F2.01 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
01
The investigation of conduction current and dissipation power
distributions in XLPE under HVDC at high temperature environment
Toshiyuki FUJITOMI, Tsuyoshi KATO, Hiroaki MIYAKE, Yasuhiro TANAKA; Tokyo City University (TCU), Japan,
fujiyan0@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
An improved PEA measurement system was developed to
evaluate the space charge, the conduction current and the
dissipation power distributions in XLPE used for power
cable. The improved system is enable us to measure the
space charge distribution and the external circuit current
simultaneously under high temperature condition. In the
system, by installing a water cooling system for PVDF
sensor, it makes possible to measure the space charge
distribution without losing the piezoelectricity of a PVDF
sensor at high temperature condition. In this report, we
introduce some typical measurement results obtained
using the system.
KEYWORDS
Space charge, Conduction current, Dissipation power,
XLPE, PEA method, High temperature
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, according to increasing of electric power
demand in urban areas, a long-distance power
transmission cable from a power far flowing plant of
offshore is required. While AC transmission system is
dominant in a relatively short distance transmission
system, dc system is preferable in the long distance
power transmission because of its low power loss and
won- necessity of phase stability control. According to
such background, HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current)
networking projects are in process around EU area. For
the cable insulating material for HVDC, the development
of adequate soli insulating material is important. While an
oil-filled (OF) cable had been usually used as the dc
submarine cable, it’s a time to use the cable with solid
insulating layer like cross-linking polyethylene (XLPE)
judging from point of view on maintenance cost and
environmental pollution at a time of an accident. However,
it is necessary to resolve a problem of space charge
accumulation in the solid insulating material under high dc
stress. We have investigated that the space charge
accumulation strongly affects the breakdown strength of
polyethylene using pulsed electro-acoustic (PEA) method
[1]. According to the study, a large amount space charge
accumulation distorts the electric field locally in low
density polyethylene (LDPE) under very high dc stress,
and finally it lead an electrical breakdown [2]. On the other
hand, in the case of XLPE, we have assumed that the
dissipation power induced by large conduction current and
high electric field may be dominant factors to lead the
breakdown under high dc stress [3]. Such investigation
result was derived from the results obtained using a newly
developed simultaneous measurement system of the
space charge distribution and the external current.
However, while the above developed system is used at
room temperature, the actual cable insulating materials
are exposed to high temperature environment in-service.
The simultaneous measurement system which is available
at high temperature is required to investigate the actual
effect of the space charge accumulation in XLPE under
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.
high dc stress. Therefore, we tried to develop a new
system. In this report, we introduce the developed system
and some typical measurement results obtained using the
system.
SAMPLES AND EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE
A. Samples
A Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) film of about 125 µm-
thick was used as a sample to confirm the developed
simultaneously measurement system. In addition to PET
film, a XLPE film about 200 µm-thick was also used as a
typical measurement sample for cable insulation. These
are commercially available and nominally additive free
samples. The XLPE film was made of LDPE with cross-
linking agent (DCP : dicumyl peroxide) by hot press
methods. In the case of XLPE, to prevent the cross-linking
by-products from being volatilized, it was kept in
sandwiched between aluminum foils after the hot pressing
procedure, and the foils were removed it just before the
measurement.
B. Measurement system
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the developed
simultaneous measurement system of space charge
distribution and external circuit current at high
temperature. This measurement system was obtained by
improving the previously developed simultaneous PEA
measurement system at room temperature [4]. Figure 2
shows a block diagram of the measurement parts in the
improved PEA system to measure the space charge
distribution and the external current simultaneously [4].
Using this measurement system, we can measure the
space charge distribution and the external circuit current
in the same sample under high temperature environment.
In this measurement system, a lower electrode is
switched by using coaxial switch between pico-ammeter
and ground electrode to measure the space charge
distribution and external circuit current, respectively.
When the space charge distribution is measured by
applying high voltage pulses, the pico-ammeter is
protected by isolating from the applied high voltage
pulses. To isolate the lower electrode electrically from
surrounding ground electrode, it is held using a
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) holder. Moreover, since a
glass plate is inserted between the lower electrode and a
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) sensor, a current flows into
only the pico-ammeter during the current measurement. In
this measurement system, the glass(S-LAM3) which has
low thermal conductivity is installed not to lose
piezoelectricity of the PVDF film associated with the
increase of temperature. Moreover, a water cooling
system is installed around the sensor as shown in Fig.1.
Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of the water cooling
system. This system is enable to keep temperature
around the PVDF sensor under 40°C even when
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F2.01 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Fig.1 A schematic diagram of the developed
simultaneous measurement system of space charge
distribution and external circuit current at high
temperature
Fig.2 A block diagram of the measurement parts in the
improved PEA system to measure the space charge
distribution and the external current simultaneously
Fig.3 A schematic diagram of the water cooling system
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.01
the sample is heated above 90°C. The 40°C is enough
low temperature for the PVDF sensor that is working well
as the piezo-electric device. A band heater is attached to
a cylindrical sample holder. In this holder, the
measurement sample is immersed in silicone oil which is
expected to prevent a surface discharge even under high
electric stress at high temperature. In this system, the
temperature of the silicone oil is monitored as it is almost
same to the temperature of the sample. The temperature
is controlled using thermal control unit connected to the
band heater. It means that the sample is heated through
the silicone oil. Since it is expected to take the
temperature of the sample a while to reach the oil
temperature, all measurements were started at 30 min
after the monitored temperature reached a certain target
value. In the measurement system, a semi-conductive
(SC) layer and an aluminium plate are used as a high
voltage and grounded electrode, respectively. The SC
layer is ordinary used in PEA system to improve a
mismatch of acoustic impedance between the sample and
the metal high voltage electrode. In this paper, we
describe a positive stress when the positive voltage is
applied to the SC electrode side.
C. Measurement conditions
At first, simultaneous measurement of the space charge
distribution and the external circuit current in PET film was
carried out under 50 kV/mm dc stress for 30 minutes. It is
generally said that PET is unlikely attracted by the
accumulation of space charge under high electric stress
even at high temperature. Therefore, using this sample,
we would like to confirm that the developed system is
working well. In the case of PET film, the measurement
was carried out at room temperature and 90 °C. After that,
we measured the space charge characteristics in XLPE
using the developed system. In the case of XLPE, the
measurement was carried out under 60 kV/mm dc stress
for 60 minutes. Measurement temperature was room
temperature and 90 °C. A measurement interval was 5
seconds (space charge measurement for 1 s and current
measurement for 4 s). Details of basic measurement
principle for the PEA are described elsewhere [5]. From
those measurements, we obtained time dependences of a
space charge distribution ρ(x,t) and an external current
density Je(t). Using these results, we calculated the time
dependent electric field distribution E(x,t), conduction
current density Jc(x,t) and dissipation power density P(x,t).
Details of the calculations for them are also described in
[4].
MEASUREMENT RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Figure 4 shows measurement results of PET under 50
kV/mm. In these figures, (1) output voltage V(t), (2) space
charge distribution ρ(x,t) and (3) calculated electric field
distribution E(x,t) at (a) room temperature and (b) 90 °C
were described, respectively. In Fig.4 (1), the vertical and
horizontal axes show the time t and voltage V(t). By giving
an adequate data processing technique to this obtained
voltage signal, we can have the space charge distribution
ρ(x,t) as shown in Fig.4 (2). In this figure, the vertical and
horizontal axes show the position x in direction of sample
thickness and charge density ρ(x,t). By integral calculation
of the space charge distribution, we can also have the
electric field distribution E(x,t) as shown in Fig.4 (3). In
this figure, the vertical and horizontal axes show the
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F2.01
Fig.4 Measurement results of PET under 50 kV/mm
40
External current density
30
Je(t) [µA/m2]
20
10
0 while they don’t accumulate in it at room temperature.
-10
0 10
Time t [min]
External circuit current density Je(t)
Fig.5 Time dependences of external current density
Je(t) in PET under 50 kV/mm at room temperature and
90 °C
position x and electric field Ε(x,t). In these figures, three
results are described in each figure. The results described
using black solid lines are the waveforms obtained just
after the start of voltage application. Since the
measurement interval is 5 s, it shows the result at about 5
s later under high dc stress. The red solid lines in them
show the results obtained under dc stress just before the
removal of the applied voltage. Since the measurement
time was 30min in these experiments, they show the
results at about 30min later under dc stress. The blue
solid lines in the figures indicate the results obtained
under short circuit condition just after the voltage removal.
Figure 5 shows the measured time dependences of
external current density Je(t) in PET under 50 kV/mm at
room temperature and 90 °C. Judging from the results,
since two ordinary relaxation curves were observed at
both temperature, the current measurement system is
also expected to be well.
9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.01
As shown in Fig.4 (a-1) the voltage signal obtained at 30
min. under dc stress of 50 kV/mm was almost the same to
that obtained at 5 s. Furthermore, any obvious signal was
not observed under short circuit condition just after the
voltage removal. They means that the applied stress did
not affect to accumulate the space charge in PET film at
all at room temperature. It is also found that the charge
distributions seem not to include any space charge inside
the bulk, but just the induced charges by the dc stress
were observed at the interfaces between the sample and
the electrodes as shown in Fig.4 (a-2). Since there was no
space charge accumulation in the bulk, the electric field
distributions in Fig.4 (a-3) consequently showed flat
shapes which were equal to the average electric field of
50 kV/mm.
On the other hand, a small amount of space charge
accumulate in the bulk of PET film at 90 °C under dc
stress of 50 kV/mm. As shown in Fig.4 (b-1), while the
shape of the output voltage signal (black) obtained just
after the voltage on was similar to that observed at room
temperature shown in Fig.4 (a-1), the signal (red)
obtained just before the voltage off was different from the
black one. Furthermore, an obvious signal (blue) was
observed under short circuit condition just after the
voltage off while it was not observed at room temperature
as shown in Fig.4 (a-1) (blue). These results mean that a
space charge accumulated in the bulk of PET film by the
dc stress application for 30 min. at 90 °C. Judging from
the results of the space charge distributions (red and blue)
as shown in Fig.4 (b-2), the accumulation of small
amounts of positive and negative charges were
recognized, while any such accumulation was not
90 °C
observed at the beginning of voltage application (black).
RT
Furthermore, the electric field (red) seemed to be
distorted by the space charge accumulation as shown in
Fig.4 (b-3). Anyway, it is found that accumulate even in
the bulk of PET film under dc stress of 50 kV/mm at 90 °C
Since the obtained results seem to be reasonable, the
developed space charge measurement system for high
20 30
temperature may be working well.
In the next, we applied the developed system to measure
the space charge distribution and the external circuit
current simultaneously in XLPE film at both room
temperature and 90 °C. Since the measurements were
started just after the removal of aluminum wrapping, the
samples must be including the cross-linking by-products.
Figure 6 shows the measurement results of (1) space
charge distribution ρ(x,t), calculated (2) electric field
distribution E(x,t), (3) conduction current density Jc(x,t),
(4) dissipation power density P(x,t) distributions in XLPE
under 60 kV/mm at (a) room temperature and (b) 90 °C,
respectively. In these figures, the vertical and the
horizontal axes show the position x and the dc voltage
application time t, respectively. In these figures, the value
of each measurement results are described using colors.
Each color bar beside the result indicates the scale of
each result. In Fig.6 (1), positive and negative charge
densities are described using red and blue colors. On the
other hand, in the case of electric field distribution, it
should be described with polarity information. However, to
emphasis the enhancement of the electric field by the
space charge accumulation, the distribution with absolute
value are described as shown in Fig.6 (2).
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F2.01 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
As shown in Fig.6 (a-1), a small amount of positive charge
injection was observed near the anode side. However, it
gradually disappeared with increase of the voltage
application time, then finally any obvious charge
accumulation was not observed in the bulk. Therefore,
any obvious enhancement of the electric field was not
observed through the measurement as shown in Fig.6 (a-
2). The
Fig.6 Measurement results of XLPE under 60 kV/mm
Fig.7 Time dependences of external current density
Je(t) in XLPE under 60 kV/mm at room temperature
and 90 °C
conduction current density distribution was calculated
from the time dependent electric field distribution and the
external current density shown in Fig.7. Figure 7 shows
the time dependent external current densities
simultaneously measured with the space charge
distributions at room temperature (black) and 90 °C. As
shown in the figure, it is found that the stable value of it at
2
room temperature (less than 10 [µA/m ]) was much
smaller than that at 90 °C (ca. 40 [µA/m ]). Since both the
2
external current and the change of electric field
distribution with time progress was not so large at room
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.01
temperature as shown in Figs.6 (a-2) and 7, the
calculated conduction current density distribution was also
not so large as shown in Fig.6 (a-3). Moreover, the
electric field distribution was relatively homogeneous
through the bulk as shown in Fig.6 (a-3), the conduction
current density distribution also seems to be
homogeneous. It means that the space charge
accumulation did not affect the conduction current
distribution, and the external current density was almost
equal to the conduction current density. Since the
dissipation power is obtained by product of electric field
and conduction current, the time dependent dissipation
power distribution is obtained by product of the results
shown in Fig.6 (a-2) and (a-3). Figure 6 (a-4) shows it.
Judging from the figure, it is found that the dissipation
power was stable in low value through the measurement
time in every position.
On the other hand, the situation of the dissipation power
distribution at 90 °C seems to be different from that at
room temperature. Since the distributions of the space
charge and the electric field at 90 °C was stable and
homogeneous as shown in Fig.6 (b-1) and (b-2), the
conduction current density distribution was also
homogeneous through the bulk of the sample. However,
since the external current density was gradually decrease
with time as shown in Fig.7, the conduction current was
also consequently decreased. Judging from the
dissipation power distribution shown in Fig.6 (b-4), the
value of it was much larger than that at room temperature.
However, the dissipation power was gradually decreased
with time as similar to the change of the external current
density.
In our previous research work on the space charge
accumulation in XLPE at room temperature under high dc
stress, the space charge behavior was strongly affect the
electric property of XLPE such as breakdown strength. It
is expected that the existence of cross-linking by products
remained in XLPE must be dominant factor to however,
judging from the results we showed in this paper, there is
no obvious results which the space charge accumulation
affects the electrical property of XLPE under high electric
stress at high temperature. The cross-linking by products
are usually volatile and they easily come out from a thin
XLPE film at high temperature like 90 °C. Therefore, they
may already come out from the sample when it was
heated before the dc voltage application. However, in
actual cable insulating material, they must remain in the
bulk even at high temperature. Therefore, we need some
new idea to measure the sample with similar condition of
the actual material in future.
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F2.01 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
CONCLUSION
In this study, we developed the improved PEA
measurement system, which is enable us to measure the
space charge distribution and the external circuit current
simultaneously under high temperature environment to
evaluate the conduction current and the dissipation power
of XLPE at high temperature. Using the developed system,
we investigated the space charge, the conduction current,
and the dissipation power distribution in PET and XLPE
films under high dc stress at room temperature and 90 °C.
As a result, we got the following findings.
• Judging from the results obtained in PET film, which
may not affect the space charge accumulation even at
high temperature, the developed system is available to
the simultaneous measurements of the space charge
distribution and the external current at high
temperature.
• Any obvious effect of the space charge accumulation in
XLPE film was not observed in high temperature
measurements of the space charge distribution and
the external current simultaneously using the
developed system. The effect of cross-linking by-
products on the space charge accumulation in XLPE
may be reduced by the volatile of them from the
sample at high temperature condition before the
application of high dc stress to the sample.
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.01
REFERENCES
[1] Y. Li, M. Yasuda and T. Takada, 1994, “Pulsed
Electroacoustic Method for Measurement of Charge
Accumulation in Solid Dielectrics”, IEEE Trans. DEI,
Vol.1, No.2 pp.188-195.
[2] K. Matsui, M. Yasuda and Y. Tanaka and T. Fukao,
2005, “Space Charge Behavior in Low-density
Polyethylene at Pre-breakdown”, IEEE Trans. DEI,
Vol.12, No.3, pp.406-415.
[3] T. Mori, T. Kato, H. Miyake, Y. Tanaka, T. Takada,
2012, “Relationship between Packet-like Space
Charge Behavior and External Current in
Polyethylene under DC High Electric Field”, CEIDP,
pp.637-640.
[4] T. Mori, H. Miyake and Y. Tanaka, 2013,
“Simultaneous Measurements of Space Charge
Distribution and External Current in Low Density
Polyethylene”, IEEJ Trans. FM, Vol. 133, No.3,
pp.105-110.
[5] T. Takada, Y. Tanaka and N. Adachi,
1998, ”Comparison Between the PEA Method and
the PWP Method for Space Charge Measurement in
Solid Dielectrics”, IEEE Trans. DEI, Vol.5, pp.944-
951.
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F2.02 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.02

Study of XLPE dielectric properties for HVDC cables during combined

thermal and electrical ageing test

Aurélien HASCOAT, Jérôme CASTELLON, Serge AGNEL; IES, Université Montpellier 2, France,
aurelien.hascoat@ies.univ-montp2.fr, jerome.castellon@ies.univ-montp2.fr, serge.agnel@ies.univ-montp2.fr
Wilfried FRELIN, Philippe EGROT; EDF R&D, Les Renardières, Ecuelles, France,
wilfried.frelin@edf.fr, philippe.egrot@edf.fr
Soraya AMMI, Pierre HONDAA; RTE, Paris La Défense, France,
soraya.ammi@rte-france.com, pierre.hondaa@rte-france.com
Dominique LE ROUX, Johan ANDERSSON, Virginie ERIKSSON; BOREALIS, Stenungsund, Sweden,
dominique.leroux@borealisgroup.com, carljohan.andersson@borealisgroup.com, virginie.eriksson@borealisgroup.com

ABSTRACT space charge accumulation. The space charge

This work investigates the evolution of dielectric
properties of XLPE, used as insulation in HVDC cables,
submitted to electrical and thermal ageing test. The aim is
to improve the knowledge about the XLPE ageing under
DC conditions.
This study is carried out on Rogowski samples, made of
XLPE insulation with semi conductive electrodes, aged at
70, 80 and 90°C under an electrical field of 30 and 60
kV/mm.
Dielectric loss factor, electrical resistivity and space
charge accumulation have been measured in order to
detect a possible evolution of the dielectric properties
related to the combined thermal and electrical ageing test.
KEYWORDS
HVDC, cables, XLPE, ageing test, electrical resistivity,
dielectric loss factor, space charge
accumulation is investigated in depth in order to consider
the true electric field to which the insulation is submitted.
SAMPLE PREPARATION
Rogowski samples (Fig. 1) have been made using a
conventional HVDC XLPE material qualified for voltage up
to 320 kV. The insulation material is first compression
moulded at 120°C in order to form the Rogowski shape.
Thereafter, thin semi-conductive plaques are added on
both side of the insulation shape and all layers are cross-
linked together at 180°C. Finally, samples are conditioned
during 72 hours at 70°C.
The dimensions of the active area are 50 mm in diameter
with insulation thickness of 0.5 mm or 1 mm.

