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Abstract
Asherman syndrome is a debatable topic in gynaecological field and there is no clear consensus about management
and treatment. It is characterized by variable scarring inside the uterine cavity and it is also cause of menstrual
disturbances, infertility and placental abnormalities. The advent of hysteroscopy has revolutionized its diagnosis and
management and is therefore considered the most valuable tool in diagnosis and management. The aim of this review
is to explore the most recent evidence related to this condition with regards to aetiology, diagnosis management and
follow up strategies.
Keywords: Asherman syndrome, Intrauterine adhesion, Hysteroscopy, Endometrial regeneration
© 2013 Conforti et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Conforti et al. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 2013, 11:118 Page 2 of 11
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diagnosis is only possible with imaging of the uterine value to predict the outcome of surgical repair by allowing
cavity. assessment of residual endometrium: if little or no endo-
Historically, hysterosalpingography (HSG) has repre- metrium is seen during transvaginal scan, the likelihood of
sented the most widespread diagnostic tool. It is a cost- a successful outcome is greatly decreased [27].
effective method to assess tubal patency in women who Data regarding the value of three-dimensional (3D)
suffer from infertility. Usually, AS is characterized by ultrasound in the detection of intrauterine adhesions are
filling defects described as homogeneous opacity sur- limited. Preliminary data in 2003 showed a specificity of
rounded by sharp edges [21]. In the worst cases, the 45% [23]. In a case series of 54 subjects with a high sus-
uterine cavity appears completely distorted and nar- picion of AS, a significantly higher sensitivity of 3D
rowed, and ostial occlusion may also be evident. How- ultrasound method was showed [28]. However, until fur-
ever, the information provided by an HSG is relatively ther data becomes available, the high cost of 3D ultra-
crude, and it is important to bear in mind that the inves- sound does not justify its use in clinical practice.
tigation has a high false positive rate [3]. The use of saline infusion during the ultrasound scan
Transvaginal ultrasound has a high compliance, and in (Sonohysterography or SHG) has also been investigated.
many countries it is often used “in office” during gynae- Salle et al. reported comparable sensitivity and specifi-
cological consultation. The ultrasounds image of AS is city with the standard HSG [22]. More recently, in a
characterized by an echo dense pattern with difficult retrospective study involving 149 cases with intrauterine
visualization of endometrium interrupted by one or anomalies, Acholonu et al. demonstrated a significant
more translucent “cyst like” areas [3]. Although, the difference in general accuracy (50.3% in HSG group and
diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound has been reported to 81.8% in SHG group) [29].
be low [22-24], it does allow visualization of the uterine Another technique combining 3D ultrasound and
cavity when a complete obstruction of the cervix pre- intrauterine saline infusion (Three-dimensional sonohys-
cludes HSG or hysteroscopy. Ultrasound imaging seems terography, 3D-SHG) has recently been proposed for the
to be significantly influenced by ovulatory cyclical phase diagnosis of intrauterine lesions. 3D-SHG, carried out in
of menstrual cycle [25], therefore some authors suggest combination with 3D power Doppler (3-DPD), was
that the best time for the evaluation of endometrium is found to have sensitivity and specificity of 91.1% and
during luteal phase of the menstrual cycle [24]. 98.8% respectively for all kinds of intrauterine lesion in-
Ultrasound control can also be useful during hystero- cluding synechiae [30]. Abou-Salem et al. confirmed
scopic adhesiolysis, in order to prevent uterine injury. these preliminary results showing comparable diagnostic
Compared with laparoscopy, ultrasound monitoring is efficacy with hysteroscopy [31].
cheaper, with no difference in the incidence of uterine per- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be helpful as a
foration [26]. In addition, some authors have reported its supplementary diagnostic tool, especially when the adhesions
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involve the endocervix. IUA are visualized as low signal women with mild or severe disease, but not in those
intensity on T2 weighed-image inside the uterus [32]. with moderate adhesions.
Despite the above developments, hysteroscopy remains In conclusion, there is still no clear consensus regard-
the gold standard in the assessment of AS. Table 2 illus- ing the optimum classification of AS. None of proposed
trates the accuracy of transvaginal ultrasound, HSG and classification systems seems to offer a valuable repro-
SHG compared with gold standard hysteroscopic im- ductive prognosis, as a consequence, further studies are
aging (Table 2). required [3,4].
