical sophistication
under which the different solutions are developed. For
reasons that will be made clear in the following, Formula
1 technology can be considered to be the more natural
reference. Particularly, it can be assumed that engines
have an aluminium alloy structure, with block, heads,
cam covers and lower crankcase cast in that material;
connecting rod and valves are made of titanium. The
piston is aluminium alloy, it has a short skirt and carries
two small, light rings. Cylinders have four valves and a
pent roof combustion chamber with a central spark plug.
Valves are pneumatic, and actuated by means of a
finger follower. The angle between the intake valve and
the cylinder axis is less than 10 degrees, in order to
allow the designer to draw straight intake ducts. Each
intake manifold has one throttle plate and one fuel
injector, the latter placed over the duct bellmouth. The
length of the intake pipe can be continuously varied by
means of a telescopic taper device. Both intake duct
length and throttle position can be controlled by the
Electronic Control Unit. Finally, a dry sump is adopted
for the reduction of mechanical friction losses.
It is well known that maximum brake power for a race
engine is strongly conditioned by the total area of the
pistons. On the base of the technology currently
employed in F1, the maximum mean piston speed is
presumed to be between 24 and 27 m/s; 24.5 m/s is
taken as a reasonably safe figure. At this speed, fixing
the maximum brake power at 175 kW and BMEP at 13
bar, the resulting total area of the pistons is about 22000
mm2.
Considering a 2-cylinder architecture, with the maximum
engine capacity allowed by the technical regulations, the
total piston area calculated above would be obtained
with a stroke-to-bore ratio equal to 0.38, and a bore of
118 mm. This values are clearly not acceptable, since
the combustion chamber shape would be too stretched,
with ensuing problems of knocking and poor fuel
efficiency. As further evidence, in the SuperBike
Championship, two cylinder engines having a
displacement of about 1000 cc provide much lower
power output, despite several years of continuous
development (in 2002, peak values were less than 150
kW). Thus, 2-cylinder engines must be discarded.
Three cylinder engines are more promising. Assuming
the total area of the pistons equal to 22000 mm2, the
bore would be about 97 mm, giving a stroke-to-bore ratio
0.466. It should be observed that the bore dimension is
remarkably similar to that of present Formula 1 engines,
while the engine maximum speed (16300 rpm) is slightly
lower. In these conditions, the target of 13 bar at
maximum speed is far from trivial, since both mechanical
and volumetric efficiency become critical. Therefore
some solutions currently adopted on F1 engines, like dry
sump and pneumatic valves are compulsory.
Particularly, traditional spring valves are not adequate to
meet engine breathing requirements at high speed. It is
well known that the engine breathing capability can be
assessed by the inlet Mach index [4]:
Ap S p , max
Z (1)
Aeff ,i a
When this index is larger than 0.5, the induction process
can become choked, with an ensuing substantial
reduction of volumetric efficiency. According to the
authors calculations, suitable values of intake mean
effective area can be obtained only through a large
valve seat inner diameter (at least 38 mm), combined
with a high maximum lift (at least 15 mm). Operating
such a pair of intake valves over 16000 rpm is not
possible with traditional springs. Pneumatic systems, like
the ones currently used in Formula 1, are, in the authors’
opinion, the most rational solution. Also a desmodromic
system, as the one developed by Ducati for the
“Desmosedici” MotoGP engine, has demonstrated to be
able to operate at engine speeds over 16000 rpm.
However, the knowledge of how to apply this technology
is very limited .
As the number of cylinders increases, the bore becomes
smaller, while the stroke-to-bore ratio increases. High
compression ratio can be obtained more easily, with
ensuing advantages in terms of thermodynamic
efficiency and combustion duration. The last parameter
is expected to reduce also for the shortening of the
flame path. Since the ratio of engine displacement to
heat exchange area does not change, no relevant
difference is expected in the thermal losses. Thus, a
high number of cylinders should enhance power outputs
and fuel efficiency. The low fuel consumption could be a
key factor, since fuel tanks have a limited capacity,
which is going to be further reduced in the 2004
championship.
Another advantage related to a high number of
cylinders, under the hypothesis of constant total area of
the pistons, is the smaller dimension and weight of
valves. Using the same technology for valve actuation, it
is possible to enhance engine breathing capabilities.
Alternatively, valve train design could be simplified
without penalties on engine performance and reliability.
Finally, the limit of 24.5 m/s for top mean piston speed is
very stringent for engines having a stroke-to-bore ratio
lower than 0.5, but can be easily overcome as the
number of cylinder increases. The constant top mean
piston speed allows the engines with a high number of
cylinders to operate with lower mechanical stress, with
ensuing advantages in terms of friction losses, reliability
and durability.
The number of cylinders and the engine architecture overall dimensions, and on the lay-out of the airbox and
obviously affect many other parameters besides exhaust system are the object of another paper [5].
maximum power, such as overall dimensions, weight
and crankshaft balance. In order to maximize vehicle One of the most important requirements for MotoGP four
performance the design of the power unit must be stroke engines is high permeability (i.e. wide gas
integrated with the bodywork design. Therefore, the passages and low flow losses), in order to guarantee
engine should be as small as possible, in order to leave proper breathing at maximum speed.
more freedom for setting the position of the bike center
of mass, as well as for optimizing aerodynamics. Engine The mass flow rate for a compressible steady flow
overall dimensions and weight are also fundamental for through an inlet port can be expressed as [4]:
vehicle handling. Finally, it should be recalled that FIM
technical regulations associate the lower limit for the S 2 · p0 § p ·
§
motorbike weight to the number of cylinders. From all m ¨ C D nV DV ¸ ˜ ˜ < ¨¨ ¸¸
the considerations stated above, it descends that a full © 4 ¹ RT0 © p0 ¹
investigation on the influence of the number of cylinders  J 1  (2)
§ p · ª 2
J J º
is a quite complex subject. Thus, the authors have 2J «§ p · § p · »
specifically discussed such an influence in another < ¨¨ ¸¸ ¨ ¸ ¨
¨ ¸ ¨p
¸
¸
© p0 ¹ J  1 «© p 0 ¹ © 0 ¹ »
paper [5]. ¬ ¼