INTRODUCTION
The development of High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
cables have to be designed according to specific criteria
and with materials with appropriate properties. The
Fig. 1: XLPE sample with semi-conductive electrodes.
operational experience of extruded HVDC cables was
started some 15 years ago and is steadily growing. The
electrical properties of the cross-linked polyethylene AGEING TEST SET-UP
(XLPE) have been widely studied under AC stress,
The ageing test of the samples was performed in an oven
however the behaviour of these materials under high DC
at 70, 80 and 90°C under normal atmospheric conditions
stress is less known and needs thorough investigation.
and submitted to the following respective electric field
To be requested by utilities and TSO, XLPE insulation stress: 30 and 60 kV/mm, during 14 months (442 days).
operates under HVDC should be better known in terms of For each temperature, an oven has been used to test 20
behaviour, lifetime and performances. A better knowledge samples (10 having 0.5 mm insulation thickness and 10
of HVDC insulation could allow manufacturers, utilities having 1 mm insulation thickness – see Fig. 2). A high
and TSO to propose more relevant qualification process voltage DC power supply was connected to each oven in
and to ensure that cable systems will remain safe and order to apply 30 kV to the samples. Consequently, 0.5
operational during their whole life duration. It is well and 1 mm samples have been submitted respectively to
known that, during DC conditions, the electric field 60 and 30 kV/mm.
distribution is highly dependent on operating conditions
(thermal gradient and electric field) and can be affected by
electric charges trapped in the insulation [1-2].
In order to identify ageing processes, XLPE samples have
been subjected to electrical and thermal ageing test. This
work investigates the evolution of the electrical state of
the XLPE during this ageing test. Thus, different
parameters have been monitored to identify an evolution
of the dielectric properties related to possible ageing Fig. 2: Ageing test set-up with 0.5 mm samples (up)
processes: electrical resistivity, dielectric loss factor and and 1 mm samples (down).

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F2.02 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.02

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Dielectric spectroscopy

In order to follow the evolution of the material dielectric
properties, the samples have been periodically removed
from the ageing test set-up. To preserve the electrical
state of the samples and to avoid any thermally stimulated
discharge phenomena, the voltage has been turned off
after the oven temperature decreases to room
temperature. After measurements, samples are put back
in ovens then the ageing test is resumed. By this way, the
same sample is used throughout the whole duration of the
ageing test.
The characterization techniques and measurement
conditions used in the study are briefly described
hereafter.
Dielectric spectroscopy (DS)
Dielectric relaxation phenomena were investigated at
-1 5
70°C, for a frequency range from 10 Hz to 10 Hz, using
an Impedance/Gain-Phase analyser with a dielectric
Fig. 3 gives an example of the evolution of the
capacitance measured as a function of ageing time on a
sample submitted to 30 kV/mm and 90°C. It can be seen
that, regardless of the frequency, the capacitance value
does not evolve significantly during the 442 days of
ageing test.
Tan δ measurements presented in Fig. 4 don’t show any
significant variation with ageing time. The analysis of tan δ
measurements regarding two specific frequencies (0.1 Hz,
and 10 kHz) gives the same conclusion. (Fig. 5)
It is also important to note that for the five other ageing
test conditions, no significant variation of the capacitance
and tan δ have been observed.
29 days
5.62E-11 64 days
106 days
5.52E-11

Capacitance (F)
134 days
interface. A 2 V sinusoidal voltage was applied and, for 168 days
each point, the reported value is presented as the 5.42E-11 204 days
average value of 4 consecutive measurements. 259 days
5.32E-11
301 days
This technique allows the measurement of the electrical
344 days
capacitance and the dielectric loss factor (tan δ) of an 5.22E-11
386 days
insulating material as a function of frequency [3-4]. 442 days
5.12E-11
Electrical resistivity 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
Frequency (Hz)
The electrical volume resistivity is generally obtained by Fig. 3: Electrical capacitance measured at 70°C for
applying a DC voltage U to an insulating sample, for a XLPE sample aged under 30 kV/mm at 90°C in semi
sufficient time (100 minutes here) to reach a quasi-steady log scale.
state current I [5]. The electrical resistivity ρ has been
determined using equation [1]. 1.E+00
29 days
2 64 days
1.E-01
d
π 
106 days
U 2 [1] 1.E-02 134 days
ρ= 168 days
Tan δ

I e 1.E-03 204 days

259 days
with d the diameter (mm) and e the thickness (mm) of the 1.E-04
301 days
active area’s sample. 344 days
1.E-05
386 days
Measurements have been performed at 70°C under low
1.E-06 442 days
and high DC electric field (2 and 30 kV/mm).
1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
Space charge and electric field Frequency (Hz)

The space charge accumulation phenomena have been Fig. 4: Tan δ measured at 70°C for XLPE sample
investigated by using a non-destructive technique, the aged under 30 kV/mm at 90°C in log scale.
thermal step method (TSM) [6]. This technique allows 1.E+00
measurements of the internal electric field due to the
presence of space charge within the material in short
circuit condition. 1.E-01 0.1 Hz 70°C

Space charge measurements have been performed on

Tan δ

five samples aged under the same conditions in order to 1.E-02

take into account the experimental variations (due to
production and experimental set-up). 1.E-03 10 kHz 70°C

AGEING STUDY: RESULTS & DISCUSSION

1.E-04
The samples conditioned under 30 kV/mm and 90°C have 0 100 200 300 400 500
been analysed in details. Consequently, it has been Ageing duration (day)
chosen to present the results obtained with this set of
Fig. 5: Tan δ vs ageing duration
samples.
under 30 kV/mm at 90°C and different frequencies in
semi log scale.

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F2.02 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.02

Electrical resistivity To investigate space charge nature, the TSM signals have
been mathematically treated in order to analyse the
The evolution of the electrical resistivity has been evolution of the space charge density and determine the
investigated. The resistivity value does not change electric field due to space charge (equation [2]).
significantly during the ageing test. The value determined
x0 +d
after 442 days is same as the one measured at the ∂∆T(x, t)
13
beginning of the ageing test: about 3.10 Ohm.m under I(t) = −αC ∫ E(x) dx [2]
30 kV/mm at 90ºC. x0 ∂t

This trend is also valid for the electrical resistivity The measured current I(t) is a function of the electric field
measurements performed on specimen aged at other due to space charge E(x). Furthermore, the charge
temperature and electrical field. density ρ(x) is obtained using the equation [3]:

dE(x)
Space charge and electric field ρ(x) = ε [3]
dx
An example of the evolution of the TSM signals is
presented in Fig. 6 during the ageing test performed The analysis of the charge density distribution (Fig. 8)
under 30 kV/mm at 90°C in short circuit condition. The reveals an inversion of the dominant charge during the
sign of the signal changes during the ageing test, and ageing test: the dominant charge at electrodes, initially
suggests a transition of the dominant charge within the controlled by homocharges, becomes heterocharges.
material. The evolution of the electric field due to space charges is
To simplify the analysis of the TSM signal evolution, Fig. 7 presented in Fig. 9 and shows similar change in dominant
shows the maximum values (positive and negative values) phenomenon during the ageing test. It is important to note
of the currents obtained after different ageing time. This that, in service conditions (under applied electric field), the
graph indicates a change in sign of the current during electric field due to space charges should be added to the
ageing test. Moreover, it can be observed that the current applied electric field.
increases with ageing time and proves that the quantity of In order to quantify and localize the electric field
charge increases. Nevertheless, this representation gives enhancement across the samples, the electric field
no information about the space charge nature and the presented in Fig. 9 has been added to the applied field
electric field evolution. and is shown in Fig. 10.
100
29 days 2
29 days
50 64 days 64 days
0 106 days 106 days
Charge density (C/m3)

1
TSM current (pA)

134 days 134 days

-50
168 days 168 days
-100
204 days 0 204 days
-150 259 days 259 days
-200 301 days 301 days
-1 344 days
344 days
-250
386 days 386 days
-300 442 days Cathode Anode 442 days
-2
0 5 10 15
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (s)
Thickness (mm)
Fig. 6: Evolution of raw TSM signals for XLPE sample Fig. 8: Evolution of the charge density for XLPE
aged under 30 kV/mm at 90°C. sample aged under 30 kV/mm at 90°C.
400 30
Min and max of TSM current (pA)

29 days
300
Residual electric field (kV/mm)

64 days
20
200 106 days
10 134 days
100
168 days
0 0 204 days
259 days
-100
-10 301 days
-200 344 days
-20
-300 386 days
Cathode Anode
29

64

106

134

168

204

259

301

344

386

442

442 days
-30
Ageing duration (day) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Thickness (mm)
Fig. 7: Evolution of the minimum and maximum Fig. 9: Evolution of the residual electric field for XLPE
values of raw TSM signals for XLPE sample aged sample aged under 30 kV/mm at 90°C.
under 30 kV/mm at 90°C.

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F2.02 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.02

0
29 days 1.8

Field Enhancement Factor (FEF)

-10 64 days
Real electric field (kV/mm)

106 days 1.6

-20 134 days
168 days
-30 204 days 1.4 90°C
259 days
-40 301 days 1.2
344 days
-50
386 days
1.0
Cathode Anode 442 days
-60 0 100 200 300 400 500
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Ageing duration (day)
Thickness (mm)

Fig. 10: Evolution of the real electric field for XLPE
sample aged under 30 kV/mm at 90°C.
It is noticed that, at the beginning of the ageing test, the
maximum of the residual electric field is always located in
the bulk of the sample. Thus, during the ageing test,
heterocharges close to the electrodes (Fig. 10) tend to
decrease the energy barrier at the contact and favour a
charge injection phenomenon. This results in a shift of the
location of the field enhancement from the centre to the
insulation-semiconductive interface. Consequently,
whatever the location of the field enhancement, the
sample is locally overstressed (in the bulk in presence of
homocharge and near the electrode interfaces when
heterocharge is dominant).
In the following, the Field Enhancement Factor (FEF),
defined as the ratio of the real maximum electric field to
the applied electric field, is considered. The evolution of
the FEF during the ageing test performed under 30
kV/mm at 90°C is presented in Fig. 11.
By using this representation, it can be observed that the
total electric field withstood by the sample tends to
increase after 204 days of ageing test and reaches 1.75
times the applied electric field after 442 days. Up to 204
days, the local maximum enhancement is localized in the
Fig. 11: Evolution of the field enhancement factor
(FEF) under 30 kV/mm at 90°C.
Could this heterocharge increase be related to a possible
ageing of the material? It is known that heterocharge is
likely to be “dangerous” for the cable insulation [7].
Heterocharge near an electrode leads to an electric field
enhancement near this electrode. Thus, this phenomenon
is more critical for the insulating material than a field
enhancement in the centre of the sample.
A correlation between the negative part of raw TSM
current, the residual electric field and the heterocharges
was investigated. An increase of electric field (Fig. 9) is
observed almost simultaneously with the increase of
heterocharges at the electrodes (Fig. 8) and with the
increase of negative component of raw TSM current (Fig.
7). Consequently, the negative current observed after the
decrease of the positive part of the raw TSM current (after
168 days on Fig. 7 and Fig. 8) can thus be related to the
establishment of a dominant heterocharge phenomenon.
This assumption is used to investigate the effect of the
applied electric field on the evolution of maxima and
minima TSM currents.
4
Qtotal
Charge (µC)

bulk whereas the reinforcement is located near the 2

interface after 204 days. The local increase of the electric 0
field will overloads XLPE and may generate an ageing -2
process, when the material is submitted to these kinds of 4 Q+
Charge (µC)

constraints: 30 kV/mm at 90°C. 2

0
Fig. 12 gives the trapped charges (Q+, Q- and Qtotal) -2
calculated from the space charge distributions shown in 4
Fig. 8. Qtotal corresponds to the sum of the absolute value Q-
Charge (µC)

2
of Q+ and the absolute value of Q-. Thus, the evolution of
0
the trapped charge shows an increase of the positive and
the negative electric charge after 204 days of ageing test. -2
29

64

106

134

168

204

259

301

344

386

442

While the space charge distribution (Fig. 8) shows the

presence of homocharge or heterocharge near the Ageing duration (day)
electrodes, the trapped charge (Fig. 12) does not provide
Fig. 12: Evolution of total, positive and negative
information on the charge nature (homocharge or
trapped charges for sample aged under 30 kV/mm at
heterocharge). Therefore, the analysis on heterocharge
90°C
shown in Fig. 8, reveals an increase after 204 days of
ageing test. The amount of trapped charges observed at
the beginning of the ageing corresponds to homocharge,
as shown in Fig. 8.

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F2.02 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.02

400 CONCLUSIONS
Min and max of TSM current (pA)

300
The aim of the present work was to follow possible
200 dielectric changes during an ageing test of XLPE
100
insulation materials for HVDC cables. Different dielectric
properties have been considered to investigate the impact
0 of a combined electrical and thermal stress: capacitance,
-100 loss factor, electrical resistivity and space charge.
-200 The evolution of these properties has been monitored
-300
during a period of 442 days on Rogowski type of samples
submitted to different ageing conditions (3 temperatures
106

134

168

204

259

301

344

386

442
22

29

64

Ageing duration (day)

70, 80 and 90°C and 2 applied electric fields 30 and 60
kV/mm).
Fig. 13: Evolution of the maximum values of raw TSM This study has highlighted that:
signals for XLPE sample aged under 60 kV/mm at
90°C. - The capacitance, the dielectric loss factor and the
electrical resistivity, which is one of the key electrical
At 60 kV/mm and 90°C, if the previous analysis between properties for HVDC insulation material, do not present
negative TSM current and heterocharge is confirmed, a any significant evolution regardless of the ageing
heterocharge increasing phenomenon seems to be in conditions.
progress (Fig. 13). At 60 kV/mm, this phenomenon
appears delayed in time and is less pronounced compare - The here reported space charge density measured
to 30 kV/mm (after about 386 days for 60 kV/mm, instead during the ageing at 90°C under 30 kV/mm and 60 kV/mm
of 134 days for 30 kV/mm). presents an evolution with ageing test duration, albeit less
significant at 60kV/mm than at 30 kV/mm. Based on the
If the increase of heterocharge is considered to be related space charge and electric field due to space charge
to a possible ageing, this observation could imply an distribution, an increase of the field enhancement factor
earlier ageing under 30 kV/mm and 90°C compared to the (FEF) can be observed. It seems that the presumed
one under 60 kV/mm and 90°C. This point will be ageing could be related to an increase in the
discussed in the following by considering a “ratio” heterocharge near the electrodes.
between conduction and injection phenomena.
To further understand observations made, chemical and
OVERALL DISCUSSION physical analyses on aged samples would need to be
performed. The dielectric DC breakdown and the
The dielectric spectroscopy has not shown any significant
structural/thermal properties of XLPE will be investigated
evolution of the electrical capacitance and tan δ in XLPE,
after ageing test.
whatever the frequency and the ageing conditions.
Furthermore, no significant variation has been observed To assess if the space charge evolution could be
on electrical resistivity measurements. This could indicate considered or not as a possible ageing marker, the ageing
stable long-term behaviour of volume resistivity which is tests will continue for an additional 6 to 12 months.
important to maintain good insulation properties.
REFERENCES
The presence of heterocharge or homocharge could
[1] C.K. Eoll, 1975, “Theory of stress distribution in
depend on the dominant phenomenon between charge insulation of high voltage DC cables”, IEEE TDEI, Vol
injection and charge conduction [8]. If injection is higher EI-10 1, 27-36
than conduction, the electrodes yield more charges than [2] B. Aladenize, 1997, “On the intrinsic space charge in
the dielectric can handle. It results in the presence of a power cable”, Journal of Electrostatics, vol.39, 235-
homocharge near electrodes. 251
On the contrary, if the conduction phenomenon is [3] A. Medjdoub, 2008, “Dielectric spectroscopy analysis
behaviour of low density polyethylene”, Conference
dominant compared to injection phenomenon, the on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena,
electrode interface cannot convey the charges as fast as 517-520
the dielectric can carry them. It results in the presence of [4] T. Liu, 2009, “Dielectric spectroscopy measurements
heterocharge near electrodes. on very low loss cross-linked polyethylene power
cables”, Journal of Physics: Conference series 183,
The space charge monitoring shows an increase of 1-6
heterocharge in the samples aged at 30 kV/mm and 90°C.
[5] A. Hascoat, 2014, “Study and analysis of conduction
This increase of heterocharges could mean that mechanisms and space charge accumulation
conduction phenomenon dominates over the injection one phenomena under high applied DC electric field in
during ageing. XLPE for HVDC cable application”, Conference on
Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, 530-
The link between the increase of heterocharges and the 533
possible ageing could be assumed if the minimum value [6] A. Toureille; 1999, “The thermal step technique: an
of the TSM currents measured during the ageing at 60 advanced method for studying the properties and
kV/mm under 90°C continues to increase after 442 days testing the quality of polymers”, Polymer international,
of ageing test. Further measurements will be performed in vol 46, 81-92
order to confirm this possible ageing (DC breakdown test,
structural evolution of the material…).