Hysteroscopy provides a real time view of the uterine Whether the more complex clinicohysteroscopic scor-
cavity, allowing for a meticulous definition of the site, ing system is any better than the others remains to be
extent and character of any adhesions, and it is the seen.
optimum tool for assessing the endometrium. Currently,
this technique can be performed in ambulatory setting Management and treatment of Asherman
with less discomfort than a blind HSG. Hysteroscopy also syndrome
makes immediate treatment possible in some favourable The treatment strategy of AS could be summarized in
cases [33]. four main steps:
Table 3 HSG Classification Toaff and Ballas 1978 Table 5 American fertility society classification 1988
Classification Condition Classification Condition
Type 1 Atresia of the internal ostium, without concomitant Cavity involved <1-3 1/3 - 2/3 >2/3
corporal adhesions
1 2 3
Type 2 Stenosis of internal ostium, causing almost complete
Type of adhesions Filmy Filmy and Dense Dense
occlusion without concomitant corporal adhesions
Type 3 Multiple small adhesions in the internal ostium isthmic region 1 2 3
Type 4 Supra isthmic diaphragm causing complete separation Menstrual pattern Normal Hypo menorrhea Amenorrhea
of the main cavity form its lower segment 0 2 4
Type 5 Atresia of the internal ostium with concomitant Prognostic classification HSG score Hysteroscopy
corporeal adhesions. score
Stage I (Mild) 1-4
Hysteroscopic surgery Stage II (Moderate) 5-8
Hysteroscopic surgery has revolutionized the treatment
Stage III (Severe) 9-12
of intrauterine adhesion and it is the established gold
standard technique. The magnification and the direct
view of the adhesions allow for a precise and safe treat- good rate of success. Specifically, 55 patients were
ment. When the lesions are filmy, the tip of the hystero- treated with a 16-gauge, 80-mm Touhy needle (Portex
scope and uterine distension may be enough to break Ltd., Hythe Kent, England) introduced alongside a 5-mm
down the adhesions [33]. Thus, in favourable cases the hysteroscope under fluoroscopical guidance. All women
restoration of cavity can be obtained through “no touch” regained a normal menstruation pattern but no data
hysteroscopy in out-patient setting without general about fertility outcome was collected in this study [40].
anaesthesia. A cold-knife approach is supposed to prevent thermal
Nevertheless, the treatment of the severe and dense damage of the residual endometrium and reduce the rate
adhesion remains more challenging: in these cases, the of perforation during the procedure (Figure 2). The use of
cavity may be completely occluded or too narrow to powered instruments (electric surgery or laser) has also
allow the insertion of hysteroscopic sheath inside the proven efficient for hysteroscopic adhesiolysis [41-44].
cervix. Moreover, multiple procedures may be required Nevertheless the use of electric surgery is associated with
because of post-surgical recurrence of the adhesions potential damage to the residual endometrium [3,6].
[3,4,6]. In these situations, it is recommended to offer a
proper counselling regarding the lower rate of success
Table 6 Clinicohysteroscopic scoring system
and the higher risk of complications.
Hysteroscopic findings Score
According to many experts, the removal of the adhe-
sions should start form the lower part of the uterus and Isthmic fibrosis 2
progress toward the upper part [3]. Any central and Filmy adhesions More than 50% of the cavity 1
filmy adhesions should be separated initially in order to Less than 50% of the cavity 2
allow adequate distension of the uterine cavity. Dense Dense adhesions Single band 2
and lateral adhesions should be treated at the end, bear- Multiple bands 4
ing in mind the greater risk of uterine perforation and
Tubal ostium Both visualized 0
bleeding [4].
A wide range of mechanical or electric equipment has Only one visualized 2
been adopted during hysteroscopic adhesiolysis. Even Both not visualized 4
the use of a sharp needle (Touhy needle) has showed a Tubular cavity (sound less than 6) 10
prevent adhesion recurrence was one of the first at- the uterus for two weeks after hysteroscopic surgery. Al-
tempts to be documented in literature [8]. though uterine perforation occurred in two cases, thus
It was speculated that an IUD could help physiological confirming the potential damage caused by this ap-
endometrial regeneration by separating the anterior and proach, a significant improvement in uterine length was
posterior uterine walls. Although many authors have re- found with no adhesion reformation in group with mod-
ported good results [57,58], our data is conflicting, and erate adhesion [65].
there is also uncertainty about the size and the kind of The use of Foley’s catheter has also been compared
the IUD to be used. Vesce et al. used a copper IUD with with IUD as an adjunctive therapy in AS. While the IUD
good results in 48 women with functional amenorrhea. was removed after the third vaginal bleeding, the cath-
In a short follow-up after the insertion of the IUD, a sig- eter was maintained inside the uterus for ten days. The
nificant number of women regained a regular menses group treated with Foley’s catheter showed higher con-
[59]. Nevertheless, some authors believe that inflamma- ception rate compared with the IUD group (33.9% ver-
tory factors released by copper device could aggravate sus 22.5%). In addition, the 81% of women restored their
the endometrial injury [60]. Touguc et al. found no dif- normal menstrual pattern [66].