Since it is highly unlikely that engines with more than 6 CD (discharge coefficient) is referred to the valve seat
cylinders are a practical proposition, the configuration of area.
interest for MotoGP 4-stroke prototype engines are: 3, 4,
5 and 6 cylinder. Up to four cylinders, in-line engines are Assuming a quasi-steady intake process, the amount of
acceptable, while for 5 and 6 cylinder the ‘V’ architecture delivered air can be calculated as follows:
is compulsory.
T IVC
§ S 2 · p0 1
Since a peak power target of 175 kW is relatively easy to MA ¨ nV DV ¸ ˜ ˜ < ˜ ˜ ³ C D LTdT (3)
be achieved - provided that Formula 1 technology is © 4 ¹ RT0 Z T IVO

employed and thermal and mechanical efficiency is

maximized - designers should aim to optimize engine < is the average value of the function <  p p 0 
regularity over the full range of operating conditions. In
the corners, whereas load and speed is relatively low, it between IVO and IVC.
is paramount that the engine runs smoothly, since the
balance of the bike can be compromised by any abrupt Therefore , considering the value of < independent on
or delayed output of the engine. Only at the end of the the specific engine features, the volumetric efficiency at
corner, when the bike is almost straight, the rider can maximum engine speed for the analyzed class of
open the throttle wide, accelerating from a relatively low engines (same maximum speed and stroke and number
rotational speed. In the authors’ opinion, high values of of valves) is:
torque and power at full load, distributed along a smooth
2
curve, from medium to high speed, should guarantee §D ·
T IVC