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F2.02 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.02

[7] S. Le Roy, 2007, “Relative importance of trapping

and extraction in the simulation of space charge
distribution in polymeric insulators under DC
potentials”, International Conference on Solid
Dielectrics, 494-497
[8] I. A. Tsekmes”, 2012, “Electrical characterization of
polymeric DC mini-cables by means of space charge
& conduction current measurements”, Thesis

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F2.03 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Influencing factors on field inversion in HVDC cables
Karsten FUCHS, Frank BERGER; Technische Universität Ilmenau, Germany, karsten.fuchs@tu-ilmenau.de,
frank.berger@tu-ilmenau.de
Andreas FISCHER, Dietmar DRUMMER; Institute of Polymer Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-
Nürnberg, Germany, fischer@lkt.uni-erlangen.de, drummer@lkt.uni-erlangen.de
ABSTRACT
In HVDC cables an electric flow field is reached in steady
state, which depends on the joule heating effect of the
inner conductor and the resulting temperature-dependent
electrical conductivity of the insulation material. As a
result, the effect of field inversion is caused by a reversal
and an enhancement of the electrical field strength in the
insulation material from the inner to the outer conductor
and limits the maximum loads (currents) of HVDC cables.
Therefore, the focus lies on influencing factors to minimize
the field enhancement in HVDC cables and to increase
the inner conductor current. For such research, electric
field strength distributions are calculated with numerical
simulations for XLPE-HVDC cables in dependence on
space charge density, inner conductor current and
thermal conductivity.
KEYWORDS
Extruded HVDC Cables, Cable Insulation, DC Electric
Field Inversion, Temperature- and Field-Dependent
Phenomena, Thermally Conductive Polymers
INTRODUCTION
The integration of renewable energy and thereby the
required transmission of more and more energy over long
distances have caused an increase in transmission
capacity in Europe. As such focus must also be placed on
High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) systems. [1]
HVDC systems are established either by thyristor-based
line commutated converter technology (LCC) or insulated-
gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) technology (VSC). VSC
technology is preferred for installation of a DC network in
Germany, because extruded cables of cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE) can also be used as a possible
transmission medium [1]. However, a nonlinear, radial,
electrical conductivity distribution and the accumulation of
space charges in the insulation are disadvantageous.
These effects occur during operation in accordance with
the electric field strength and the thermal energy because
of the nominal voltage and nominal current of the inner
conductor.
With the changed electrical conductivity and space
charges, both effects lead to a reversal and an increase of
the electric field strength maximum (field inversion) and a
field reduction near the electrodes [2]. Therefore, the
maximum transmitted power of extruded HVDC cable
amounts to 1 GW with a nominal voltage of 320 kV and
an inner conductor current of about 1.5 kA (Inelfe
interconnection [3]).
To improve HVDC cables´ transmission power, either
nominal voltage or current can be raised to reach a
comparable current as in overhead lines (about 2 kA for
VSC technology). For instance, ABB represents a new
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.03
525 kV HVDC XLPE cable system [4]. Therefore, XLPE
had to develop for complying with lower electrical
conductivity and, consequently, lower space charge
accumulation at a voltage higher than 320 kV.
In contrast, this paper focuses on evaluating fundamental
research aimed at increasing an inner conductor current
with the same voltage (320 kV), without exceeding the
permissible inner conductor temperature of 70 °C. Firstly,
a fundamental understanding of the physics behind this
research is pursued. Furthermore, a calculation of the
electrical field strength distribution in common XLPE
HVDC cables is presented to evaluate the behaviour of
these cables during operation (at 320 kV and 1.5 kA [3]).
On this basis, the impacts of a higher thermal conductivity
(and nearly unmodified electrical conductivity) and space
charge density distributions on the electric field strength
are observed fundamentally by means of numerical
simulations. Furthermore, the means by which to
accomplish higher thermal conductivity with nearly
unmodified electrical conductivity in thermally conductive
polymers comprises the subsequent section of this
research. For this, the requirements and selection of
electrical isolating filler particles are discussed. In
addition, we elucidate the fundamental effect of the filler
particles on heat dissipating with higher thermal
conductivities. The advantage of this approach is the
reduction of the electric field strength by lower
temperature gradients in the insulation material. As a
consequence, we evaluate whether the transmitted power
of HVDC cables can be significantly improved through this
research.
PHYSICS BEHIND THIS RESEARCH
The stress of a single-core extruded XLPE-HVDC cable
with a nominal voltage U0 and nominal inner conductor
current I0 affects the electric field strength E(r) and the
temperature distribution ϑ(r) (see Figure 1).
Nominal current I0
Joule effect loses
Temperature distribution (r)
U0
- Nonlinear distribution of electrical
I0 conductivity
∙ exp 0,1 ∙ ∙ exp 0,1 ∙
κ = f(κ0, (r), Ε(r))
- Transient space charge density
distribution (figure of [5])
! ↑
Nominal voltage U0 "#
Electric field strength
↙ t/s
∙ ↑ ↑ ⟶
ri (anode) ro (cathode)
Figure 1: Stress of extruded HVDC cables in operation
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F2.03 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.03

The temperature distribution ϑ(r) is caused by joule effect The temperature-dependent parameters (ri, r0, λ, ε, den-
losses, which generate heat flux %&' by heat conduction sity ρ etc.) of Table 4 are assumed to be constant.
through isolation from the inner to the outer conductor Furthermore, the numerical field calculation is steady
(environment) depending on the thermal conductivity λ of state for different stresses (inner conductor currents): I =
the insulation material. In the case of single-core XLPE- 400 A, 800 A, 1200 A and 1500 A. Air is an ambient medium
HVDC cables, air-filled spaces between the earth and with temperature of ϑa = 20 °C.
core wires can be neglected in comparison to three or
more conductor cables. Furthermore, core wires are also Formulae and Calculations
negligible for calculations, because they are viewed as
The simulation of the resulting electric field strength Eres is
thermal short circuits. Hence, the heat transfer of single-
core XLPE-HVDC cables is mostly influenced by the completed in Figure 2.
thermal conductivity λ of the insulation material.
;
If the ambient temperature ϑa is lower than the tem- 89 : ∙ = < : ,8 :
9 < : ,8 :
perature of the inner conductor ϑi ≤ 70 °C, irregular heating
with a temperature gradient ∇T in the insulation is caused: 8:>? :
%&' )λ ∙ ∇T. [1] @ :
8@ : )A:BCD; ∆D )
By supplying thermal and electrical energy, charge car- G

riers (electrons, positive ions and holes) are generated in

the entire insulating material. They affect irregular con- Figure 2: Calculation of the electric field strength Eres(r)
duction processes and space charge accumulation [5], [6]. The space charge density distribution ρ(r) is expressed in
Irregular conduction processes form a nonlinear Formula 2 with an assumed amplitude of ρ0 = 1 C/m³ [5]
distribution of the electrical conductivity [7]: and powers n = 1, 5, 55 and 555 (see Figure 3). We
, ∙ exp , ∙ ∙ exp - ∙
extrapolate that such measured curves can be more
. [2]
readily modelled by the function in Formula 2 with a high,
(κ0 – specific electrical conductivity, α – temperature odd-numbered value (n ≈ 555).
coefficient, β – field strength coefficient)
Free charges can also be stored in traps and generate
space charges. Such distributions are measured with
different methods (e.g. Pulsed Electro-Acoustic Method,
Thermal Step Method etc.), if the electrical field strength is
E ≥ 10 kV/mm [6]. These distributions (see Figure 1) can
be easily modelled in an analytical function [2] as
4
∙ ./01 23 ∙ 5 67. [3]
4

According to stress and insulating materials, the power n

must be a specific, odd-numbered value (see Figure 3). Figure 3: Modelled space charge distributions ρ(r,n)

FIELD CALCULATIONS Results

Figure 4 shows the temperature distributions ϑ(r), which
Assumptions were calculated with the help of Fourier’s Law of Heat
The simulation of an electric field strength of a single-core Conduction, in relation to the current I of the inner
XLPE-HVDC cable (U0 = 320 kV and I0 = 1.5 kA) is accom- conductor.
plished with an FEM model in COMSOL Multiphysics and
the deposited material parameters (relative permittivity,
density). The other parameters are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Parameters for FEM model

Parameter Symbol Value

Radius of inner conductor ri 1.3 cm

Radius of outer conductor r0 3.5 cm

Specific electrical conductivity κ0 10-17 S/m

Specific thermal conductivity
Temperature coefficient
Field strength coefficient
λ 0.38 W/mK
α 0.1 1/K
β 0.08 mm/kV
Figure 4: Temperature distribution ϑ(r) in relation to I
With the corresponding temperature distribution from
Figure 4 and the electrical conductivity calculated
according to Formula 2, the field component Eκ(r) can be
determined in relation to the current I (see Figure 5).

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F2.03 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Such temperature-dependent distributions of Eκ(r) are
validated in bushings by measurements [8].
Figure 5: Field component Eκ(r) in relation to I
The resulting field strength Eres(r) is presented in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Resulting field Eres(r) in relation to I
Figure 6 shows how the electric field strength near the
electrodes is minimized due to the space charges.
Furthermore, we assume that the field maximum is near
the inner conductor in no-load operation (I = 0), while the
maximum is near the outer conductor at maximum load
(I = 1500 A). As such, the field maximum is approximately
a field enhancement factor of FEF = 1.2 higher than in no-
load operation. This enhancement is explained by the field
components Eκ(r) and Eρ(r). The numerical calculations in
the following sections show how these both components
can be fundamentally influenced.
Influencing factors on the electric field
strength
Field component Eκ(r): This field component is
influenced by the heat flux H&I' and thereby the thermal and
electrical conductivity. To manipulate this field component,
two possible approaches are generally recognized:
• Manipulation of electrical conductivity κ0
• Increasing the thermal conductivity λ with a nearly
unmodified electrical conductivity κ0 [9].
Manipulating the electrical conductivity is accomplished
by:
• Increasing insulation material´s chemical purity
• Adding filler materials.
Increasing the thermal conductivity is accomplished by
adding electrically isolating filler materials (e.g. boron
nitride BN) (see chapter: Investigation on Thermally
Conductive Polymers) [9].
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.03
For the subsequent portion of our research, we
concentrate on manipulated insulation materials with
technically feasible thermal conductivities λ in the range of
0.38 W/mK to 1.4 W/mK (in z-direction) with a nearly
unmodified electrical conductivity κ0.
By means of the following calculations, we analyse to
what extent the electric field strength Eκ(r) can be
substantially influenced by higher thermal conductivities λ.
A voltage of U = 320 kV, an inner conductor current of
I = 1500 A and an electrical conductivity of κ0 = 10-17 S/m
is assumed in comparison to the calculations above.
A higher thermal conductivity λ causes a smaller
temperature gradient ∇T and a lower inner conductor
temperature in accordance with Formula 1 (see Figure 7).
However, the temperature reduction achieved in the inner
conductor is highly dependent on the radius r of the
insulation material and increases with higher r.
Figure 7: Temperature distr. ϑ(r) in rel. to λ (I = 1500 A)
Figure 7 shows significant reductions of the inner
conductor temperature with increasing thermal
conductivities λ. Results reveal that a thermal conductivity
of λ = 0.7 W/mK reduces the inner conductor temperature
by about 14 °C. Furthermore, a reduction of about 22 °C
occurs when λ = 1.4 W/mK in comparison to XLPE with
λ = 0.38 W/mK.
As a result, the (calculated) electrical conductivity κ(r)
decreases as well (see Figure 8) because of lower
temperatures in the insulation material.
Figure 8: Electrical conductivity κ in rel. to λ (I = 1500 A)
Smaller temperature increases affect lower gradients of
electrical conductivity and electrical field strength Eκ(r)
(see Figure 9). In the case of λ = 1.4 W/mK, the effects of
field inversion and field enhancement do not occur.
As a consequence, the inner conductor current I can be
improved for higher λ to reach the maximum allowable
inner conductor temperature of 70 °C.
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F2.03 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Figure 9: Field component Eκ(r) in rel. to λ (I = 1500 A)
Table 2 shows a significantly (about 25 %) higher
maximum inner conductor current I in case of λ =
1.4 W/mK.
Table 2: Maximum inner conductor current I in rel. to λ
J KL/NOP
0.38 0.7 1 1.4
Q KRP 1500 1700 1800 1900
Based on these results, Figure 10 illustrates the
calculated field components Eκ(r) in relation to λ and the
corresponding maximum inner conductor current I.
Figure 10: Field component Eκ(r) in relation to λ and Imax
These results indicate that higher thermal conductivi-
ties λ affect lower field strengths Eκ(r) despite a constant
inner conductor temperature of 70 °C. While the effect of
field inversion nevertheless remains, field enhancement is
minimized. In the case of λ = 1.4 W/mK, the field
maximum is similar to no-load operation (synonymous
with a field enhancement factor FEF = 1).
Field component Eρ(r): This field component is
influenced by the space charge density distribution ρ(r),
whose amplitude ρ0 and specific distribution is dependent
on:
• The semiconductor material of conductor and
insulation screen
• XLPE´s component parts: cross-linking residues,
ageing inhibitions and chain transfer agents etc. [10].
For the following, the influences of magnitude ρ0 and a
(simplified) distribution of the space charge density (by
variation of power n) are analysed with Formula 3 and an
assumed voltage of U = 320 kV.
For that purpose, Figure 11 shows the calculated field
strength Eρ(r) in relation to powers n = 1, 5, 55 and 555 of
the space charge density distribution ρ(r) and an
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.03
assumed magnitude of ρ0 = 1 C/m³.
Figure 11: Field component Eρ(r) in rel. to n (ρ0 = 1 C/m³)
Results reveal that lower powers (n ≲ 55) affect higher
positive field strengths in the centre and higher negative
field strengths at the surface areas of the insulation
material. The affected maximum field strengths exceed
the breakdown field strength E ≈ 40 kV/mm of XLPE
approximately at a factor ≤ 5, if the power is less than n ≈
55.
In contrast, the influence of the space charge magnitude
ρ0 (for power n = 55 and n = 555) on the electric field
strength is represented in Figures 12 and 13.
Figure 12: Field component Eρ(r) in rel. to ρ0 for n = 55
Figure 13: Field component Eρ in relation to ρ0 for n = 555
Both figures show a significant influence on the electric
field strength near the inner and outer conductor for space
charge magnitudes ρ0 ≥ 1 C/m³. Furthermore, the field
reduction near the conductors increases for lower powers
n.
We conclude that the space charge magnitude ρ0 has less
influence on the electric field strength than the dimension
(power n) of the space charge distribution. Therefore,
insulation materials with a minimal tendency to
accumulate space charges in a small range at the
insulation surface are preferred for HVDC cable
applications.
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F2.03 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
INVESTIGATIONS ON THERMALLY
CONDUCTIVE POLYMERS
Requirements and selection of fillers
Thermally conductive polymers are currently pursued for
many electrical and electronic applications due to their
immense potential for an optimized functional integration.
Therefore, primarily engineering or high-performance
plastics are functionalized by fillers. [11] These
compounds can be shaped in three dimensions by
injection-molding or extrusion processes. To perfectly
form a compound, an optimal setting between the
competing requirements of mechanical properties,
electrical insulation and thermal conductivity must first be
found. While the mechanical properties (e. g. toughness
and strength) at higher filler degrees deteriorate,
increasing filler contents are required to achieve higher
thermal conductivities. Electrically conductive fillers, such
as carbon black, graphite, or metal, thereby cause
significantly higher thermal conductivities than electrically
insulating ceramics, such as hexagonal boron nitride (h-
BN) or aluminum oxide. [12] Table 3 provides a general
overview of various material groups with regard to their
thermal conductivities λ and electrical conductivities κ.
Table 3: Thermal and electrical conductivities of different
materials
Material J KL/NOP 9 KV/NP
Copper
≈ 400 58 ∙ 106
Aluminium ≈ 200 37 ∙ 106
Graphite ≤ 200 3 ∙ 106
Silicon carbide ≈ 150 50
Boron nitride ≤ 240 10-13
-12
Aluminium oxide 20 – 40 10
A maximum compound conductivity of approximately
20 W/mK can be achieved by either electrically conductive
fillers or electrically insulating fillers; however, it is limited
to around 5 W/mK. While the electrical conductivity
increases abruptly when exceeding the so-called
percolation threshold, the thermal conductivity increases
approximately in proportion to the degree of filling. In
addition to filler type, content, geometry and size, the
production process plays a decisive role. Investigations
into injection molded plates of polyamide, filled with
anisometric fillers (e. g. fibers, platelets) showed that
higher thermal conductivities can be achieved compared
to isometric fillers (e. g. spheres). In this case, the thermal
conductivity has directionality, caused by an orientation of
the filler particles during processing. This leads to higher
values in the thermal conductivity in-plane and
perpendicular and lower values through-plane. The
integral thermal conductivity yields the average value and
lies typically between in-plane and through-plane. [12]
Cable insulation materials are equipped with mineral fillers
(e. g. magnesium oxide, aluminium trihydrate, talc) in
order to engineer flammability and dielectric breakdown
strength. One potentially promising approach is the
substitution of these minerals with thermally conductive
electrically insulating fillers (e. g. boron nitride or
aluminium oxide) to improve the heat dissipation of HVDC
cable insulation materials. For HV applications, boron
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.03
nitride has reasonable properties, such as breakdown
strength of 53 kV/mm and relative permittivity of about
4.0, which is close to that of many polymer matrices.
Furthermore, BN has relatively high electrical resistivity of
1015 Ωcm.
Temperature measurements of heat transfer
An improved heat dissipation with higher thermal
conductivities is shown by measuring the temperature on
a current-carrying conductor arrangement with thermally
conductive polymers.
For that purpose, plates of polyamide 6.6 (PA 6.6) with
filling degrees of 20, 30 and 40 Vol.-% were produced via
injection-moulding with a size of 50 mm x 50 mm and a
thickness of 3 mm. The basic polymer (polyamide or
cross-linked polyethylene) is not essential for the requisite
measurements, because the electrical behaviour is not
considered. Figure 14 contains the integral thermal
conductivities of these samples.
The thermal conductivity was determined on dry samples
by a Hot-Disk-Device of “C3 Prozess- und Analysen-
technik GmbH” at 23 °C. The conductor arrangement was
comprised of a copper band and high current contacts,
which carried a direct current of 189 A. Furthermore, the
samples of PA 6.6 + 30 Vol.-% BN were fitted at the copper
band.
3,5
PA 6.6 (23 °C, dry)
Hot-Disk-Device
3,0
Thermal conductivity λ [W/mK]
Plate 50 mm x 50 mm x 3 mm
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5
0,0
0 20 30 40
Filler content φ [Vol.-%]
Figure 14: Thermal conductivities of PA 6.6 compounds
Figure 15 shows the conductor arrangement of a copper
band and contacts (left) and a fitted sample (right).
temperature sensor
Figure 15: Arrangement for temperature measurements
The temperature of the current-carrying copper band was
measured by a sensor once thermal equilibrium had been
reached (after t ≈ 100 min). The results obtained are
listed in Table 4.
The results show a significant reduction in the copper
band temperature by fitting samples of PA 6.6 +
30 Vol.-% BN (3 mm) in comparison to neat PA 6.6. A
further influence could be attributed to increasing
thicknesses (as mentioned in chapter: Influencing Factors
on Electric Field Strength).
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F2.03 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Table 4: Measurement of copper band temperature
Sample <p /°r
Copper band without sample 67.6
PA 62.6
PA 6.6 + 30 Vol.-% BN (3 mm) 56.8
CONCLUSION
For HVDC-XLPE cables, the resulting nonlinear electrical
conductivity distribution and combined, accumulated
space charges cause a variation in the electric field
strength distribution from a Laplace to a specific Poisson
field distribution in operation. Consequently, field inversion
and field enhancement occur. Therefore, the maximum
power able to be transmitted in XLPE cables is limited in
comparison to overhead lines. To improve the transmitted
power, either the voltage or current can be raised.
Investigating the plausibility of improving the inner
conductor current to attain currents comparable to
overhead lines comprised a further cornerstone of this
research. For that purpose, fundamental numerical
analyses were conducted. Further, the account of
improved thermal conductivities is discussed and
validated by temperature measurements.
First, the electric field strength is calculated with respect
to the inner conductor current, thermal conductivity and
possible space charge density distributions by means of
numerical FEM simulations. An analytical function is
presented to model the space charge density distribution
in a simplified manner. These calculations form a
foundation from which to consider possible influencing
factors for reducing field strength enhancements in
operation.
Further, we concentrated on improvements to the thermal
conductivity (with nearly unmodified electrical
conductivity) to reduce temperature increases and the
combined electric field strength in the insulation material,
and to increase the inner conductor current. Our
calculations showed a significant reduction in the field
strength maximum and evident improvements to the
current.
As a result, this research presents one means by which to
significantly raise transmitted power. However, further
investigations should be conducted to evaluate the
behaviour of thermally conductive polymers under HVDC
stress.
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.03
REFERENCES
[1] Fuchs, Novitskiy, Berger, Westermann: “Hochspan-
nungsgleichstromübertragung – Eigenschaften des
Übertragungsmediums Freileitung“, Universitätsver-
lag Ilmenau, 2014
[2] Fuchs, Büntig, Töpfer, Berger: “Elektrische Feld-
stärkeverteilung von VPE-Kabeln unter Hochspan-
nungsgleichstrombeanspruchung“, VDE-Fachtagung
th th
“Diagnostik elektrischer Betriebsmittel“; 25 -26 Nov.
2014; Berlin
[3] Decoeur: “The undergrounded HVDC interconnection
line between France and Spain Baixas – Santa
Llogaiay”, Jicable-HVDC 2013, Perpignan, France,
th th
18 -20 Nov. 2013
[4] Gustafsson, Saltzer, Farkas, Ghorbani, Quist,
Jeroense: “The new 525 kV extruded HVDC cable
system”, ABB Grid Systems, Technical Paper, August
2014
[5] Bodega: “Space Charge Accumulation in Polymeric
High Voltage DC Cable Systems”, dissertation,
th
Milano, 15 Nov. 2006
[6] Montari, Morshius: “Space charge Phenomenology in
Polymeric Insulating Materials”, IEEE Trans.
Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 12, No. 4,
Aug. 2005, pp. 754-767
[7] Buller: “Calculation of Electrical Stresses in DC Cable
Insulation”, IEEE Summer Power Meeting, New
Orleans, La., Jul. 10-15, 1966
[8] Wirth, Reumann, Zink, Küchler, Schnitzler, Langens,
Berger: “Steady-State and Transient Electrical
Potential Distributions in HVDC Bushings Measured
th
Under Different Thermal Conditions”, 19
International Symposium on High Voltage
Engineering, Pilsen, CZ, Aug. 23-38, 2015 (accepted
paper)
[9] Tsekmes, Kochetov, Morshuis, Smit: “Thermal
conductivity of polymeric composites: A review”, IEEE
International Conference on Solid Dielectrics (ICSD),
2013
[10] Wald: “Einfluss der verschiedenen Eigenschaften von
XLPE auf die Qualität von extrudierten AC- und DC-
Kabeln“, EW-Fachtagung „Werkstatt Kabel – Kabel-
th th
und Kabelmesstechnik“, 12 -13 2014, Dresden
[11] Kruber: “Wärme besser leiten“, Kunststoffe 6, 2014
[12] Heinle et al.: “Innovative konstruktive und
fertigungstechnische Möglichkeiten zur Kühlung von
LEDs mit wärmeleitfähigen Kunststoffen“, 3rd
Symposium Connectors, Lemgo 2011, S. 174-195
6/6
F2.04 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Analysis of Technical Planning Principles for Partial Underground Cabling in Meshed
Extra-High Voltage Grids
Kishan VEERASHEKAR, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, (Germany), kishan.veerashekar@fau.de
Carsten SIEBELS, TenneT TSO GmbH, (Germany), carsten.siebels@tennet.eu
1
Piergiovanni LA SETA , TenneT TSO GmbH, (Germany), piergiovanni.laseta@gmx.de
Bernhard FUCHS, RWTH Aachen University, (Germany), fuchs@ifht.rwth-aachen.de
ABSTRACT
The presence of underground cables (UGC) as part of
extra-high voltage (EHV) transmission lines in
combination with overhead lines (OHL) can be identified
as a trend in new line projects mostly in densely
populated areas. However, different technical and
economic aspects of this solution compared to traditional
OHL have to be faced. In this paper, several exemplary
cases with different configurations of UGC and OHL, so-
called mixed lines, together with a case having only OHL
are considered both in steady-state and in transient
conditions. The key aspects with respect to dimensioning
and positioning of shunt reactors, short-circuit currents
and switching overvoltages are investigated, since they
play an important role during planning of transmission
lines with partial amount of UGC.
KEYWORDS
Underground cables, extra-high voltage, overhead lines,
mixed lines, shunt reactors, short-circuit currents,
switching overvoltages.
INTRODUCTION
Recently, Germany has decided not only to cover 35% of
the gross consumption by means of power generation
from renewables by 2020, but also to shut down all its
nuclear power plants at the latest by 2022. Therefore, the
optimisation, reinforcement and expansion of the existing
German EHV transmission grid are very crucial [1]. Major
delays in the realisation of transmission line projects are
caused due to the problems associated with the public
acceptance. The partial underground cabling is a
promising way to increase the public acceptance for the
expansion of EHV grids [2].
In the past few decades, there have been remarkable
developments in the EHV cable technologies. Since the
end of the last century, the UGC at EHV level have been
installed in the European cities like Berlin, Copenhagen,
London, Vienna etc. [3]. Currently, the share of UGC in
the German EHV grid is just less than 0.5% [4]. The
present experience with the operation of power cable
integrated in EHV grids is relatively less.
Due to the dissimilar electrical characteristics of the
classical OHL compared with UGC, integrating them into
EHV grid changes the behaviour of the transmission
system not only under steady-state but also under
transient condition. Therefore, in-depth technical
investigations are highly important when employing UGC
in the OHL dominated EHV grid.
The main purpose of this paper is to ascertain the
fundamental aspects that must be taken into
consideration during planning of transmission lines with
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.04
partial amount of UGC. Several cases with various
configurations of OHL and UGC are studied both in
stationary and transient mode.
This paper is structured as follows: In section
Methodology, the examined cases, the considered lines
and the performed investigations are described. The
results of the executed simulations are presented in
section Simulation Results. Finally, in the last section
Conclusion, the main conclusions are drawn.
METHODOLOGY
A complete overview of the investigated cases
corresponding to the type of configuration along with the
length of each section is presented in Tab. 1. Due to the
fact that the distance between the German extra-high
voltage substations are not relatively too long, each case
is characterised by a 120 km long double-circuit line
between two generic substations (SS-1 and SS-2), which
are connected to two extended grids. Fig. 1 shows the
graphical representation of Case-1, where the extended
grids are represented by equivalent grids. While case-0
comprises pure OHL, the remaining three cases have
different configurations of OHL as well as UGC. These
lines with OHL and UGC are called as mixed lines, where
the total length of OHL and UGC amounts to 105 km and
15 km, respectively. In contrast to OHL, each UGC’s
circuit is made up of two parallel systems because of
UGC’s lower ampacity compared to that of OHL.
Case Configuration Length in km
0 OHL 120
1 UGC – OHL – UGC 7.5 – 105 – 7.5
2 OHL – UGC – OHL 50 – 15 – 55
UGC – OHL – UGC – OHL 3 – 30 – 5 – 50
3
– UGC – OHL – UGC – 2 – 25 – 5
Tab. 1: Overview of the studied cases
Fig. 1: Configuration of UGC and OHL in case-1
Tab. 2 lists the different electrical characteristics of the
considered OHL and UGC having nominal and rated
voltages of 380 kV and 420 kV, respectively. The
capacitance per km of UGC is nearly 18 times greater
than that of OHL. As a result, UGC have relatively lower
surge impedance and higher surge impedance loading.
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F2.04 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.04