ference in adhesion reformation among women random- However encouraging, there are no randomized con-
ized to receive IUD device, estrogens treatment or no trolled trials attesting the Foley’s catheter efficacy in the
treatment after hysteroscopic septum resection [61]. The prevention of IUA. The main concerns about this
Levonorgestrel-releasing IUD should not be used for his method are uterine perforation, ascending infection from
suppressing effect on the endometrium [4]. The T- vagina and the high discomfort.
shaped IUD seems to be too tiny to guarantee a stable
separation between the uterine walls [62]. With its pecu- Hyaluronic acid and other anti-adhesion barriers
liar trapezoidal shape, the Lipples loop was considered Hyaluronic acid is one of the most widespread compo-
the most adequate device to prevent adhesion albeit it is nent in human tissue and it is involved in many biological
no longer available in the global market [62]. function such as mechanical support, cell migration and
proliferation. In the last decades, products derived from
Intrauterine balloon stent hyaluronic acid have been adopted in gynaecologic sur-
A new intrauterine stent was also described as a mech- gery to prevent both intraperitoneal and intrauterine
anical method to prevent adhesions recurrence [62]. It is adhesions [67-69].
a silicon made, triangular shape device which fits the The mechanism by which these products act is not
normal triangular shape of the uterine cavity (Cook completely understood. Hyaluronic acid generates a
medical Inc, Bloomington, USA). In several cases treated temporary barrier between organs which mechanically
for IUA in which the treatment protocol had included obstacles adhesions formation; in addition, these prod-
intrauterine balloon stent immediately after the proced- ucts influence peritoneal tissue repair by increasing the
ure, good results in term of fertility outcome were proliferation rate of mesothelian cells [70].
achieved. Among hyaluronic based products, ferric hyaluronic
Specifically, the author reported among 1240 patients acid was removed from the market due to its toxicity in
treated using intrauterine stent, pregnancy rate of 61.6% 2003 [69].
and spontaneous miscarriage rate of 15.6% [62]. Autocross-linked hyaluronic acid (Hyalobarrier©) is a
No data about IUA recurrence was reported. The au- new anti-adhesion barrier capable of preventing adhe-
thor recommends prophylactic broad-spectrum anti- sion formation after gynaecological surgery (Fidia Ad-
biotic until the stent remains inside uterine cavity. vanced Biopolymers SRL, Padova, Italy) [71]. It is a
In a recent cohort retrospective study of 107 patients highly viscous gel formed by the autocross-linked con-
with AS, the use of intrauterine ballon stent, compared densation of hyaluronic acid, and a recent systematic
with IUD and hyaluronic acid, resulted in significantly review confirmed that it can prevent intraperitoneal ad-
higher reduction of adhesions recurrence rate [63]. hesion after laparoscopic myomectomy and intrauterine
Although this encouraging evidence, data about its adhesions after hysteroscopical procedure [72].
safety and efficacy seem still insufficient. Another anti-adhesion barrier characterized by chem-
ically modified hyaluronic acid (sodium hyaluronate)
Foley catheter and carboxymethylcellulose (Seprafilm©) was used for
The Foley catheter was one of first mechanical devices prevention of IUA (Genzyme Corporation, Cambridge,
used to separate the uterine walls preventing the recur- MA, USA). In a randomized controlled blind study in-
rence of the IUA [2,35,64]. In a study involving 25 cases volving 150 patients who underwent surgical evacuation
with moderate and severe adhesions, a fresh amnion or curettage after missed or incomplete abortion, the
graft over a Foley’s catheter balloon was inserted into rate of IUA in the treated group was low compared with
Conforti et al. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 2013, 11:118 Page 8 of 11
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the control group [73]. There is still not enough data oestradiol and sildenafil citrate improved endometrial
about long term clinical outcome, including fertility [74]. blood flow and endometrial thickness in 4 women with
A brand new hyaluronic acid derived (alginate car- prior failed assisted reproductive cycles due to poor
boxymethylcellulose hyaluronic acid) was evaluated in a endometrial response [79]. There are only two case re-
prospective randomized trial including 187 cases. Four ports concerning the use of sildenafil in AS. Endometrial
weeks after surgery, intrauterine adhesions were signifi- thickness significantly improved with treatment, and
cantly lower compared with carboxymethylcellulose hya- both women become pregnant after the first treatment
luronic acid [75]. cycle [81].
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