regular operations also at partial load (obviously, after a
proper set-up of the control parameters). The engine
speed of maximum torque speed is expected to be
further from maximum speed, in comparison to other
racing engines where peak power values are essential
(Formula 1 engines [2], or the 2-stroke-500cc Grand Prix
units). As a consequence, slightly different design
criteria for the intake and exhaust systems are required.
These criteria will be reviewed in the following sections,
whereas a comparison with other design approaches in
literature will be made.
SIMILARITY RULES
For the reason explained in the previous section, in this
study it is assumed that all the MotoGP engines have
the same piston total area and the same maximum
mean piston speed, the latter being 24.5 m/s. The total
displacement is 990 cc, i.e. the limit imposed by FIM.
The similarity rules discussed in this section apply to
engines having a number of cylinder from 3 to 6. The
influence of architecture on engine balance, firing order,
K v ( N max ) v ¨¨ V ¸¸ ˜ C D LTdT
³ (4)
© B ¹ T IVO
In order to comply with the hypothesis on < , gas flow
dynamics phenomena in both intake and exhaust
system should be tuned in the same way for all the
engines.
Equation (4) shows that it is possible to have the same
value of volumetric efficiency across all the engines,
provided that the following assumptions are made.
The shape of intake and exhaust ducts within the engine
head is the same for all the engines, i.e. the ratio of any
dimension to the bore does not change among the
engines. This similarity rule also applies to the
combustion chamber; particularly, the ratio of valve seat
diameter to bore is constant. For intake ducts and
exhaust primary pipes, all the engines have the pipe
cross sections scaled to the piston area, while length is
constant. The intake and exhaust valve timings are the
same for all the engines, whereas valve lift is
proportional to bore.
As a consequence of the similarity of the combustion
chamber and the ducts, the curves of discharge
coefficients versus non dimensional valve lift are the
same for all the engines.
From the point of view of mechanical reliability, it is not
necessary to scale valve lift to bore, as the number of
cylinders increases. In facts, under this hypothesis it can
be demonstrated that the maximum contact stress
between cam and follower is proportional to the square
of cylinder bore [3]: thus, the smaller the bore, the lower
the contact stress. For the engines having a high
number of cylinders it would be profitable to use the
valve actuation profiles of the 3-cylinder. In facts, the
smaller the valve diameter, the higher the value of the
integral in equation (4), since the discharge coefficient
plotted against non-dimensional valve lift always yields a
strictly monotonic increasing curve. However, having
very high lift-to-diameter ratios on the smaller bore
engines would create complications when fitting the
Smaller bore engines are characterized by a shorter
flame path from spark plug to liner. Conversely, the level
of turbulence intensity close to firing TDC is not
expected to change very much, since, at each speed,
the engines under investigation have the same geometry
of combustion chamber and inlet port, as well as the
same mean piston speed. Although the in-cylinder flow
field depends also on B/S, this influence is neglected for
the sake of simplicity. Thus, the angular duration of
turbulent combustion:
'T T v B (7)
Also the flame development angle (0-10%) is expected
to be shorter for smaller bores, since compression ratio
can be higher. Laminar combustion duration is
proportional to the reciprocal of flame speed SL, the
latter being expressed as [4]:
D E
§T · § p ·
SL S L , 0 ¨¨ u ¸¸ ¨¨ ¸¸
© T0 ¹ © p 0 ¹
D 2.18  0.8)  1 (8)
valve-train into the engine head. Since the maximum
cam angular velocity would be independent on the
number of cylinders, the cam base radius and follower
dimensions could not be scaled to bore: thus, engines
with a small bore would have a relatively large and
heavy valve-train.
Scaling valve lift to the square root of the bore is
assumed as a reasonable compromise, allowing small
bore engines to have slightly better breathing, with
camshafts and followers of acceptable dimensions.
Combustion chamber similarity yields a correlation
between compression ratio, and the bore to stroke ratio:
r
C
E 0.16  0.22)  1
Tu and p are in-cylinder pressure and temperature just
before combustion starts. Assuming that all the engines
are operated with )=1.2, D and E become 2 and -0.12,
respectively.
The compression stroke can be modeled as a polytropic
process, with an exponent 1.35, thus: Tu v rc0.35 , and
p v rc1.35
Therefore, the flame development angle:
1
 1
Vd
V cc
B2S
v 3 v S
B B
  (5) 'T D v
A straightforward application of the above equation is
questionable, since the volume of the valve notches in
the piston – an important part of combustion chamber
volume - does not simply scale to B3. Furthermore, this
rule would yield very high values of compression ratio for
small bore engines, with ensuing problems of knocking.
A reasonable upper limit for compression ratio can be
considered to be 14.5.
As far as combustion is concerned, experimental data
for fuel energy release are generally well correlated by
the Wiebe function [4, 5]:
m 1
ª § T  T0 · º
r  0.54
(9)
c
For racing engines spark advance is adjusted for
maximizing brake torque. The common experience on
race engines shows that, as combustion becomes
slower, spark advance increases, while the angle at
which 50% of fuel is burned (T50) is kept within a very
close window, between 10 and 15 degrees ATDC.
Therefore, for all the engines under investigation, T50 is
set at 14.5 degrees ATDC at any speed. As a further
empirical assumption:
'T T
T 90  T 50 T 50  T10 (10)
2
The turbulent combustion angular duration and the
x b T 1  exp « C1 ¨¨ ¸¸ » (6) development angle have been determined through an
«¬ © 'T T ¹ »¼
experimental investigation, on a 3 cylinder MotoGP
prototype engine. Information is used to extrapolate 'TT
C1 and m are shape parameters. and 'TD all over the analyzed engines, by means of
equations (7) and (9). The parameters C1 and m and T0
of equation (6) can be calculated by replacing equation trade-off is required between fuel efficiency and