OHL UGC SIMULATION RESULTS

Resistance in mΩ/km 13.2 10.4
Inductive reactance in Ω/km 0.256 0.190 This section is broadly divided into two parts, i.e., steady-
Capacitance in nF/km 14.1 250 state simulations and transient simulations. In the first
subsection, the results of the power-flow analyses and of
Surge impedance in Ω 240.4 49.2
the short-circuit current calculations are presented and
Surge impedance loading in MW 600 2935
also discussed. In the second subsection, the results of
Ampacity in A 3600 1800
the performed switching operations are also shown and
Tab. 2: Comparison of electrical characteristics of
discussed.
OHL and UGC
Steady-state power-flow calculations allow obtaining the Steady-state simulations
voltage profiles of transmission lines – connected to the Power-flow analyses
extended grids at SS-1 and SS-2 – for the lightest degree
of line-loading (LDL) as well as for the heaviest degree of In Fig. 1, for all the cases, the voltage profiles of one of
line-loading (HDL). For the present investigations, LDL the double-circuits of transmission lines between SS-1
and HDL are chosen to be around 10 MW and 1220 MW and SS-2, which correspond to 0 km and 120 km (as seen
from SS-1 and SS-2, respectively. Mainly based on the from SS-1), respectively, are shown. Further, the solid
voltage profiles under the above mentioned power flow dark blue and light orange lines represent the voltage
conditions, together with the voltage profile of the open- profiles of the lines connected to both substations,
circuit lines (connection point at SS-1), the dimensioning whereas the dashed ones correspond to that of the lines,
and positioning of fixed shunt reactors (FSR) and variable where they are open-circuited at SS-2.
shunt reactors (VSR) is possible. It can be thereby
ensured that the voltages along the lines do not exceed LDL HDL LDL_opened HDL_opened

the maximum permissible voltage, i.e., 420 kV. 435

430
In this respect, the spatial aspects are considered. The
other key factors which are taken into account include 425
Voltage in kV

space constraints at transition stations (TS), where

420
changeover between OHL and UGC, and vice-versa takes
place, for the installation of shunt reactors, cost ratio of 415

VSR to FSR etc. 410

The short-circuit current calculation along the UGC 405

sections has to be considered for dimensioning the cables 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance in km
and their associated accessories. Both single- and three-
pole short-circuit analyses are carried out at different
points along one of the circuits of lines to determine the (i)
total as well as the directional contributing short-circuit LDL HDL LDL_opened HDL_opened

currents. Note that for UGC sections, these faults are 435

simulated on one of their two parallel systems. 430

The slow-front overvoltages (particularly due to switching 425

Voltage in kV

actions) become a major factor, during the realisation of

420
insulation coordination of the EHV power system (380 kV)
[5,6]. For the mixed lines, switching overvoltages 415

observed at substations as well as at transition stations,

410
become utmost importance from the operational point of
view. After the feasibility of steady-state operation is 405
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
proved, two types of switching actions, namely, one-end Distance in km
line connection (at SS-2) and one-end line disconnection
(at SS-1), are performed at peak of the system voltage (ii)
without the presence of surge arrestors, to determine
whether and what influence the presence of cables and LDL HDL LDL_opened HDL_opened

435
the configuration of lines with respect to the peak
overvoltages. Note that the line disconnection 430

investigation is made on a single line carrying a current of 425

Voltage in kV

3600 A, which corresponds to the ampacity of OHL (see

Tab. 2). For each case with mixed lines, the exact 420

dimensions and positions of shunt reactors are taken from 415

the results of power-flow analyses. The base voltage
410
corresponds to 1 pu and is given by:
380 kV 405
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
= ∙ √2 = 310.27 kV
√3 Distance in km

For every considered case, the simulations in steady-state (iii)

mode as well as in transient mode are carried out with the
®
help of software tools such as INTEGRAL and PSS
NETOMAC, respectively.

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F2.04 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.04

LDL HDL LDL_opened HDL_opened LDL HDL LDL_opened HDL_opened

435 435

430 430

425

Voltage in kV
425
Voltage in kV

420 420

415 415

410 410

405 405
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance in km Distance in km

(iv) (i)
Fig. 1: Voltage profiles of an uncompensated line in
case-0 (i), case-1 (ii), case-2 (iii) and case-3 (iv) at LDL LDL HDL LDL_opened HDL_opened

435
and HDL
430
It can be inferred from Fig. 1 that in comparison to case-0,

Voltage in kV
the profiles (solid) of the mixed lines at LDL as well as at 425

HDL are shifted upwards by 2.2 kV at both substations 420

due to the lower series impedance of mixed lines. The
415
profiles (solid) in Fig. 1-ii look more or less like the ones of
pure OHL and are acceptable. However, in Fig. 1-iii, the 410

profile (solid) at LDL is critical due to the concentrated line 405

capacitance in the line centre. Though the capacitance is 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

well distributed along the mixed line in case-3, the profile Distance in km

(solid) in Fig. 1-iv at LDL reaches almost the maximum

permissible voltage. (ii)
Furthermore, due to the significantly higher total LDL HDL LDL_opened HDL_opened

435
capacitance of the mixed lines, the Ferranti effect is much
more pronounced, where their profiles (dashed) well 430
exceed the maximum permissible voltage. It is interesting
Voltage in kV

425
to observe the subtle variation in the opened-end voltage
in mixed lines, which is because of different configurations 420

of OHL and UGC within the mixed lines. 415

Irrespective of the degree of line-loading, for the reactive 410

power compensation in mixed lines, two shunt reactors
405
per circuit have to be compulsorily installed; of which one 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
must be a FSR with a rating of 240 Mvar. On the other Distance in km
hand, the type and dimension of the other shunt reactor
depend on the line-loading degree and the fashion of line (iii)
configuration. The case-wise necessary shunt reactors
pertaining to type, dimension and position is summarised Fig. 2: Voltage profiles of a compensated mixed line
in the below Tab. 3. Note that all FSR and VSR are rated in case-1 (i), case-2 (ii) and case-3 (iii) at LDL and HDL
at 420 kV and 415 kV, respectively. The shunt reactors Fig. 3 represents the voltage profiles of compensated
positioned at SS are connected not to the bus-bars, but mixed lines (and also uncompensated pure OHL) in (n-1)
directly to the lines at SS. operating condition. In all the cases, one of the parallel
Cases Types Dimensions in Mvar Positions circuits of the lines is taken out of service and the other
operating circuit is made to carry a total current of 3600 A.
FSR 240 SS-1
1 Although each UGC system carries a current of 1800 A, it
FSR 240 SS-2
transfers a total real power of around 1250 MW which is
FSR 240 TS-1 way lower than their surge impedance loading of 2935
2
VSR 120 – 200 TS-2 MW (see Tab. 2), hence becoming a net-generator of
FSR 240 SS-1 reactive power even at (n-1) operation. Since the profiles
3
VSR 120 – 240 SS-2 of all mixed lines do not go beyond the minimum
permissible voltage of 380 kV, the shunt reactors can be
Tab. 3: Overview of case-wise required shunt reactors left connected to the grid. Therefore, there is no necessity
with respect to their type, dimension and position to switch them in and out of the grid not only at LDL and
Fig. 2 illustrates the voltage profiles of one of the HDL, but also in (n-1) operating condition.
compensated double-circuits of mixed lines between SS-1
and SS-2. It can be clearly noticed that none of the
profiles (solid as well as dashed) exceeds the maximum
permissible voltage.

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F2.04 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.04

425 Ik" IkL" IkR"

case-0
70

Initial short-circuit current in kA

case-1
case-2 60
case-3
415 50
Voltage in kV

40

30

405 20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
395
Distance in km
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance in km
(i)
Fig. 3: Voltage profiles of a line in all the cases in (n-1) Ik" IkL" IkR"
operation 70

Initial short-circuit current in kA

60
Short-circuit current calculations
50

The distribution of 3-phase initial short-circuit currents 40

along a pure OHL between SS-1 (0 km) and SS-2 (120 30

km) are illustrated in the below Fig. 4. The initial short- 20
circuit currents at SS-1 and SS-2 are approximately 30 kA 10
and 60 kA, respectively. The short-circuit currents in Fig. 4
0
are obtained after simulating three-phase faults at several 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

points along a line. The red dotted line ( " ) is the total Distance in km

initial short-circuit current along a line, whereas the solid

(ii)
light orange ( " ) and solid dark blue ( " ) lines represent
the contributing initial short-circuit currents flowing from Ik" IkL" IkR"

SS-1 and SS-2, respectively. For a fault at about 50 km 70

Initial short-circuit current in kA

from SS-1, " amounts to 20.2 kA, which corresponds to 60

the sum of " and " , each having a value of 10.1 kA. 50

Likewise, for a fault at any point along a line, the 40

summation of " and " gives rise to " . 30

20
Ik" Ik1" Ik2"

70 10
Initial short-circuit current in kA

60 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
50 Distance in km

40

30
20
10
0
0 20 40
Distance in km
Fig. 4: Distribution of initial short-circuit currents
along a circuit of an OHL in case-0
In contrast to the distribution of directional contributing
short-circuit currents in case-0, the distribution is
discontinuous in the cases with mixed lines, which can be
clearly seen in Fig. 5. In the diagrams in Fig. 5, the curves
do not show, as in Fig.4, the short circuit currents flowing
from SS-1 and SS-2 but the directional contributing short-
circuit currents " and " , i.e., the short circuit current
contribution left and right of the fault location respectively.
SS-1 is located on the left side and SS-2 on the right side
of the transmission line. It can be later clearly explained
for one of the cases (case-1) with the help of Fig. 6.
The slightly lower impedance of mixed lines than that of
pure OHL results in marginally smaller impedance of
equivalent grids at substations. This accounts to a higher
initial short-circuit power of the grids at SS-1 and SS-2,
thereby a small increase in the initial short-circuit currents
at the corresponding substations.
(iii)
Fig. 5: Distribution of initial short-circuit currents
along a circuit of a mixed line in case-1 (i), case-2 (ii)
60 80 100 120
and case-3 (iii)
In Fig. 5-i, the distribution of the directional contributing
short-circuit currents along a 105 km OHL section in case-
1 is identical to that of along a 120 km long OHL in case-0
(Fig. 4). However, they get distributed in a different
fashion along the UGC segments in case-1, see Fig. 6 for
explanation. A fault on an OHL section directly adjacent to
TS-2 (see Fig. 6) results in " of around 51 kA, where "
(grey arrow) is greater than " (yellow arrows) by a factor
of almost 10. In contrast, for a fault (red dot) on the first
joint (ca. 750 m from TS-2) of one of the parallel systems
of UGC connected between TS-2 and SS-2, the ratio of
"
to " is slightly lesser than 1 for " having a magnitude
of 51.5 kA. The short-circuit current flowing towards the
fault location through the other healthy UGC system of the
same circuit lead to an increase in the value of " , which
can be also noticed in Fig. 5-i.