(10) in equation (6), through some algebraic mechanical reliability (high values of compression ratio
manipulations. can induce knocking). Furthermore, designing a
compact chamber with a compression ratio higher than
Another issue affecting the indicated performance of the 12 can be very difficult for an engine having a stroke to
engine is combustion efficiency, i.e. the ratio of the bore ratio smaller than 0.45.
energy actually released by combustion to the fuel
chemical energy. For engines operated with rich Values of cylinder head parameters are derived from a
mixtures, this efficiency can be roughly assumed to be data base of Formula 1 engines [2,3]. As already stated,
equal to the reciprocal of the equivalence ratio. the combustion chamber has a pent roof shape with four
However, even if all the engines are operated with the valves and central spark plug. It is assumed that the
same fuel/air equivalence ratio, the fraction of available curves of discharge coefficient plotted against non
energy still depends on many phenomena occurring dimensional lift are the ones measured for a similar
within the cylinder, such as flame quenching, crevice Formula 1 engine. The value of compression ratio is
filling, etc. The difference among the engines is hard to taken equal to 12.5 for the 3-cylinder configuration. For
assess: small bore engines should burn faster (so less the engines having a different number of cylinders,
quenching is expected), but they also have combustion chamber geometry is kept similar, up to a
proportionally larger crevice volumes. It seems compression ratio of 14.5 (upper limit for knocking).
reasonable to assume that all the engines are more or Thus, the compression ratio follows this relation:
less equivalent from this point of view
­° ª § S ·º ½°
It is assumed that all the engines have the same rc min ®14.5; «1  24.6¨ ¸» ¾ (12)
characteristic of FMEP, as a function of mean piston °̄ ¬ © B ¹¼ °¿
speed (Sp) and in-cylinder maximum pressure (pmax) [6,
10]. Cam design is another task requiring some empirical
assumptions, in order to limit the number of parameters
FMEP=K1+K2 pmax+K3. Sp (11) to be optimized. As a general rule, it is assumed that the
best cam profile, for any given total duration angle, is the
The above equation does not include pumping losses, one which maximizes the average flow passage area,
which are already accounted for in the Indicated Mean while meeting all the design constraints. These design
Effective Pressure. The values of the parameters to be constraints have been determined considering the
entered in this function are set in order to match previously mentioned 3-cylinder MotoGP prototype
experimental results obtained from the already engine. Therefore, a set of cam profiles has been
mentioned 3 cylinder MotoGP prototype engine. Even if generated using the program presented by Boretti and
the assumption of equal distribution of FMEP among Cantore in [3]. According to this program, the cam profile
engines having different architectures is questionable, it is defined by integrating a series of acceleration profiles
should be considered that the engines are supposed to made up of 14 exponential, sinusoidal functions. In order
be developed with the same degree of technical to meet the design constraints on clearance between
sophistication. Thus, differences in terms of FMEP valves and piston, the maximum advance for intake
cannot be so large, and the influence on brake valve opening, as well as the maximum retard for
performance is even more limited. exhaust valve closing, have been set to 58 Crank Angle
degrees.
EMPIRICISM AND SIMULATION
A list of the main parameters which have been set by
The role of simulation in the engine design process is means of empirical assumptions and similarity rules is
growing at a very fast pace. However, empirical criteria presented in table 1. The valve diameters, indicated as
are always necessary, at least for setting the baseline Dv, are referred to the inner seat cross section.
configurations which will be optimized by means of
simulation and experiments. Table1
# CYL 3 4 5 6
Cylinder head design requires particular assistance from
empiricism. For instance, the setting of intake valve Bore [mm] 97 84 75.1 68.6
diameter to cylinder bore ratio is a crucial choice for Stroke [mm] 44.6 44.6 44.6 44.6
engine breathing. Large valves offer large areas for flow Conrod [mm] 107 107 107 107
passages, but the jet through each valve curtain will be Compr. Ratio 12.5 14.3 14.5 14.5
more disturbed by the cylinder walls, as well as by the
Nmax [rpm] 16500
jet of the neighboring valve. Furthermore, large valves
are heavy, and maximum lift must be reduced for limiting Intake Dv.[mm] 37.8 32.7 29.3 26.7
inertia. Therefore, the ratio of valve diameter to bore is Exh. Dv [mm] 31 26.8 24 21.9
the final result of a very long and complex optimization
process. Another critical parameter whose choice must
be addressed by empiricism is the compression ratio: a
At this stage of the engine project, 1D engine cycle
simulation can be introduced for the optimization of
intake and exhaust systems. The purpose of this
optimization is to maximize brake power values at both
high and medium speed through the definition of the
optimum valve actuation characteristics, associated with
a proper set-up of intake and exhaust geometry. In this
process, 1D simulation is a fundamental tool, since it
allows the designer to gain a full understanding of the
complex dynamics effects taking place within the intake
and exhaust systems.
Obviously, before using any numerical model in engine
design it is necessary to set this model up against
reliable experimental data. This is exactly the purpose of
the following section.
As far as combustion is concerned, the burn rate has
been determined by processing in-cylinder pressure
data, at a few engine speeds. The experiments did not
cover all the operating conditions of interest, and some
extrapolation was necessary to provide all the inputs
required by simulation.
Finally, friction mean effective pressures have been
prescribed by means of the relationship shown by
equation (11), where the coefficients were calculated in
order to minimize the difference between calculated and
experimental brake performance.
EXP SIM
140
130

VOL. EFFICIENCY [%]

SET-UP OF THE 1D SIMULATION MODEL
120

All the 1D models for engine cycle simulation employed 110

in this study have been derived from a baseline,
100
corresponding to a 3-cylinder MotoGP prototype. It must
be pointed out that the parameters presented in table 1, 90
first column, do not correspond to the tested prototype.
80
The features of this engine are confidential, and only a 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000
few fundamentals can be disclosed in the paper. The ENGINE SPEED [rpm]
stroke-to-bore ratio is lower than 0.5, in order to run over
16000 rpm. The combustion chamber is a traditional four
1.05
valve, pentroof type, with central spark plug. Valves are
pneumatic, and actuated by means of a finger follower. 1
A dry sump is adopted. Fuel metering is electronically
BMEP / BMEP_max

controlled, with one injector per cylinder, located over 0.95

the manifold bellmouth. The length of the duct can be
0.9
modulated by means of a telescopic device. However,
for the sake of simplicity, experiments have been carried 0.85
out at one fixed position of the tapered intake pipe. The
throttle valves (one for each duct) have been kept wide 0.8
open, while spark advance and fuel to air ratio have
been set up for maximum brake torque at each speed. 0.75
9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000
ENGINE SPEED [rpm]
Calculations have been performed by using both WAVE
(Ricardo Software [6]) and GTPower (Gamma
Technologies [12]), finding coincident results. However, 400

all the simulation outputs shown in the following come

from WAVE calculations. 350
BSFC [g/kWh]