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F2.04 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Fig. 6: Three-phase fault on one of the parallel
systems of UGC section closed to TS-2
The distribution of 1-pole steady-state short-circuit
currents is similar to that of 3-phase initial short-circuit
currents (the fixed grid points are directly connected to the
ground), but with, of course, lesser values.
Transient simulations
Connection of a line
As mentioned in section Methodology, line energisation is
realised only at peak of the system voltage. The voltage
waveforms at SS and TS are shown for three cases in the
below Fig. 7. E-1 and E-2 represent the two ends of a line
at SS-1 and SS-2, respectively.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Fig. 7: Voltages at substations and transition stations
after the connection of a line at SS-2 in case-0 (i),
case-1 (ii) and case-3 (iii)
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.04
Soon after the connection of a circuit breaker at SS-2, the
line capacitance C gets charged through the line
inductance L, thereby resulting in a transient current,
which consequently accounts for a repetitive energy
(magnetic and electric) exchange between C and L. After
sometime, when the high frequency components of
currents and voltages are completely attenuated (due to
resistances of line and grid), the voltage waveforms at
other locations along a line match with that of system
voltage at SS-2. The maximum slow-front overvoltage
values and the corresponding locations in all the cases
are given in Tab. 4. It can be incurred that in all the mixed
lines the overvoltages are slightly lower than in pure OHL.
Maximum
Cases
overvoltage in pu
Locations
0 2.754 E-1
1 2.327 TS-2
2 2.287 E-1
3 2.569 E-1
Tab. 4: Maximum overvoltage values and respective
locations in all the cases after line connection
Disconnection of a line
Similar to the previous switching investigation, in each
case one end of a line is disconnected at peak of the
system voltage, here at SS-1. Fig. 8 illustrates the
observed voltage waveforms at SS and TS for three
cases. Tab. 5 lists for each case the values of the noticed
maximum overvoltage and the corresponding locations.
(i)
(ii)
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F2.04 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
(iii)
Fig. 8: Voltages at substations and transition stations
after the disconnection of a line at SS-1 in case-0 (i),
case-2 (ii) and case-3 (iii)
According to the theory of constant flux linkages, the
current through L cannot instantaneously become zero
after the circuit breaker at SS-1 is opened. Therefore, it
gives rise to a voltage transient. Subsequently, continuous
energy exchange is seen for a short period of time, until
the energy is dissipated in the resistances of line and grid.
On one hand, the mixed lines (case-1 and case-3) with
UGC near the disconnected end have a maximum
overvoltage of ca. 50% that of in pure OHL (case-0). On
the other hand, around 10% increased maximum
overvoltage is observed in the mixed line (case-2) with
OHL near the disconnected end. Having a UGC section
right next to the side of disconnection reduces the
maximum overvoltage significantly, which is clearly seen
in this investigation.
Maximum
Cases Locations
overvoltage in pu
0 7.852 E-1
1 3.527 TS-2
2 8.740 E-1
3 4.080 E-1
Tab. 5: Maximum overvoltage values and respective
locations in all the cases after line connection
CONCLUSION
The deployment of underground cables (UGC) as a part
of existing or new extra-high voltage (EHV) lines is
expected to increase the public acceptance for the
extension of the German EHV grid, thus playing an
important role for the German “Energiewende”. However,
the partial underground cabling poses a big challenge for
the TSOs, as the grid behaviour is different not only in
steady-state but also in transient condition.
Main aim of this paper has been to determine the
technical planning principles which should be taken into
account while employing UGC along with the traditional
overhead lines (OHL). This has been achieved by
analysing three exemplary cases comprising of different
configurations of OHL and UGC, so-called mixed lines,
along with a case having pure OHL, both in steady-state
and transient operating conditions. The proportionality
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.04
between OHL and UGC pertaining to length is in all the
three mixed lines’ configuration identical, but the topology
is different.
In order to keep the voltages along the line within the
permissible limits in steady-state, fixed shunt reactors
(FSR) as well as variable shunt reactors (VSR) have been
considered. It has been shown that one configuration
requires only FSR, while the other two calls for both FSR
and VSR.
Unlike in pure OHL, the distribution of directional
contributing short-circuit currents (1- and 3-pole) have
been shown to be discontinuous in all mixed lines, as
each circuit of UGC has two parallel systems.
With respect to switching transients, it has been shown
that the maximum slow-front overvoltages for energising
all mixed lines are slightly lesser than in case of pure
OHL. Investigating one-end line disconnection, it has
been shown that the maximum transient overvoltage
noticed in a mixed line having UGC in the middle of the
line is ca. 10% higher than in the case with pure OHL.
However, nearly 50% reduction of maximum slow-front
overvoltages has been observed in the other mixed lines
with UGC near the disconnected end.
REFERENCES
[1] German TSOs, “Netzentwicklungsplan Strom 2013 –
Erster Entwurf der Übertragungsnetzbetreiber”, 2013,
http://www.netzentwicklungsplan.de/_NEP_file_transf
er/NEP_2013_Teil_I.pdf, 12, 24 and 66 (in German)
[2] TenneT TSO GmbH, 2013, “TenneT and
Europacable Want to Promote Use of Underground
Cables“ http://www.tennet.eu/de/fileadmin/downloads
/news/tennet-europacable-press-release-31-january-
2013.pdf, 1
[3] ENTSO-E, 2010, “Feasibility and Technical Aspects
of Partial Undergrounding of Extra High Voltage
Power Transmission Lines”, https://www.entsoe.eu/
fileadmin/user_upload/_library/position_papers/Joint_
ENTSO-E_Europacable_FINAL_17_Dec__2010
_signed.pdf, 25
[4] H. Nieman, 2013, “Kabel in Höchstspannungsübertra-
gungssystemen”, FNN-Fachkongress Netztechnik, 5
[5] IEC 60071-2, 1996, Insulation Co-ordination – Part 2:
Application Guide, International Electrotechnical
Commission, Switzerland, 35
[6] E. Kuffel, et al, 2008, High Voltage Engineering:
Fundamentals, Newnes, Oxford, England, 460
GLOSSARY
EHV: Extra-High Voltage
FSR: Fixed Shunt Reactor
HDL: Heaviest Degree of Line-Loading
LDL: Lightest Degree of Line-Loading
OHL: Overhead Line
SS: Substation
TS: Transition Station
UGC: Underground Cable
VSR: Variable Shunt Reactor
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F2.05 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Eco-friendly nanodielectrics with enhanced thermal and electrical
properties for HVDC cable insulation
ZHOU Yao, HE Jinliang, HU Jun, DANG Bin; State Key Lab of Power Systems, Department of Electrical Engineering,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, zhouyao14@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn, hejl@tsinghua.edu.cn, hjun@tsinghua.edu.cn,
db13@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Recently, HVDC cable power transmission has attracted
great attention but the crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) as
the most common HVDC cable insulation material is
difficult to be recycled due to its thermoset nature. In this
paper, surface modified magnesium oxide (MgO)
nanoparticles were introduced into polypropylene/
polyolefin elastomer (PP/POE) blends to develop novel
eco-friendly insulation material for HVDC cables. The
thermal, mechanical and electrical properties of the
nanocomposites were examined. It is shown that the
introduction of MgO nanoparticles could enhance the
electrical properties of PP/POE blends due to suppressed
space charge accumulation and the excellent thermal
properties of PP remain. The results indicate potential
applications of MgO/PP/POE nanodielectrics for HVDC
power cable insulation.
KEYWORDS
Nanocomposite, polypropylene, MgO nanoparticle, eco-
friendly insulation material, space charge, HVDC cable
INTRODUCTION
With the development of power system, some problems
have occurred in HVAC transmission system, it is required
to develop a new power transmission mode with large
transmission capacity and long transmission distance.
HVDC power transmission, especially HVDC cable
transmission, will be popular in the future for low
construction cost, low power loss, large capacity, easy to
control and less impact on the environment. For most
modern extruded HVDC cables, crosslinked polyethylene
(XLPE) is used as their insulation material, but XLPE is
very difficult to be recycled at the end of its lifetime and
also the tolerance temperature of XLPE is not very high
which limits the operating temperature and transmission
capacity. As environmental protection and sustainable
development is becoming much more important than ever,
it is urgent to develop new type of eco-friendly HVDC
cable insulation material.
As cable insulation material, the thermal, mechanical,
thermo-mechanical and electrical properties must be
taken into account. In particular the space charge
accumulation which has large influence on the
degradation and breakdown of the insulation material
under DC electric field should be considered [1].
Polypropylene (PP) is a good base material for cable
insulation because of its excellent thermal and electrical
properties and thermoplastic nature which make it very
easy to be recycled, but the mechanical properties of PP
are very poor and easy to fracture. In our previous study
[2], polyolefin elastomer (POE) was used to improve the
mechanical properties of PP by melt blending. It has
shown that PP/POE blends have good thermal and
mechanical properties compared with XLPE but the space
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F2.05
charge accumulation is still a problem, which is very
unfavorable for HVDC cable insulation.
Recent researches in nanodielectrics have shown that the
introduction of small amount of nanoparticles like MgO,
Al2O3, SiO2, and TiO2 [3], in polymer matrix have great
effect on improving the electrical properties of the
nanocomposite, such as increasing breakdown strength,
dielectric polarization, volume resistivity and suppressing
space charge accumulation [3]. The excellent behavior of
nanodielectrics should be attributed to the large
nanoparticle-polymer interfacial areas [4]. Although the
mechanism of suppressing space charge by nanoparticles
is still not very clear, nanodielectrics have attracted great
attention in both industry and academic.
Based on our previous study of PP/POE blends [2], in this
investigation we use MgO nanoparticles to suppress the
space charge accumulation and further improve the
electrical properties of PP/POE blends to make it more
applicable. The MgO nanoparticles were surface modified
by silane coupling agent to improve the compatibility
between the nanoparticles and the polymer matrix. We
have studied the thermal, mechanical and electrical
properties of the MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites. It is
shown that the introduction of 3 phr of MgO nanoparticles
could enhance the electrical properties of PP/POE blends
due to suppressed space charge accumulation and the
thermal properties are still good enough.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
Material: The PP (F401) was purchased from Panjin
Ethylene Co. Ltd., which is additive free, isotacticity 97%,
3
density 0.910 g/cm , melt flow index 1.7-3.1 g/10 min. The
POE (8150) was purchased from DuPont Dow, which is a
kind of ethylene-octene copolymer with an octene
comonomer content of 25 wt%, melt flow index 0.5 g/10
3
min, density 0.868 g/cm . MgO nanoparticles (average
2
particle size 50 nm, specific surface area 70 ± 15 m /g)
were supplied by Aladdin Industrial Inc.. (3-Aminopropyl)
triethoxy-silane (APTES, code name KH550) from
Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co. Ltd. was used as the
coupling agent for surface modification.
Sample Preparation: The nanoparticles were vacuum
dried at 100 °C for 12 hours before surface modification.
Briefly, the surface modification was carried out as
follows, the dried MgO nanoparticles were dispersed in
ethanol by sonication, and then the coupling agent was
added into MgO/ethanol mixture. After that the mixture
was refluxed and magnetically stirred at 70 °C for 12
hours and the nanoparticles were centrifuged from the
mixture and washed with fresh ethanol for 3 times. Finally,
the modified nanoparticles were dried in vacuum drier at
60 °C for 12 hours.
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F2.05 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
The surface modified MgO nanoparticles, PP and POE were
mixed at the same time in a torque rheometer at 180 °C and
a rotor speed of 60 rpm for 15 minutes. The content of POE
in the PP/POE matrix is 30 wt% and the weight fraction of
MgO nanoparticles in the nanocomposites were 0, 1, 3 and 5
phr, respectively (here 1 phr means 1 g MgO nanoparticles in
100 g PP/POE blends).
Film samples with different thickness were obtained by
compression modeling at 200 °C for 7 minutes under a
pressure about 15 MPa. Then the films were cooled to
room temperature under the same pressure for 7 minutes.
To avoid the influence of different thermal history and
residual internal stress, all film samples were annealed in
the vacuum oven at 135 °C for 2 hours.
Morphology: The microstructures of the nanocomposites
were obtained by scanning electron microscope (ZEISS,
Sigma).
Thermal properties: The thermal properties, such as
melting temperature, crystallization temperature and
crystallinity were studied using a differential scanning
calorimeter (TA, Q200) under nitrogen atmosphere at a
heating/cooling rate of 10 °C/min between 20 and 200 °C.
Thermo-mechanical properties: The relationship between
storage modulus versus temperature of the
nanocomposites were obtained by a dynamic mechanical
thermal analyser (TA, Q800) at a fixed frequency of 1 Hz
between -60 and 120 °C and a heating rate of 3 °C/min in
tension mode.
Electrical properties: DC breakdown tests were performed
on a DC breakdown tester with a voltage rising rate of 1
kV/s. The samples were placed between two steel
electrodes with diameter of 10 mm and immersed in
silicone oil. The space charge measurements were
performed with a pulse electro-acoustic (PEA) system
under -40 kV/mm DC electric field. A pulse with a voltage
of 800 V and a width of 5 ns was applied to the film
samples.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Morphology and dispersion
Fig. 1 shows the SEM pictures of the MgO/PP/POE
nanocomposites with different nano-filler content. Fig. 1a
shows the cross section microstructure of PP/POE blends
and the round hole in Fig. 1a should be attributed to the
removal of POE when the samples were broken in liquid
nitrogen. Dispersion of MgO nanoparticles in the polymer
matrix are shown in Fig. 1b and 1c. Although
agglomerates of nanoparticles are observed in both
(a) (b)
Fig. 1: SEM morphology of MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites filled with (a) 0 phr; (b) 3 phr; (c)5 phr MgO nanoparticles
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F2.05
samples, it is clear that MgO nanoparticles disperse well
with few aggregation at lower filler content of less than 3
phr and the dimensions of the small aggregates are
estimated less than 200 nm. The good dispersion of the
nanoparticles should be attributed to the surface
modification of nanoparticles with silane coupling agent,
which result in decreased surface energy and better
adhesion properties of the nanoparticles [5].
Comparatively, there are large amount of aggregates with
the dimensions of about 1 µm or even larger at higher
filler content of 5 phr. The serious nanoparticle
aggregation at higher filler content is due to large amount
of nanoparticles introduced. It was reported that there are
usually numerous voids inside the large aggregates which
are easy to form defect points and decrease the dielectric
properties of the nanocomposites [6].
Thermal properties
Fig. 2: DSC melting behaviour of MgO/PP/POE
nanocomposites with different filler content
Fig. 2 shows the melting curves of the MgO/PP/POE
nanocomposites and the melting temperature Tm,
crystallization temperature Tc, melting enthalpy ∆Hm and
crystallinity Xc are summarized in Table 2. The melting
temperature exhibits a slight increase with the increased
nano-filler content, indicating similar thermal properties
with PP. This shows that MgO nanoparticles has
impediment effect on the melting process of PP/POE
blends. The crystallization temperature of MgO/PP/POE
nanocomposites is remarkably higher than PP/POE
blends, indicating that MgO nanoparticles greatly enhance
the nucleating ability of the blends. The crystallinity shows
(c)
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F2.05 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.05

Table 1. Summary of DSC data of MgO/PP/POE aggregate and result in bad adhesion properties between
nanocomposites with different filler content the nanoparticles and the polymer matrix so that the
storage modulus begin to decrease.
Designation Tm (°C) Tc (°C) ∆Hm (J/g) Xc (%)
Electrical properties
PP/POE 161.7 116.3 63.9 30.6
DC Dielectric Breakdown Strength
1 phr
161.9 117.3 65.1 31.2 Fig. 4 shows the Weibull probability plots of DC
MgO/PP/POE
3 phr breakdown strength of MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites
162.3 117.6 65.3 31.2
MgO/PP/POE with different filler content and PP/POE blends. The
5 phr characteristics breakdown strength and shape parameter
162.4 118.0 62.9 30.0
MgO/PP/POE of Weibull distribution are listed in Table 2. The DC
breakdown strength of the nanocomposites increases with
an increase at low loading of MgO nanoparticles and the introduction of MgO nanoparticles. When the filler
decrease when the MgO loading is higher than 5 phr. As content increases to 3 phr, the characteristic breakdown
mentioned above, MgO nanoparticles could promote the strength reaches its maximum value of 365 kV/mm, which
crystallization process of the polymer matrix, so the is about 15% higher than PP/POE blends and also much
crystallinity of the nanocomposites increases. But with higher than the breakdown strength of typical XLPE of
higher content of MgO nanoparticles introduced, 300 kV/mm [7]. The increased breakdown strength of the
crystallization of the polymer matrix may be hindered nanocomposites should be attributed to the good
because of nano-filler aggregation and the crystallinity interfacial adhesion between the nanoparticles and
decreases. polymer matrix which results in uniform dispersion of the
nanoparticles. As shown in Fig. 5, the introduction of MgO
Thermo-mechanical properties nanoparticles can effectively suppress the space charge
Fig. 3 shows the curves of storage modulus of the accumulation in PP/POE blends, so that the breakdown
MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites versus temperature strength of the nanocomposites increases. However, the
obtained from DMA experiments. The incorporation of breakdown strength does not continue increasing when
MgO nanoparticles into PP/POE blends would increase the nanoparticle content is beyond 5 phr and even lower
the storage modulus of the nanocomposites with 1 and 3 than that of the PP/POE blends. The reduction of the
phr nano-fillers, proving that lower content of breakdown strength of the nanocomposites with 5 phr
nanoparticles could reinforce the PP/POE blends and MgO nanoparticles is due to the agglomeration of the
remedy the decreased mechanical strength of PP caused nano-fillers (shown in Fig. 1), which act as defects and
by the introduction of POE [2]. But when the filler content
goes higher to 5 phr, the storage modulus of the
nanocomposites decreases. The reasons for this
phenomena are as follows. First, the results of DSC show
that the crystallinity of nanocomposites increases at lower
filler content and decreases at higher filler content. The
storage modulus is closely related to the crystallinity of
nanocomposites and higher crystallinity means higher
storage modulus. Second, the macromolecular chains of
polymer matrix would be adsorbed on the nanoparticle
surface via certain chemical or physical effects at the
interfacial zone between the nanoparticles and the
polymer matrix. Movements limitation of the
macromolecular chains would increase the storage
modulus of the nanocomposites. But with the increased
filler content to 5 phr, the nanoparticles begin to