The set up of the simulation model presented some

critical issues. Since the intake duct is quite short (less 300

than 200 mm), end effects must be carefully modeled in

order to properly capture the manifold dynamics.
250

The discharge properties of the valve ports are quite

important too. It was demonstrated, in a previous work of 200
the authors [11], that the discharge coefficients 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000

measured using the flow bench and entered without ENGINE SPEED [rpm]

corrections in 1D simulations can produce significant

errors in the flow rate prediction, at least under steady
flow conditions. Thus, the experimental coefficients have
been adjusted in order to guarantee, under well defined
steady flow conditions, a perfect correspondence
between experimental and predicted flow rates.
Figure 1: Comparison between simulation and
experiments at WOT, spark advance and equivalence
ratio set at MBT. Volumetric efficiency, non dimensional
BMEP and BSFC are plotted versus engine speed.
A comparison between experimental and simulation
results is presented in figure 1. In the first graph,
volumetric efficiency is plotted against engine speed.
The experimental values are determined by measuring
the fuel mass flow rate and the air to fuel ratio by means
of three Unheated Exhaust Gas Oxygen sensors.
BMEP, shown in the second graph of figure 1, has been
normalized with its maximum value. Finally, BSFC is
shown in the last plot of figure 1. The values are slightly
higher than those of similar racing engines, since the
tested unit was still in a early stage of development.
Experimental and numerical results agree fairly well for
all the parameters considered. Such an agreement
supports the reliability of the numerical results that will
be presented in the following.
TUNING OF INTAKE AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS
It is well known that the efficiency of the gas exchange
processes for a racing engine is mainly related to the
effectiveness of intake and exhaust system tuning.
Tuning consists in finding the best compromise out of
several configurations in order to reach some specific
given targets. Obviously, the final result of the whole
optimization process strongly depends on such targets,
and multiple solutions are generally possible. In this
study the main goal is the achievement of a peak brake
power value higher than 175 kW at about 16000 rpm,
associated with a torque curve as flat as possible
between 8000 and 16500 rpm.
Such a target implies that at least two different solutions
must be developed, the former in the case of fixed intake
geometry, the latter for telescopic tapers. An intake
variable geometry device simplifies the optimization
process, since geometrical parameters can be set up for
maximizing peak power values, while the torque curve is
smoothed by adjusting the length of the intake manifold.
Conversely, a fixed configuration should have good
performance at both high and medium speed.
A fixed geometry configuration is first considered. For
obtaining a good torque curve over the speed range of
interest (9000-16500 rpm), the key is the position of
peaks in the volumetric efficiency curve. Volumetric
efficiency reaches a maximum when the following
conditions occur concurrently:
1. The curve of intake total pressure (upstream of
the valve) versus crank angle presents a pulse just
before IVC;
2. The intake total pressure trace presents a pulse
just after IVO; this pulse overcomes in-cylinder pressure.
3. Between the two pulses mentioned above there
is a smooth trough, phased with in-cylinder maximum
suction
4. The exhaust pressure curve versus crank angle
presents a deep trough during the wide overlap period.
This set of conditions occurs only at a few engine
speeds, basically when the intake pressure trace is
made up of a well timed series of “neat” pulses and
troughs, whose number can vary between three and
five. An example of such an optimum situation, with a 4-
pulse intake trace, is shown in figure 2.
As engine speed decreases from its maximum value, the
intake manifold goes in and out of tune. Below a given
speed, the exhaust system is no longer able to produce
a suction during the overlap, while the intake pulses
become very weak. Dynamic effects are no longer
useful, and engine operation can even become difficult,
since a significant amount of residual gases can remain
trapped within the cylinder.
Figure 2: Pressure traces at the intake valve, exhaust
valve and within cylinder. 3-Cylinder MotoGP engine,
four pulse condition (12500 rpm, WOT).
In order to have a good torque curve the main peaks of
volumetric efficiency are distributed between 16000 and
10500 rpm: the first peak at 16000 rpm corresponds to
3-pulse intake trace; the second peak at 12500 is
generated by four-pulse configuration; the last peak
comes at 10500 rpm from five-pulse tuning. This
volumetric efficiency curve shape can be obtained by the
intake and exhaust system geometry and valve
actuation laws which are going to be presented in the
following.
The intake pipe of a four stroke, four valve racing engine
is made up of three parts [6, 7, 8]. The first one, within
the engine head, has a complex 3-D geometry, since the
twin ducts starting from the valve seats merge at the
head outlet. This part is characterized by a restricted
cross section area close to the valves, which has some
influence on engine breathing capabilities, particularly at
high speed. The second part of the pipe is outside the
head and presents an almost constant cross section
area. The throttle body is placed here. Finally, a tapered
section ending with a bell-mouth is used to induce a
smooth flow from the airbox to the duct, as well as to
condition the pressure waves travelling along the
manifold. The shape of the cross sections along the
manifold axis is generally elliptic. A schematic of the
optimised intake duct geometry is presented in figure 3.
The ratio of cross section area to piston area is plotted
versus the distance of each section from the valve seat.
Such a distance is measured along the duct axis. The
bell-mouth is not included in the figure.
It should be observed that the optimisation of the intake
manifold yielded results which qualitatively agree with
the design guidelines given by Blair [10]. This author
defines a parameter, Cim ,as the ratio of the intake
manifold cross section area to the intake port cross
section area. Assuming that the former parameter
corresponds to the throttle body area, and the latter to
the valve seat inner area, the optimum Cim value found
in the study is equal to 0.82, while Blair suggests a
range of values between 0.8 and 1. Like the authors,
Blair also finds that Cim = 0.8 performs better than 0.9 at
medium speed, with only a little drop at high speed.
DUCT AREA / PIST O N AREA
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
E NGINE HE A D THROTTLE B ODY
0 parameter is slightly larger (324° CA degrees).
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
DIST ANCE FRO M VALVE [mm]
Figure 3: Geometry of the optimized intake duct (no
telescopic taper device).
Some engine designers [9] for the intake manifold refer
to the duct Mach index:
Ap S p , max
ZD
Amin a
where Amin is the minimum cross sectional area of the
inlet manifold. The optimum value found in this study is
0.38. Traditional values for this parameter are generally
lower, in order to prevent the inlet flow from choking and
to reduce pressure losses [8]. In this case, pressure
losses are very low, since the intake duct is short and
straight, and choking conditions never occur.
The optimum length found for the intake duct is 180 mm.
For such short and tapered pipes, the optimum length
depends on the values of cross section area, and taper
shape. It should be pointed out that the correspondence
between the 1D model and the actual manifold in terms
of total length is not so straightforward, because of the
complex nature of the flow through the valve port and at
the bell-mouth (end effects).
The geometry of exhaust valves, and port and duct is
generally less critical. At the engine head outlet the twin
ducts leaving each valve seat start to merge, until the
shape of the cross section becomes circular. Primary
pipes out of the engine head usually have a constant
section, which is always larger than that of the exhaust
port. Primary pipes can have different lengths, being
bent and joined together in several ways, depending on
engine architecture and on the number of cylinders, as
well as on design goals. In this study, for the sake of
simplicity, it is assumed that all the primary pipes have
the same length and merge in one junction, followed by
one terminal pipe including a silencer. All the issues
related to the specific engine configuration will be
considered in [5]. Therefore, the most relevant
geometrical parameters characterizing the exhaust
system remain the equivalent diameter and the length of
the primary pipe.
The optimum value of the ratio of exhaust primary cross
section area to piston area is 0.287. The optimum length
of the pipe is 450 mm. Also for the exhaust system, the
optimisation results agree with Blair’s guidelines.
Particularly, the parameter Cem (ratio of the exhaust pipe
cross section area to the exhaust port cross section
area), is equal to 1.42, a value almost coincident with
the one suggested in [10].
As far as valve actuation laws are concerned, it has
been found that the optimum intake valve angular
TA P E R duration is 314° CA degrees, while for exhaust this
140 160 180
1-D simulation indicates as optimum valve timings the
following values:
IVO=58° CA BTDC
IVC=76° CA ABDC
EVO=86° CA BBDC
(13)
EVC=58° CA ATDC
Cam profiles are not symmetric: the intake maximum lift
is reached at 115° ATDC, while the exhaust maximum
lift falls at 56° ABDC. The ratio of maximum valve lift to
square root of the bore is 1.57 for the intake and 1.31 for
the exhaust.
This set of values is closely linked to the choice of
geometry for the intake and exhaust ducts, as well as to
the specific targets of the optimisation. In order to put
the previous parameters in a more general context, it is
useful referring to time-area per unit swept volume
parameters, as defined in [10].
For intake valves the intake pumping parameter ()IP),
the intake ramming parameter ()IR), and the intake
overlapping parameter ()IO) are defined as follows:
 BDC
nV AI (T)dT

DUCT AREA / PIST O N AREA

0.7
) IP ³
TDC
N max ˜ V D 0.6
THROTTLE S HA FT
IVC 0.5
nV AI (T)dT
) IR ³
BDC
N max ˜ V D
(14) 0.4

0.3
EVC
nV AI (T)dT 0.2
) IO ³
IVO
N max ˜ V D 0.1 E NGINE HE A D
S TROK E

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
AI (T) is the instantaneous valve flow area through the
DIST AN CE FRO M VALVE [mm]
intake port, and it is a function of crank angle.