Fig. 4: Weibull plots of DC breakdown strength of

MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites with different filler
content
Table 2. Weibull characteristic breakdown strength
and shape parameter of MgO/PP/POE
nanocomposites with different filler content
Characteristic breakdown Shape
Designation
strength (kV/mm) parameter
PP/POE 319 38.87
1 phr
356 30.60
MgO/PP/POE
3 phr
365 80.06
MgO/PP/POE
5 phr
Fig. 3: Storage modulus of MgO/PP/POE 313 19.82
MgO/PP/POE
nanocomposites with different filler content

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F2.05 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
causes initial electrical breakdown. At the same time, the
large shape parameters of the Weibull distribution indicate
small dispersion of the test data and better uniformity of
the nanocomposites.
Space Charge Accumulation Behaviour
Fig. 5 shows the space charge distribution during
polarization in the MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites
subjected to -40 kV/mm DC electric field for 30 min. It can
be seen from Fig. 5a that there are large number of homo
Fig. 5: Space charge distribution in MgO/PP/POE
nanocomposites with (a) 0 phr; (b) 3 phr; (c)5 phr
MgO nanoparticles
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F2.05
charges inject from the cathode and accumulate in the
vicinity of cathode in PP/POE blends and the charge
injection depth increases with time. This is because there
are large amount of charge trapping sites introduced by
POE at the interface between PP and POE and these
trapping sites may trap charges.
Fig. 5b illustrates the space charge distribution in
MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites with 3 phr MgO
nanoparticles. From Fig. 5b, the introduction of MgO
nanoparticles can effectively suppress the space charge
accumulation in polymer matrix. There are only a few
homo space charges observed and the charge injection
depth increases very slowly, indicating lower charge
injection rate and lower charge mobility. The space
charge behavior in polymer nanocomposites is affected by
the trapping, detrapping and transporting of charges in the
material [8]. The changes of trap depth, trap density and
charge mobility could all lead to the changes in space
charge accumulation characteristics. As shown in
previous studies [9], the suppression of space charge
accumulation in nanocomposites is probably due to the
introduction of large amount of different trapping sites at
the interfacial zones between the nanoparticles and
polymer matrix.
Fig. 5c describes the space charge distribution in the
nanocomposites with 5 phr MgO nanoparticles. Compared
with the results of the nanocomposites with 3 phr
nanoparticles, the effect of space charge suppression
becomes worse and large amount of homo charges inject
and accumulate at the cathode. This should be attributed
to the agglomeration of the nanoparticles which causes
significant reduction of the interfaces between the
nanoparticles and the polymer matrix and as a result, the
number of trapping sites decreases. Also, agglomerated
nanoparticles would act as impurities in the polymer
matrix leading to space charge accumulation. So the
space charge suppression effect of the nanoparticles
becomes worse at higher loading of MgO nanoparticles.
CONCLUSION
The effect of surface modified MgO nanoparticles on the
thermal, mechanical and electrical properties of the
MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites were investigated for the
potential application in HVDC cable insulation.
1) As the result of increased interfacial compatibility with
polymer matrix, surface modified MgO nanoparticles show
good dispersion and adhesion property in PP/POE blends
at low loading of less than 3 phr and higher content of
nanoparticles could result in significant aggregation.
2) The melting temperatures of the MgO/PP/POE
nanocomposites slightly increase after the introduction of
MgO nanoparticles and the melting behaviour of the
nanocomposites is very similar to pure PP, indicating
good thermal properties to be used in HVDC cables.
3) The inclusion of MgO nanoparticles could result in the
increase of storage modulus of the nanocomposites and
remedy the decreased mechanical strength of PP/POE
blends. At the same time, the brittle nature of PP is
significantly improved by the inclusion of POE and MgO
nanoparticles.
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F2.05 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
4) The DC electrical breakdown strength of the
nanocomposites is effectively improved by the
introduction of surface modified MgO nanoparticles, which
should be attributed to the suppressed space charge
accumulation. But the nanocomposite with 5 phr MgO
nanoparticles shows poor space charge suppression
performance because of the aggregation of MgO
nanoparticles.
It is concluded that the introduction of surface modified
MgO nanoparticles can result in enhanced mechanical
and electrical properties of the PP/POE blends and the
thermal properties remain the same. The space charge
accumulation under DC electric field is apparently
suppressed by the incorporation of surface modified MgO
nanoparticles of 3 phr. What is more important is that
MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites is an eco-friendly material
and can be easily recycled at the end of its lifetime, which
is its greatest advantage over XLPE. Therefore,
MgO/PP/POE nanocomposites are promising candidates
for eco-friendly HVDC cable insulation applications.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported in part by the National Basic
Research Program of China (“973 Project”) (Grant No.
2014CB239504)
REFERENCES
[1] G. C. Montanari, 2011, "Bringing an insulation to
failure: the role of space charge", IEEE Trans.
Dielectr. Electr. Insul., vol. 18, 339-364.
[2] Y. Zhou, J. L. He, J. Hu, X. Y. Huang, P. K. Jiang,
2015, "Evaluation of polypropylene/polyolefin
elastomer blends for potential recyclable HVDC cable
insulation applications", IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr.
Insul., vol. 22, 673-681.
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.05
[3] T. Tanaka, G. C. Montanari, R. Mulhaupt, 2004,
"Polymer nanocomposites as dielectrics and electrical
insulation-perspectives for processing technologies,
material characterization and future applications",
IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., vol. 11, 763-784.
[4] M. Roy, J. K. Nelson, R. K. MacCrone, L. S.
Schadler, C. W. Reed, R. Keefe, W. Zenger, 2005,
"Polymer nanocomposite dielectrics-the role of the
interface", IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., vol. 12,
629-643.
[5] J. Zhao, M. Milanova, M. M. Warmoeskerken, V.
Dutschk, 2012, "Surface modification of TiO2
nanoparticles with silane coupling agents", Colloid
Surf. A-Physicochem. Eng. Asp., vol. 413, 273-279.
[6] J. W. Shen, X. M. Chen, W. Y. Huang, 2003,
"Structure and electrical properties of grafted
polypropylene/graphite nanocomposites prepared by
solution intercalation", J. Appl. Polym. Sci., vol. 88,
1864-1869.
[7] L. Zhang, Y. X. Zhou, X. Y. Cui, Y. C. Sha, T. H. Le,
Q. Ye, J. H. Tian, 2014, "Effect of nanoparticle
surface modification on breakdown and space charge
behaviour of XLPE/SiO2 nanocomposites", IEEE
Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., vol. 21, 1554-1564.
[8] X. Y. Huang, P. K. Jiang, Y. Yin, 2009, "Nanoparticle
surface modification induced space charge
suppression in linear low density polyethylene", Appl.
Phys. Lett., vol. 95, 242905.
[9] T. Takada, Y. Hayase, Y. Tanaka, 2008, "Space
charge trapping in electrical potential well caused by
permanent and induced dipoles for LDPE/MgO
nanocomposite", IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul.,
vol. 15, 152-160.
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F2.06 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Effect of state of stress on space charge accumulation in silicon rubber
insulation in HVDC cables
David GUO, State Key Lab of Control and Simulation of Power Systems and Generation Equipment, Department of
Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, david1993k24@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Silicon rubber has been used widely as the insulation
material in the accessory and the terminal of HVDC
cables in the last decades. Research on space charge in
silicon rubber has been conducted for decades and there
has already been a lot of achievements about the
mechanism, the way to suppress space charge and so
forth. Nevertheless, few research pays attention to the
stress state of the silicon rubber material, which in
practical use is under high stress in the accessory and the
terminal of cables. This paper focus on the influence of
the high stress state on the space charge accumulation in
silicon rubber to imply whether the stress state of silicon
rubber should be constrained to a certain scale around
the practical value in real HVDC cables in any research
concerning space charge accumulation in silicon rubber.
Since controlling the stress state of silicon rubber is
difficult for most of the current equipment measuring
space charge accumulation like PEA(pulsed electro-
acoustic) systems, this paper also proposes a new design
to realize the control of the stress state of the material
during measurement in PEA systems.
As the density of silicon rubber would change along with
the change of the stress state, this paper analyses the
research data and makes some calculation to separate
the effect of the two factors on space charge
accumulation, and finally the result of the research implies
a relatively complicated process, not a monotonic
tendency as what is expected, which can be taken into
consideration in real cable design and in other research
about space charge accumulation in silicon rubber.
KEYWORDS
Space charge, Stress, Silicon rubber, HVDC cable.
INTRODUCTION
Power cable is critical for the modern power grid
construction, and it has been under research for decades
to improve its insulation performance. In the past,
researches were taken in many respects like partial
discharge and electric tree aging, and the results have led
to great improvement in HVAC cables, which were used
for AC power transmission. Nowadays, HVDC cables
have attracted more and more attention with the rapid
development of DC power transmission. Due to the big
difference between DC and AC power transmission, the
problems that HVDC cables are facing now in practical
use are quite different, especially in insulation
performance. More and more researches have implied
that space charge accumulation in dielectric materials in
the HVDC cables is one of the main cause of insulation
breakdown and the space charge has already become
one of the most popular topics in the research of dielectric
materials.
Former results and deductions about space charge
accumulation in dielectric materials have brought out
tremendous achievements, for example, the mechanism
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.06
of the source, transmission and accumulation of space
charge in the material [1], the way to suppress space
charge like using nanoparticles grafting techniques to
modify the dielectric materials, and so forth.
Nevertheless, few researches have paid attention to the
state of stress of the dielectric material which may have
effect on the insulation performance. The dielectric
materials in the real cables are compressed tightly for
practical use, especially in cable joints and terminals, to
keep qualified mechanical and dielectric performance. In
practical use, if the stress on the dielectric material is too
high, there may cause structure distortion while too low
stress on the material may cause bad surface dielectric
performance [2]. Several researches have been done on
that and in China, the stress on the dielectric materials are
designed to be constrained between 0.1~0.3 MPa. This is
crucial for the installation of cable joints
In the cable joints, there are two kinds of dielectric
material for insulation, one is the XLPE and the other one
is the silicon rubber for different purpose. Both of them are
under a certain scale of stress and former researches
have already implied that stress on the material may have
effect on the insulation performance. Back to topic of
research on space charge accumulation, there are several
ways to measure the space charge distribution in the
material like PEA method. When the material is under
PEA test, it is also under the pressure from the electrode
and the electrode is usually designed to be a bit heavy to
ensure that there is no air gap between the electrode and
the material sample. But few of the research paid
attention to the stress on the material since the researcher
thought it is enough to compress the material sample
tightly.
Generally speaking, due to the rigidity of XLPE, the
deformation of the material can be ignored when XLPE
material is under PEA test. Therefore the deformation
may be obvious when silicon rubber material is under test
since silicon rubber is quite flexible. Deformation should
be taken into consideration since PEA test needs the
shape parameter of the material [3]. That is, the
measurement of space charge accumulation would be
influenced by the material’s deformation due to the stress
on that and it remains to be a problem whether the stress
on the material may also influence the space charge
accumulation when we manage to make the shape of the
material fixed.
In conclusion, the dielectric material in real cables are
under a certain scale of stress and in the PEA test the
stress on the material may also influence the test results.
Especially for silicon rubber which is quite flexible, the
stress on that may need to be controlled. This paper is
focused on the silicon rubber material and make some
research about the effect of the stress on space charge
accumulation. As the density of silicon rubber would
change along with the change of the stress state, this
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F2.06 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
paper analyses the research data and makes some
calculation to separate the effect of the two factors on
space charge accumulation.
EXPERIMENT DESCRIPTION
The experiment is done through several steps. The first
one is the preparation of the sample made of silicon
rubber. The raw material is the LSR (liquid silicon rubber),
which was vulcanized under 165 ℃ and 6 MPa for 10
minutes. For PEA test, the radius of the sample was made
to be 20 mm and the thickness was 1 mm.
Since the stress on sample in the PEA system is just
vertical and the intersecting surface of the material is fixed
through some mechanical structure, the deformation of
the sample then is just vertical and the relationship
between the vertical deformation and the stress on that
was obtained through servo control alternating pressure
test and it is presented through a simple curve.
The PEA test was done by a set of PEA system which
was developed by Tsinghua University and Tokyo City
University. This equipment for space charge
measurement is based on basic PEA method and has
been modified in many respects for better accuracy. The
full duration at half maximum of the high-voltage pulse is 5
ns and the distinguishability for the silicon rubber samples
has reached 0.01 mm, which has been acknowledged as
domestic advanced.
In the research, the stress on the samples are designed to
be controllable to observe the space charge distribution
as the stress on the samples changes in a certain scale.
Based on the original equipment, a modified high-voltage
electrode of the whole set of equipment is designed as is
shown in Fig 1.
Fig 1: The high-voltage electrode of the PEA
measurement system with controllable pressure on
the samples.
The pressure sensor is put beneath the bolt. The round
ball in Fig 1 is the only touch point between the cross-bar
and the high-voltage electrode and it is fixed tightly on the
groove of the electrode and the groove is just made on
the center of the top of the electrode. Then in this way, the
pressure from the cross-bar on the electrode is uniform
and since the samples are put just on the center on the
bottom of the electrode, the pressure on the samples is
also uniform as well. When the bolts on both sides of the
cross-bar are twisted, the pressure from the cross-bar
would increase, and the pressure sensor would show the
half of the pressure form the bolt since there is another
gasket made of the same materials of the sensor on the
other side of the bolt. The distinguishability of the sensor
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
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is 0.1 kg and the display of the two sensors can be
adjusted to be the same by twisting the bolts and in this
way we can exert uniform stress on the samples with
relatively accurate number of the stress.
The numerical value of the stress was modified
considering the weight of the electrode and the PEA test
was done with constant pressure on the samples.
The voltage of the electrode in the test is set to be 10 kV
and the samples would withstand the voltage for 30 min
when the space charge accumulation would form and
reach a steady state. Then the circuit would be cut off and
an observation of space charge dissipation would be done
since the voltage of the electrode become 0 kV. This
process would last for 10 min and the total time of a test
for a sample would be 40 min. Several tests were done
and the next section describes a study of a typical result
under pressure of 0.7 MPa.
STUDY OF A TYPICAL RESULT
The purpose of the research is to analyze the space
charge accumulation under different pressure. This
section focused on the properties of space charge
accumulation under a certain pressure. We pick samples
under pressure of 0.7 MPa as the typical result. Fig 2
shows the space charge distribution along with the time
change from the beginning to 30 min, showing the change
of space charge accumulation. The thickness of the
sample was obtained by the curve mentioned in the last
section, which shows the relationship between the vertical
deformation and the stress on the sample.
Fig 2: The space charge distribution with time at 0
min, 1 min, 5 min, 15 min and 30 min.
As Fig 2 shows, there are five curves in the picture and
the three arrows clearly show the change of space charge
distribution. The left dotted line marks the anode and the
other one is for the cathode and they are the boundary of
the sample. The space charge distribution in the vertical
direction of the sample is shown and we can observe
three clear changes. The first one is the charge injection
from the anode, as time change, the injection effect is
become obvious and more and more positive charge is
injected into the sample from the surface. The second one
is the accumulation of the hetero charge close to the
anode as the middle arrow shows in Fig 2. Both of the
injection and the accumulation of hetero charge have
already been discovered and analyzed in many
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F2.06 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
researches before. The third one is the movement of the
charge peak close to the cathode. Different from the
former two effects, it is not observed in every sample
result and it is remained to be studied but not in this paper.
The distribution of the space charge cause the electric
field distortion, mainly from the injection of homo charge
and the accumulation of hetero charge. Fig 3 shows the
distortion of the electric field along the vertical direction of
the sample.
Fig 3: The electric field alone the vertical direction of
the sample with time at 0 min, 1 min, 5 min, 10 min
and 30 min.
Due to the injection and the hetero charge close to the
anode, the distortion of electric field appears close to the
anode as is shown in Fig 3. The horizontal dotted line
marks the numerical value of electric field with no space
charge inside the sample. And we can observe obvious
distortion of electric field. In practical use, such a
tremendous distortion of electric field is quite dangerous,
and that is why researchers pay attention to space charge
accumulation and the way to solve the problem.
At time of 30 min, the space charge distribution has
already reached a steady state and when we cut off the
circuit we can obtain the dissipation curve of space
charge inside the material by the subsequent observation
for 10 min. Fig 4 shows the dissipation curve.
Fig 4: The dissipation of space charge distribution at
time of 0 min, 5s, 30s, 1 min, 2min, 5 min, 10min.
Since there is not an appropriate way to measure the
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process of dissipation, this paper would only present a
rough method to describe the process of dissipation.
As is shown before, when the material is under a certain
pressure, the injection of homo charge and the
accumulation of hetero charge is the main cause for the
distortion of the electric field close to the anode and we
would propose a way to describe the process of the space
charge distribution change based on that, along with a
rough measurement of charge dissipation.
NUMERICAL MEASUREMENT OF SPACE
CHARGE ACCUMULATION UNDER
DIFFERENT PRESSURE
To make an appropriate measurement of space charge
behavior, according to what has been discussed in the
last section, we choose the following three ways to
illustrate. The first one is the injection and the hetero
charge accumulation, as is shown in Fig 5, the numerical
integral of the shaded area represent for the charge
quantity. The second one is the measurement of the
distortion of electric field, the reference value and the
distortion value are defined as is shown in Fig 6. Let rv be
the reference value and dv be the distortion value, the
distortion ratio r is calculated as is shown in the equation
below.
r = ( dv / rv ) *100%
The third part is the total quantity of charge inside the
sample in the process of dissipation which is also
obtained by numerical integral to measure the process of
dissipation under different stress.
Fig 5: numerical measurement of homo charge
injection and hetero charge accumulation
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F2.06 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.06

Fig 6: numerical measurement of electric field

distortion Fig 7: The density of the sample at different pressure
THE DENSITY OF THE SAMPLE ON
DIFFERENT STRESS
INJECTION OF HOMO CHARGE AND
Since the density of the sample would change under ACCUMULATION OF HETERO CHARGE
different stress, it is necessary to calculate the exact value
UNDER DIFFERENT STRESS
of density under a certain stress. The relationship
between the vertical distortion and the stress on the The injection of homo charge on different stress can be
sample was obtained in the servo control alternating measured numerically using numerical integral as is
pressure test before as has been mentioned in the former shown in Fig 8. In the paper we chose 0.5 MPa, 0.7 MPa,
section. However, the sample made of silicon rubber is 1.0 MPa, 1.3 MPa, 1.5 MPa, 1.7 MPa and 2.0 MPa as the
amorphous and we can’t make sure whether the typical stress on the sample to make analysis. In Fig 9
intersecting surface of the sample would extend under a each line of a certain color represents for the quantity of
certain stress. Therefore, another way to calculate the charge at 0 min, 1 min, 5 min, 10 min and 30 min on a
density of the sample was proposed in the research. constant stress.
Let K be the elastic modulus of the sample, which was
obtained through the servo control alternating pressure
test. And let c be the acoustic velocity inside the sample,
let ρ be the density of the sample, then according to the
classic theory of acoustics, we hold the following equation
to be true.

K
ρ=
c2
The calculation of c can be obtained through the space
charge distribution curve. The sampling rate in the PEA
test is 2.5 GHZ, then the time interval between two
neighboring sampling points is 0.4 µs. Let d be the
thickness of the sample and x1, x2 be the sampling order
in the space charge distribution curve, then c could be
calculated as follows.

d Fig 8: The quantity of homo charge injection under

c=
0.4 µ s *( x1 − x2 ) different stress
At a constant stress, the quantity of homo charge from the
Then we could obtain the density at different stress, as is injection increase rapidly at the first 5 min and then the
shown in Fig 7. curve at a constant stress tend to be gentle. It is
reasonable to assume that the quantity of the homo
charge would remain constant after 30 min, which was
confirmed by our later observation. Fig 8 illustrates that
more and more homo charge from injection appeared
close to the anode as the pressure on the sample
increased.

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F2.06 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Correspondingly, the calculation of the quantity of hetero
charge accumulation close to anode presented a similar
result, as is shown in Fig 9. The result also displayed a
rapid increase in the first 5 min and a relatively gentle
trend of the curve after 30 min.
Fig 9: The quantity of hetero charge accumulation
under different stress
Fig 8 and Fig 9 illustrated that, as the stress on the
sample increase, the hetero and homo charge would both
increase a lot close to the anode, which would cause
great distortion to the electric field that would lower
dielectric performance. Next section would focus on the
distortion of electric field along the vertical direction of the
sample to show the effect of the stress, together with the
density curve.
DISTORTION OF ELECTRIC FIELD ON
DIFFERENT STRESS WITH DIFFERENT
DENSITY OF THE SAMPLE
The stress on the sample also changed the density. After
calculating the distortion ratio defined in the former
section, we could obtain the curve showing us the
distortion of electric field on different stress. Together with
the curve showing the density on different stress, we
could integrate both curves to have a comprehensive
observation, as is shown in Fig 10.
Fig 10: The quantity of hetero charge accumulation
under different stress
In Fig 10, the red line represents for the density curve and
the other one for distortion ratio. It is concluded from the
curves that the process of increasing the stress on the
sample can be divided in to three stages. In stage 1, as
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
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the stress on the sample goes up, the density goes up
along with the stress while the distortion ratio goes down
obviously. In stage 2 and stage 3 as shown in Fig 10, the
density remained relatively constant, while the distortion
ratio in stage 2 goes down and in stage 3 it goes up again.
It has been assumed before that both density and stress
would affect the space charge accumulation which was
measured by the distortion ratio. From stage 3, it could be
concluded that when the density remained constant, the
distortion ratio would only be affected by the stress. From
stage 1, it could be concluded that even in this stage the
stress on the sample was increasing, the distortion ratio
still goes down due to the increase of density.
To explain stage 2, when density remained constant, and
the stress goes up, the distortion goes down beyond
expectation. Since the sample made of silicon rubber is
amorphous, the physical condition and the chemical
condition may change in stage 2. That means the sample
in stage 3 may not be the same as it was in stage 1. For
example, module chain breaks or crosslinking may
happen during stage 2, or the intersection surface of the
sample may just extend. The process during stage 2 is
quite complicated that it remains to be a problem for the
current research to solve.
DISCUSSION
The last section did has illustrated several results and
some problems to solve. Despite the occurrence of stage
2, Fig 10 still provided some useful information for
practical use.
When the stress on the sample is not too high, 0.5 MPa to
0.7 MPa, the density of the sample changes along with
the increase of the stress, which has a stronger effect on
the space charge accumulation than the stress itself does.
If the density increases, the space charge accumulation
inside the sample would be constrained and what we
observed would be the lower distortion ratio. When the
stress is quite high, around 2 MPa, the density of the
sample remained constant since it was incompressible
then. If the stress goes up, the distortion ratio would goes
up along with that which means that higher stress brings
out higher distortion inside the sample, and higher
distortion means stronger effect the space charge
accumulation inserts on the dielectric performance of the
material.
When stress on the sample goes up, the injection would
be promoted and more homo charge would be injected
into the material close to the anode which could bring out
higher distortion of electric field. This is a reasonable
explanation for the stress’s effect on the space charge
accumulation.
When the sample was compressed, the density of the
sample goes up, then the collision frequency of the
charge carrier goes up due to the reduction of mean free
path, and the kinetic energy for the charge carries
increases. Carriers inside the sample oscillate more
severely and all those factors make it easier for the carrier
to overcome the constraint of the potential well distributed
inside the material. Then the space charge accumulation
would be suppressed and we could observe lower
distortion of the electric field. This is a reasonable
explanation for the density’s effect on the space charge
accumulation.
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F2.06 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.06

CONCLUSION
The research is focused on the effect on the state of
stress on the space charge accumulation. It was revealed
that both stress and density were the key factors. The
stress on the sample would promote the injection effect of
anode which made the distortion of electric field of the
sample higher, while when the increase of density would
bring out higher kinetic energy of the charge carriers and
it would be helpful for them to overcome the potential well,
which in turn would suppress the space charge
accumulation. Both of the factors make the change of the
space charge accumulation a complicated process when
the material is compressed in practical use, and it is
meaningful to pay attention to the state of stress in
practical use or in other researches about space charge
accumulation inside dielectric materials.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Fu, L. A. Dissado, G. Chen and J. C. Fothergill.
Space charge formation and its modified electric
field under applied voltage reversal and temperature
gradient in XLPE cable [J]. IEEE Trans. Dielectr.
Electr. Insul., 2008, 15: 851-860.
[2] Amyot N, et al. A study of interfacial pressure
behavior for two types of thermally cycled cold
shrinkable joints [C] //Conference record of IEEE
international symposium on electrical insulation,
Boston, USA, 2002:476-800.
[3] Hanley, T.L, Burford, R.P. et al. A general review of
polymeric insulation for use in HVDC cables [J],
Electrical insulation Magazine, IEEE. 2003-2-19:13-
24.

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F2.07 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Spatially-resolved measurement and diagnostic method for power cables
using interference characteristics of travelling waves
Erik FISCHER, Christian WEINDL; Institute of Electrical Energy Systems, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg,
Erlangen, Germany, erik.fischer@fau.de, christian.weindl@fau.de
ABSTRACT
In this paper, a new approach of a spatially-resolved
diagnostic method for power cables will be briefly
introduced. This method uses travelling waves and their
interference characteristics to generate specific electrical
energy losses inside the test object. The method has
been tested in several simulations, which are based on
discretized cable models. This is followed by setting up a
laboratory test to verify the simulation results. From this
set of experiments, the most significant results will be
presented in this article. In the described experiments, the
proposed approach of a diagnostic method shows local
degradations of power cables and coaxial signal cables
both in simulation and laboratory measurements, which
cannot be detected by established reflectometry methods.
KEYWORDS
Power cables; diagnostic method; measurement method;
spatial resolution; condition monitoring; local degradation;
reflectometry; time domain; TDR.
INTRODUCTION
In modern power networks, condition monitoring and
remaining lifetime estimation of cable grids and related
equipment are necessary to maintain supply reliability, to
improve investment planning and for maintenance
strategy.
Currently, the key parameters of well-established
diagnostic methods for power cables are based on the
partial discharge (PD) levels (inception voltage and
intensity) and tanδ values. In the field of cables and
especially in case of PILC cables or water tree-degraded
XLPE cables, the requirements on these measurements
are rather complex. However, the reliability of these
methods is also dependent on the experience of the test
engineers and the interpretation of all measured
parameters. Many parameters, besides electrical ones,
must be taken into account, like the test temperature,
equipment dimensions, cable length and noise.
Furthermore, the measured PD activity of a cable does
not determine the condition itself but shows local defects
and tanδ measurements can evaluate the cable condition
only integrally. For diagnostic improvements, additional
methods must be analyzed, optimized or further
developed.
Especially methods with spatial resolution are of greatest
interest due to the advantage to detect local degradations
before a cable failure occurs. Therefore, a specific
replacement of segments of power cables with the
prognosis of a short remaining lifetime will be possible. As
a consequence, unnecessary expenses for replacement
of complete cable routes and related civil engineering can
be saved. Fig. 1 shows an exemplary measurement of a
power cable condition to illustrate what spatial resolution
means. On the one hand the abscissa (cable length)
divides the test object (power cable) into cable segments
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F2.07
of a defined length, on the other hand the ordinate (cable
condition) categorizes the test cable between healthy and
critically-aged. The z-axis is split up to all physical line
parameters: Capacitance (C), conductance (G), induct-
ance (L) and resistance (R). The main goal will be the
determination of all these line parameters of every cable
segment with the aid of combining different methods.
cable condition
line parameters
critically
aged R
L
moderately
G
aged
C
healthy
cable length
test object (power cable)
Fig. 1: Exemplary measurement of a cable condition
with spatial resolution
In the following, an approach of a new spatially-resolved
measurement and diagnostic method will be briefly
introduced. The method has been tested in simulations
and laboratory measurements, which will be presented
afterwards.
NEW METHOD WITH SPATIAL
RESOLUTION
This new method uses travelling waves and their
interference characteristics to generate detectable
electrical energy losses inside the test object. These
losses can be measured and give a qualitative indication
about the local physical condition of cable insulation.
Theory and transmission line model
To achieve this, several travelling waves are generated by
injecting defined pulse patterns into the test object. These
waves propagate with a characteristic velocity and are
attenuated and distorted caused by losses inside the
transmission line. Attenuation and distortion are defined
by the propagation constant γ, which consists of a real
part, the attenuation constant α, and an imaginary part,
the phase constant β [1]:
γ = α + jβ = (R' + jωL') ⋅ (G' + jωC') [1]
According to Fig. 2, a transmission line can be divided into
a number of increments N of a defined length. One
segment k can be modeled by the equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 2 [2]. On the basis of this transmission line
model and an extended form of it considering the skin-
effect, a selected range of simulation and measurement
results will be presented subsequently.
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F2.07 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.07

curve).
Rk’ Lk’
Gk’ voltage
Ck’
input voltage uA (t)
2U0
voltage at interference point uI (t)
U0

test object time

0 tdelta ttransit
Fig. 3: Input voltage and voltage at the interference
Fig. 2: Basic transmission line model point over time

Assuming the simplification of travelling waves according
to [1], the propagation velocity v is calculated as:
1 dielectric material energy losses are generated, which are
v=
L 'C'
If attenuation and distortion exist inside the propagation
medium, the resistance and conductance per unit length
will have to be taken into account. Also incident and
reflected waves of voltage (ui and ur) and current (ii and ir)
exist. The wave impedance can be calculated by these
values or discrete elements of the transmission line
model:
R' + jωL' ui (x,t) ur (x,t)
ZW = = =
G' + jωC' ii (x,t) ir (x,t)
Applying the travelling wave theory proposed in [1], for
distortion-free transmission lines the wave impedance can
be described as follows:
L'
ZW =
C'
The incident wave propagates along the test object and is
reflected at every impedance discontinuity k. The
reflection factor rk is defined by equation [5]. In most
reflectometry measurement methods the test cable
terminates with open end, so load impedance is set to
infinity [2]:
Zk+1 - Zk
rk = = 1
Zk+1 + Zk Zk+1 →∞
Propagation and interference
characteristics
The propagation and interference characteristics of the
injected pulse patterns are used for a new measurement
method to generate detectable electrical energy losses. In
simple terms, these pulse patterns consist of uniform
rectangular pulses with predefined amplitudes and time
delays between them. These temporal distances and the
propagation velocity of the test object define one or more
Applying a lossless transmission line without distortion,
the red curve shows that the voltage is doubled at the
point of impact. This implies that in this local area of the
[2] increased in comparison to the energy losses inside the
remaining cable segments. As a consequence, a real
spatial resolution of this diagnostic measurement method
is possible.
Applying a constant voltage over time (rectangular
pulses), the power dissipation can be calculated by the
voltage uk and the discrete elements at the point k. The
energy loss of one discrete element Ek with a line length l
can be described as follows:
uk 2 ⋅ N
[3] Ek = ∆t ⋅ PV = ∆t ⋅ [6]
 R' 
l⋅ 2
+ G' 
 ZW 
Due to the quadratic dependence of the voltage
concerning the energy loss of a travelling wave, the
voltage doubling leads to a significant improvement for the
visibility and resolution of degraded cable segments. The
[4]
energy loss is maximized directly at the point of impact
because the time duration of overlapping reaches its
maximum and is linear decreasing towards the outside.
As a result, the interference of two rectangular pulses
leads to a triangular function of energy loss over time.
Fig. 4 and 5 are two examples for generating different
energy losses of travelling waves by propagating through
a cable. Both figures show the energy loss Ek over a cable
segment in percent. The exemplary cable consists of a
[5]
healthy and a degraded part (at 25-50% of the total cable
length). The first example (Fig. 4) shows a situation where
the interference point is located inside of a degraded
cable segment. In comparison to that, the black and
dotted lines show the energy losses of two rectangular
pulses, which are not interfering by selecting an adequate
pulse distance.
3,3
increased energy losses in
the interference point
2,8 (degraded cable segment)
energy loss Ek

points of impact (interference points) assuming e.g. a energy losses without

2,3 interference (degraded
cable termination with an open end. cable segment)
The presentation in Fig. 3 shows an exemplary pulse 1,8
energy losses without
pattern consisting of two rectangular pulses. The first interference (healthy cable
pulse will be totally reflected at the open end and 1,3 segment)
propagates in backward direction. At the point of impact
the second pulse interferes with the first reflected pulse.
0,8
At this interference point the electrical energy losses are 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
increased during the interference time of both pulses. The cable segment in %
graph shows the voltage over time measured at the input
uA(t) (blue curve) and at the interference point uI(t) (red

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F2.07 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.07

Fig. 4: Energy loss inside a transmission medium

2,5
(interference in a degraded segment)
10G'

normalized energy loss Ek'

3,3 2 5G'
increased energy losses at the interference
2G'
point (healthy cable segment) 1,5
2,8
energy losses without interference (degraded
energy loss Ek

cable segment)
2,3 1
energy losses in a homogenous area without
interference
1,8 0,5

0
1,3
0 200 400 600 800 1000
cable length in m
0,8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fig. 6: Simulation results of 1 km XLPE insulated
cable segment in %
power cables with degraded sections
Fig. 5: Energy loss inside a transmission medium Similar to the previous graph, the Fig. 7 shows the
(interference in a healthy segment) simulation results of a power cable with a healthy and a
The second example (Fig. 5) indicates a situation of degraded part (400-500m) at a total length of one
interference outside of the degraded part. The energy loss kilometer. The difference is that in this case the simulation
of non-interfering pulses is as high as before, but at the bases on a PILC cable (type: NAEKEBA, 12/20 kV,
2
interference point there is a decreased energy level. The 150 mm ).
difference of energy loss between interference in a
degraded segment and in a healthy part is much greater 2,5
compared to the use of non-interfering pulses. This 10G'
normalized energy loss Ek'

knowledge forms the fundamental basis of this new 2

5G'
measurement method explained by the quadratic
dependence on the voltage in equation [6]. 1,5 2G'

To obtain a spatial resolution, the point of impact must be

1
systematically varied over different sections of the test
object to analyze the complete line. Consequently,
0,5
according to the size of spatial resolution, the number of
interference points must increase or decrease, which is
synonymous to the number of measurements to be 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
performed.
cable length in m

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS Fig. 7: Simulation results of 1 km PILC power cables

To verify this new method, it has been tested in several
computer simulations with realistic parameters in the first
step. This is followed by setting up a laboratory test site
with real cable samples. The most significant results of
these simulations and laboratory tests will be presented in
the following.
Simulation of medium voltage power cables
The simulation setup and the corresponding models
include different types of power cables, signal cables and
related equipment, which are implemented in a MATLAB-
with degraded sections
In both cases the degraded part of the simulated objects
can be detected by the new method contrary to
established diagnostic methods with spatial resolution,
which cannot detect minor changes of the conductance.
The energy losses increase with the factor of conductance
change. In this way, different qualities of the cable health
status can be estimated and further analyzed.
1,2
200-300m
normalized energy loss Ek'

Simulink simulation environment. An extended form of the 1 300-400m

transmission line model in Fig. 2, considering the skin 400-500m
0,8
effect, provides the basis for the discretized simulation
model. 0,6

Fig. 6 shows the simulation results of a medium voltage 0,4

XLPE insulated power cable (type: NA2XS2Y, 12/20 kV,
2
150 mm ) with a length of one kilometer. The simulated 0,2
cable has been built up of a healthy and a degraded part
(400-500m). The degradation consists of a modification of 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
the conductance (G) between factors two and ten. The y-
cable length in m
axis represents the energy loss Ek’, which is normalized to
a reference value (referenced to the maximum of 5G’).
This normalized energy loss is plotted over the cable Fig. 8: Simulation results of 1 km PILC power cables
length (in meters). with degraded sections (5G’) locally varied