For the exhaust port, the exhaust pumping parameter Figure 4: Geometry of the intake duct, with a telescopic
()EP), the blow-down parameter ()BD) and the taper device.
overlapping parameter ()EO) are introduced:
Beside the total length, the simulation demonstrated the
TDC
nV AE (T)dT importance of the duct shape. As an example, it has
) EP ³
BDC
N max ˜ V D been considered a configuration with a sliding straight
TDC
pipe added to the tapered part, just before the
nV AE (T)dT bellmouth. Such a configuration is less efficient at
) BD ³
EVO
N max ˜ V D
(15)
medium speed, since the lack of a tapered end produces
EVC a less effective reflection of the pressure waves, thus a
nV AE (T)dT
) EO ³
IVO
N max ˜ V D
weaker ramming effect.

The exhaust system has been tuned at maximum speed,

AE (T) is the instantaneous valve flow area through the thus the primary pipe length has been reduced to 350
exhaust port. mm.

In table 2, the values of the optimum time-area Finally, a new intake valve actuation characteristic has
parameters are compared to the ones suggested by been adopted, exhibiting a wider duration (324° CA
Blair [10]. It should be observed that, as the number of degrees) and an higher maximum lift (the lift to square
cylinders increases, the time-area values for the root of bore ratio is 1.625). The opening advance has
MotoGP engines grow slightly (2% of difference between not changed (58° CA), while the closure retard is
3 and 6-cylinder), since the ratio of lift to valve diameter increased to 86° CA.
grows up. The values shown in table 2 refer to a 4-
cylinder engine. The telescopic taper device produces a significant
increase of peak power, without relevant penalisations at
Table 2 medium speed. Such a result can be seen in figure 5.
Reference is made to a 3-cylinder engine.
MotoGP Blair
)IP(x104) 117.7 125.6
)IR(x104) 21.2 17.9
)IO(x104) 33.5 37.6
)EP(x104) 73.9 98.8
)BD(x104) 25.3 14.9
)EO(x104) 20.9 29.5

Considering the generality of Blair’s indications, the

agreement is quite good, particularly for intake
parameters.

When telescopic tapers are adopted, the optimised

geometry of the intake duct changes slightly, as shown
in figure 4. It should be observed that the sliding range is
limited to 30 mm, in order to avoid further design
complications (when completely retracted, the sliding
taper is very close to the throttle plate spindle and less Figure 5: Influence of a telescopic taper device
than 100 mm from the valve seat). (indicated as TT) on brake power. 3-cylinder engine,
WOT.
Figure 6: 1D simulation results for the 3 and the 4-cylinder engines (in-line architecture)
1D SIMULATION RESULTS
1D simulation is used in this section in order to predict
engine performance. Only the 3-cylinder in line and 4-
cylinder in line are considered, since the use of the V-
architecture requires the definition of many specific
parameters, such as crankshaft geometry, firing order
and layout of the exhaust system. Furthermore, the
arrangement of the engine within the bodywork creates
other specific constraints, which need to be carefully
considered case by case. Therefore, the purpose of the
simulation results which are going to be shown is not to
compare different engine geometries, but to assess the
performance that can be achieved following the design
rules discussed in the previous sections.
In figure 6, the most interesting engine outputs
(volumetric efficiency, Pumping Mean Effective
Pressure, Indicated Mean Effective Pressure, Brake
Torque, Brake Power, Brake Specific Fuel Consumption)
are plotted versus engine speed, at full load. Intake
geometry is fixed.
The curves of volumetric efficiency present three peaks
between 10500 and 16500 rpm, related to the intake
duct tuning at 3, 4 and 5 pulses, as well as a strong
deep at 9000 rpm, due to the exhaust system. Some
small differences can be observed between 3 and 4-
cylinder curves, since gas dynamics similarity is not
complete. In particular, the 4-cylinder has a slightly
better breathing capability, resulting in a higher
volumetric efficiency close to top speed. Such a
difference can be assessed looking at pumping losses:
at 16000 rpm, 4-cylinder PMEP is –0.85 bar, against –
1.05.
The 4-cylinder is characterized by a more rapid
combustion and a higher compression ratio. This
advantage is shown in the IMEP graph. It can be
observed that the values of IMEP are very high,
particularly in the 4-cylinder case: this is the evidence of
a high level of fluid-dynamics optimisation.
Also the torque distribution is quite satisfactory, even
without telescopic tapers. The peak value of torque
which is placed at a relatively low speed (12500-13000
rpm) is the key for good driveability, helping the rider to
control power discharge during motorbike accelerations.
The brake power peak value of the 4-cylinder engine is
considerably higher than that of the 3-cylinder. However,
it should be considered that a 3-cylinder engine will
power a motorbike which is lighter by 10 kg, thus the
difference in terms of power to weight ratio is small.
Furthermore, it is doubtful that a power output exceeding
180 kW can give any advantage to the rider on a typical
race track.
Finally, the BSFC has a minimum at 10500-11000 rpm,
then increases slightly as engine speed goes up. The 4-
cylinder has lower BSFC, particularly at top speed,
thanks to better thermodynamic efficiency and to lower
pumping losses.
CONCLUSION
For the 4-stroke motorbikes racing in the FIM World
Championship, MotoGP class, it is relatively easy to
achieve peak power values exceeding 180 kW.
However, it is very difficult for the rider to manage such
a large amount of power, without the help of electronic
devices. Therefore, engine designers should aim at
optimizing engine driveability rather than peak power,
i.e. at having a power output as flat as possible from
medium to high engine speeds.
The engine architectures of interest range from 3 to 6
cylinder. The basic criterion proposed in this paper for
the parametric design of MotoGP engines is to keep
constant the total area of the pistons, the stroke and the
maximum engine speed. It is assumed that MotoGP
engines can be developed using the F1 technology
(pneumatic valves, ultra-light pistons and valves,
telescopic taper, etc.). Similarity rules were used in order
to import information from previous projects, as well as
to give wider generality to the results.
Some experiments carried out on a 3-cylinder MotoGP
prototype engine provided specific information about
combustion and friction losses. Furthermore, the
experimental data allowed the authors to set up a 1D
engine simulation model.
1D simulation has been extensively used to optimize
intake and exhaust manifold geometry and valves
events. The results of the study generally agree with the
recommendations found in literature. However, for the
MotoGP engines a particular sensitivity has been
observed to the shape of the intake manifold. Such an
issue -often neglected in literature- should be considered
carefully by designers.
Finally, simulation results show that engines developed
according to the rules presented in the study are able to
meet both peak power and driveability targets. Engines
with an higher number of cylinder give some advantage
in terms of peak power and fuel efficiency. Further
investigations, necessary for a full comparison among
engines having different architectures, are reported in
[5].
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Ricardo Plc (Shoreham-by-
Sea, England) for the use of the WAVE code, granted to
the University of Modena and Reggio E.
REFERENCES
1. Federation Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM),
Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix
Regulations, 1st Edition. Printed on 28.02.2001
2. Boretti, A.,A., Cantore, G., “Comparison of V10 and IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (720°)
V12 Formula 1 engines”. SAE Paper 983035. 1998
3. Boretti, A.,A., Cantore, G., “Similarity rules and IVC Intake Valve Closing
parametric design of race engines”. SAE Paper
2001-01-669. 2001. IVO Intake Valve Opening
4. Heywood, J.B., “Internal Combustion Engine
Fundamentals”. McGraw-Hill, 1992 L Valve lift
5. Cantore, G. and Mattarelli, E., “Comparison of Four
Stroke MotoGP Engines”, SAE Paper 2004-01-3559. MBT Maximum Brake Torque
2004.
6. Ricardo Software Plc., WAVE Basic Manual, version Nmax Maximum engine rotational speed
3.6, 2001
7. Winterborne, D.E., and Pearson, R.J., “Design nv Number of valves (intake or exhaust)
Techniques for Engine Manifolds”, Professional
Engineering Publishing, 1999 p In-cylinder pressure.
8. Boretti, A.A., Borghi, M., Cantore, G., and Mattarelli,
E., “Numerical optimization of a racing engine with p0 Ambient pressure
variable intake and exhaust geometry and valve
actuation”. SAE Paper 962542. Included in “1996 rc Compression ratio
SAE Transactions – Journal of Engines”. 1996.
9. Pignone, G.A. and Vercelli, R.U., “Motori ad alta rpm Revolution per minute
potenza specifica”, Giorgio Nada Editore, 1992
10. Blair, G.P, “Design and Simulation of four stroke S Stroke
engines”. SAE Publications. 1999.
11. Mattarelli, E. and Valentini, A. “On the flow modeling SL Flame laminar speed
through the valve assembly in engine cycle
simulations”, SAE Paper 2000-01-570. 2000. Sp Mean piston speed
12. Gamma Technologies, Inc., “GT-POWER User’s
Manual”. Version 5.2.0. 2002 T0 Ambient temperature

DEFINITIONS, ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS TDC Top Dead Centre

a Speed of sound (ambient) Vcc Combustion chamber volume

Aeff,i Intake mean effective area Vd Cylinder displacement

Ap Area of the piston WOT Wide Open Throttle

B Bore xb Fraction of burned fuel

BDC Bottom Dead Centre Z Mach index

BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure J Ratio of gas specific heats

BSFC Brake Specific Fuel Consumption 'TD: Flame development angle (0-10%)

CA Crank Angle 'TT Turbulent combustion duration (10-90%)

CD Valve discharge coefficient ) Equivalence ratio

Dv Valve seat inner diameter Kv Volumetric efficiency

EVC Exhaust Valve Closing T Crank angle

EVO Exhaust Valve Opening T0 Crank angle at the start of combustion

FIM Federation Internationale de Motocyclisme

FMEP Friction Mean Effective Pressure