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F2.07 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
When comparing the results of the XLPE cable simulation
with the results of the PILC cable simulation, Fig. 7
indicates a higher energy level outside of the degraded
area. This is explained by the changed parameters of the
cable models. Furthermore, in both cases the
conductance changes are represented correctly.
According to Fig. 7, the graph of Fig. 8 shows the
simulation results of PILC power cables of the same cable
type and a constant degradation (5G'). In contrast to the
previous simulations, the location of the degradation has
been modified. The figure shows that the degraded part
can be definitely detected at different locations (200-
300m, 300-400m and 400-500m).
The presented results refer to changes of conductance
because of the unique ability of this new method. In
compliance with the most reflectometry methods, minor
changes of impedance can be detected as well.
Laboratory test with coaxial cables
The schematic laboratory setup, seen in Fig. 9, is similar
to the classical time domain reflectometry (TDR), which is
the most popular method to locate cable faults. The basic
procedure is to connect an AWG (arbitrary waveform
generator) to the test object and inject the predefined
pulse patterns. The input voltage can be measured with a
digital oscilloscope or digitizer and sent to a PC in digital
form, where the energy loss can be calculated.
generator
test object (coaxial cable)
digitizer
Fig. 9: Schematic laboratory setup
For laboratory measurements, the power cable were
replaced by coaxial signal cables (e.g. RG58). These
cables have a similar construction principle (coaxial) and
insulation material (PE), similar electrical characteristics
and the advantage of a wave impedance of 50 Ω. In
consequence, there is no impedance matching necessary.
A disadvantage of using RG58 signal cables is, that the
losses are higher than with medium voltage XLPE cables.
The first test setup has been made up of several sections
of RG58 cables with a single degraded segment
consisting of different types of cables (e.g. RG174,
RG213, EPR insulated cables, etc.). The photograph of
Fig. 10 shows the different test objects in connection with
additional RG58 segments before and after.
Fig. 10: Photograph of different test objects
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.07
1,2
normalized energy loss Ek'
simulation
1 measurement
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
cable lenght in m
Fig. 11: Measurement and simulation results of 140 m
coaxial signal cables with degraded sections
The graph of Fig. 11 shows the results of the analysis of a
140 m RG58 cable with a degraded section between 70 m
and 80 m. The degraded part consists of a RG174 cable
with the characteristics of the same wave impedance
(50 Ω) but a smaller diameter leading to increased
electric/dielectric losses. This part causes considerably
higher energy losses than the remaining part of the cable.
As a consequence, the 10 m degradation can be definitely
detected both in simulation and measurement. In the
course of the laboratory measurements, several similar
configurations have been set up. The overall length of the
test object (RG58), the locations, length and kind of
degraded parts (RG174, RG213, EPR, etc.) have been
modified.
COMPARISON WITH OTHER METHODS
Referring to the paper [3] concerning a comparison of
different spatially-resolved diagnostic methods, the
following comparison is extended with the above-
presented new measurement method.
Table 1 gives an overview of all compared terms, e.g. if
the concerned method is diagnostically conclusive, the
column of condition diagnosis will be evaluated positively.
TDR can be easily applied and has minimal hardware
requirements, which results in low costs. Another
advantage is that this method has proved to be successful
in fault localization. Furthermore, condition monitoring is
possible in combination with additional methods such as
DC bias voltage. The disadvantages are that small
changes of impedance are difficult to detect and by using
narrow pulse widths the distortion has an influence on
identifying the rising/falling edges of the reflected time-
domain signals, what is important to determine the
propagation time.
The main disadvantage of all reflectometry methods (e.g.
TDR, FDR) or LIRA is that only changes of wave
impedance can be measured because in this way
reflection originates. Degradations with a smooth transient
of impedance or changes of conductance cannot be
detected by pulse reflectometry. As a result of this,
reliable condition diagnosis is hardly possible with these
methods [3-6].
Compared to TDR, FDR and LIRA, the new method
performs better in the terms of Table 1. The main
advantage is the ability to detect local changes of
conductance leading to the possibilty of condition
diagnosis.
4/5
F2.07 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.07

Table 1: Comparison of spatially-resolved methods REFERENCES

(+: advantage; ○: neutral; -: disadvantage)
spatial meas.
METHOD sensitivity
resolution range
+ ○ - ○
TDR
FDR ○ + + ○
LIRA ○ + ++
new + ○ + +
method
a.
Additional diagnostic methods required, e.g. DC-polarization
b.
Alternative method NDR with lower costs
OUTLOOK ON FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS
As future work the measurements in laboratory will be
continued to improve the results by a further development
of the diagnostic method. One improvement could be
using RG213 instead of RG58 to reduce the attenuation
and get the ability to set up longer cable lines. External
influences such as multiple reflections caused by cable
joints or measurement noise will have to be investigated.
The main goal will be the development of a prototype
system to transfer the laboratory setup into field and to
verify the expected results. The combination of this new
approach with other diagnostic methods could lead to a
non-destructive and powerful diagnostic tool with the
result that the exemplary measurement of Fig. 1 can
become reality. The main goal for the future is to develop
a diagnostic method with the following features:
• Possibility to evaluate the condition of cable
segments with failure prognosis and specific
replacement of segments giving enormous potentials
of cost savings for asset management
• Determination of cable structure and locations of
unknown joints and differentiating cable lines
• Non-destructive measurement
• Meter precision spatial resolution
• Compact and flexible measurement setup
• Determination of all relevant cable parameters of
single cable segments based on combined
measurement principles
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a new approach for a measurement and
diagnostic method with spatial resolution has been briefly
introduced, the theoretical background explained and the
measurement principle presented. Furthermore, some of
the most significant results of model-based simulations
and laboratory measurements according to this new
method have been analyzed. As a result of this, the new
method works in the simulation environment and the
laboratory, is already able to detect minor changes of
conductance and the measurement setup can be easily
applied.
Acknowledgments
The research work at the Energy Campus Nuremberg
(EnCN) is supported by the Bavarian State Government.
The authors would like to thank SebaKMT for the
technical support and cooperation.
[1] R. Rüdenberg, 1926, Elektrische Schaltvorgänge und
condition hardware verwandte Störungserscheinungen in Starkstroman-
diagnosis expenses
a
++
lagen, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Germany,
327-348.
○b
[2] K. Küpfmüller et al., 2008, Theoretische
○ ○ Elektrotechnik, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
Germany, 597-643.
+
[3] E. Fischer and Ch. Weindl, 2014, “Perspective on
Spatially-Resolved Diagnostic Methods for Power
Cables”, IEEE Electrical Insulation Conference, EIC,
Philadelphia, USA, 382-386.
[4] E. Fischer and Ch. Weindl, 2014, “Ortsauflösende
Diagnoseverfahren für Energieversorgungskabel und
deren Perspektive“, ETG-Fachtagung Diagnostik
elektrischer Betriebsmittel, VDE-Konferenz, Berlin,
Germany.
[5] R. Eriksson et al., 2006, “Localization of Insulation
Degradation in Medium Voltage Distribution Cables”,
Industrial and Information Systems Conference, Sri
Lanka, 167-172.
[6] Q. Shi et al., 2010, “Detection and localization of
cable faults by time and frequency domain
measurements”, Systems Signals and Devices
Conference, Amman, Jordan, 1-6.
[7] I. Mladenovic and Ch. Weindl, 2011, “Dependencies
of the PD- and tan(δ)-Characteristics on the
Temperature and Ageing Status of MV PILC Cables”,
IEEE Electrical Insulation Conference, EIC,
Annapolis, USA, 88-92.
[8] I. Mladenovic and Ch. Weindl, 2012, "Artificial aging
and diagnostic measurements on medium-voltage,
paper-insulated, lead-covered cables," Electrical
Insulation Magazine, IEEE, vol. 28, no.1, 20-26.
[9] C. Freitag et al., 2012, “Verlustfaktormessung an
Mittelspannungskabeln bei Netzfrequenz“, ETG-
Fachtagung Diagnostik elektrischer Betriebsmittel,
VDE-Konferenz, Fulda, Germany.
[10] C. Freitag et al., 2013 “Experiences of in field
measured dissipation factor on MV PILC cables at 50
Hz”, International Conference on Electricity
Distribution, CIRED, Stockholm, Sweden.
[11] I. Mladenovic et al., “Effects of MV PILC Cables
Ageing Process on the Diagnostic Parameters: p-
factor and tanδ“, IEEE International Conference on
Solid Dielectrics, ICSD, Bologna, Italy.
[12] Ch. Weindl et al., 2013, “Vom Alterungsversuch zur
zustandsorientierten Instandhaltung“, Magazin für die
Energie-Wirtschaft, EW, vol. 12/2013, 60-64.
GLOSSARY
AWG: Arbitrary Waveform Generator
EPR: Ethylene Propylene Rubber
FDR: Frequency Domain Reflectometry
LIRA: Line Resonance Analysis
NDR: Noise Domain Reflectometry
PE: Poly-Ethylene
PILC: Paper Insulated Lead Covered
TDR: Time Domain Reflectometry
XLPE: Cross-Linked Poly-Ethylene

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 5/5

F2.08 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Modelling of Viscoelastic Dynamic Bending Stiffness for VIV Analysis of
Submarine Cables
Johan HEDLUND; ABB HVC, Karlskrona Sweden, Johan.1.Hedlund@se.abb.com
ABSTRACT
During cable installation, free spans can occur in areas
with uneven seabed. In combination with current and
waves there is a risk that Vortex Induced Vibrations (VIV)
are introduced in the cable span. VIV can cause wear and
fatigue on the cable’s weak components such as the lead
sheath.
KEYWORDS
Free span, Bending Stiffness, Vortex Induced Vibrations,
Structural Damping.
INTRODUCTION
Free spans is a phenomena that can occur for power
cables, umbilicals and pipelines. It can happen along the
cable route if the seabed is so uneven that the cable
cannot adapt to it, as shown in Pic. 1. Free spans can
also occur if the cable exits a J-tube bell mouth above the
seafloor. The reason for the uneven seabed can be a
pockmark, boulder, anchor scar, cliff, scour, and etcetera.
The normal approach to avoid free spans is to change the
route to circumvent the location with too uneven seabed,
but sometimes that is not possible or the free span may
occur after the cable has been laid and even trenched.
The hazards that comes with a cable free span is mainly
impact with fishing equipment or vibrations that occur due
to the flowing fluid around the cable which creates
vortices which in turn can induce vibrations. The
vibrations may lead to fatigue and wear on cable
components. The flowing fluid around the cable can be
induced by both ocean current and waves, this
phenomena is called Vortex Induced Vibrations, VIV.
Pic. 1: Model over free span due to cliff.
Predicting VIV
There is no standard or recommendation for predicting
VIV in power cables. There are industry accepted
standards to assess VIV in pipelines such as DNV RP
F105 [1]. Methodologies to assess the resulting fatigue
damage in umbilicals and flexible pipes have been
described in references [2] and [3] with the verifying
testing described in reference [4]. There is also a range of
purpose built software for VIV assessment which reduce
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.08
the level of conservatism such as, VIVANA, Shear7 and
OrcaFlex for example. These software can account for the
stick-slip behaviour of the helical layers of armour wires.
Critical parameters to evaluate the risk for onset of VIV
are the bending stiffness and the structural damping of the
object. The Eigen frequency is proportional to the square
root of the bending stiffness and a higher Eigen frequency
results in longer allowed free spans and higher water
velocities. These parameters are easily determined for a
steel pipe with a linear bend stiffness. For a power cable
this becomes even more complex due to the bitumen
covering the helically laid armour wires. The bitumen layer
will have a large impact on the bending stiffness, the
Eigen frequency and the allowed free span length of a
submarine cables.
A typical three core double armoured cable with copper
conductor, XLPE insulation, lead sheath, filler profiles and
two steel wire armour layers with bedding is shown in the
picture below:
Pic. 2: Typical cross-section for double armoured
submarine cable.
Bitumen, which is used as part of the corrosion protection
system of the armour wires, is a viscoelastic material
where the mechanical properties vary with temperature
and strain velocity. The bending stiffness and structural
damping of a submarine cable with bitumen covered
armour wires will therefore depend on temperature,
bending amplitude and bending speed.
This paper studies the effects of bitumen on the bending
stiffness of submarine cables and how the stiffness varies
with bending speed and temperature. A numerical model
is developed to calculate the build-up of stress in the
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F2.08 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.08

armour wires resulting from the shear deformation in the coulomb friction along with the contact pressure between
bitumen layer during cable bending. The resulting stress the wire and surrounding materials and this results in that
distribution is used to calculate the bending moment the wire either is stuck or slides, this is called stick-slip.
required to bend the cable. The helical geometry is the same for cables as for
umbilicals and flexible pipes and is very well described in
The temperature varying viscoelastic parameters of reference [6]. The same methodology is applicable for
bitumen have been determined from small scale testing, submarine cables with some modifications and will be
in reference 0. used to calculate the dynamic bending moment.
The calculated relationship between bend moment and
curvature is used to investigate the dynamic cable Helical Geometry
bending stiffness during conditions representative for VIV The helical geometry used to calculate the wire
on how this affects the risk for onset of VIV. The displacement is mathematically described in reference [6],
established bend moment curvature relationships are also below a simplification of the wire displacement in a
used to determine the viscoelastic damping of the cable’s Cartesian coordinate system along with explanatory
armour layer which is the major contribution to the total Figure 1:
8
structural damping.
Nomenclature ^ 3B _1 G &_ ``
D 3B & _ `
[1]
,
, / 3B 3 & 6 6 J 6 7 ,
, G , ,
1⁄ /, ,
! 1 ∗ 10$% , & '( 8 ⁄2F ,
) *+ ,
)-./ ,
)0 1 ,
2 3 &,
4 5 & 6 7 ,8 / $
9! 6,635 ∗ 10 , ==

> ? 6 + , /&
@/ A 6 ,
6B * 6 + , CD
8 ⁄2F ,
Fig. 1: Helical geometry.

G , , When the cable is bent the helix around a cylinder is

H *66 &&, 8 transformed into a helix around a toroid and an under
I & , J
length of wire is created on the outside of the bend and an
& 5 & 7 , ,
over length created on the inside of the bend this is
1 ,&
explained by the relationships below:
? &, 6 7 , _ e 3B cos_ `` sin k p
d
lmn

K L & 7 &, , b
. o

5 &, 6 & , k1 G cos k

lmn
pp e 3B k1 G cos_ ` cos k
lmn
pp
-
c .
? ? 7 , =
o o
[2]
bD 3B sin_ `
?MNM OPO ? , a .
5 J , 2 3 &,
* Q & &,
*PRSBTU@ 5 J & 66 &&, 8V =
achieved by some manipulation where the ratio 3q ≪ 1 is
From equation [2] the length of the deformed helix is
*PW.T.@ J & 66 &&, 8V =
X Y &, ,
I 2 ,V
assumed:
]_ ` sin_ `
3 1,488 ∗ 10'$ , \ '( K [3]
3B 3 & 6 7 ,
1 1 , ,\ & 7 &, ,
Where:
K
14 A 1 & , V
]_ `
l s tu
] , /& o_.`vtus wl s
[4]
]4 6 7 6 7 , /&
QB 5 &, J &,
How the wire displacement is affected by bending if the

with &, which is

wire sticks to the toroid can be simplified by introducing
the following expressions and replacing
METHODOLOGY the distance along the wire path:
A power cable usually consists of 1 or 2 layers of helically & v3B= e 8 = [5]
& 5 & 7 , ,
wound armour wires. For umbilicals and flexible pipes
without bitumen covered armour the methodology,
described in reference [3], is well established for
determining the stresses and strains in the armour wires The relationship between the cable’s radius, pitch angle
when subjected to tension and bending. That model uses and lay length is described by the following triangular

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 2/7

F2.08 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.08

relationship described in 3B and =A &, 6 & ,

3B
gives -
8 q _ `
^
3
The tension in the wire is proportional to the strain in the
v3B= e 8 = Bq _ `
&
[6] wire:
•‚
14 = *?
, •-
[11]

8 = ⁄2F , 14 = A 1 & , V
*=Q & &,
?=? 7 , =

3B The model proposed in reference [6] defines the wire

tension, 14 as below:
8 •0ƒ
=\ -
•-
[12]

With the expression from reference 0 replacing the elastic

model described in equation [9], in order to adapt the
Fig. 2: Relationship between radius, pitch angle and model for submarine cables with bitumen coated armour
lay length. wires, the wire tension, 14 can be expressed as:
…†‡ t0
Which results in that the wire displacement, K , can be •0ƒ
= @/ 9! „ …ˆ
‰
•- |}
simplified to just depend on the radius, pitch angle, cable [13]
curvature and the distance along the deformed helix:
=
tus -@B_x`
& k
- -@B_x`
p → @/ =7 6 ,
K o_.` .TB_x`s t
[7]
The total expression results in:
tus z-_x`s - -@B_x`
L = & k p _ ` t0
-@B_x` t
[8] …†‡
•s ‚
9! „ …ˆ
‰ = *? →
= 1⁄ = , / @/ |} •- s
[14]

…†‡ t0
•s ‚‡ •s ‚Š
The result is an expression for wire displacement as a
*? = @/ 9! „ …ˆ
‰ − *?
•- s |} •- s
function of the armour design and curvature is obtained [15]
when the wire sticks to the toroid underneath it. The
corresponding strain is found as the derivative of equation This is a differential equation with a diffusion term, a
[8] which can be used to calculate the stick strain and the transient term with an exponent and a source term which
bending moment during the stick phase. can be solved numerically for uΠ. A numerical solver
based on reference [7] was used. With the solution for -
Viscoelastic Model
the strain reduction in the wire along the arc due to axial
In Reference 0 the bitumen shear mechanics in a dynamic sliding can be established. By adding the constant
subsea power cable have been investigated by bending component and the component from the axial
performing pull out tests from a cable sample at various sliding the strain, , from bending motions is established.
•‚Š •‚‡
= +
temperatures and speed in order to characterize the shear
•- •-
force that is generated by the bitumen layer when the [16]
armour wire slides in relation to its neighbouring layers.
The work comprising 29 different pull out tests and 3 When the relationship between tensile stress in the
cyclic pull out tests resulted in an expression for the shear armour wire as a function of time dependent curvature
force, 9 in bitumen as a function of velocity and and temperature for a specific cross-section has been
temperature, the result is described by equation [9]. established, all parameters required to calculate the
dynamic bending moment are known.
| t0
9 = 9! ) = 9! k p , 6 9! ) < 2.2I
{ |} [9] The distance from the centre of the cable to the armour
9 = 2.2I , 6 9! ) ≥ 2.2I wire, in the plane the cable is bent with the stress in the
wire along the arc, creates a bending moment. By
9! = 6,635 ∗ 10== , integrating that bending moment along the wire for all
! = 1 ∗ 10 , &
$% '( wires in all armour layers and adding the bending
3 = 1,488 ∗ 10 , \ '(
'$ moment, EImin, from the other componetns in the , such as
1=1 , ,\ conductor, the total bending moment, I the cable
experiences can be expressed as:
This gives a viscous force equilibrium that differs
‡ ‡ ‡“u_”`
•} •‘’tu z-k p•-
I = ∑–! ∑B! + *PW.T.@
compared to the force equilibrium described in reference •u
-
[6] that assumes an elastic relationship between shear [17]
force and wire displacement. The force equilibrium is used *PW.T.@ = J & 66 &&, 8V =

to calculate the total wire displacement that is a function
of how the cable moves around the toroid when being RESULTS
bent. The total displacement consists of two components,
curvature, L and sliding, - : The dynamic bending moment is a function of how
= +
curvature varies with time. For VIV the curvature along the
- L [10] arc is a function of the dynamic mode shape displacement
= &, 6 7 , that is expressed by:

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 3/7

F2.08 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
QB _ , ` ?MNM sin k p sin_> `
B—˜
–
[18]
?MNM OPO ? ,
QB 5 &, J &,
I & , J
> ? 6 + , /&
X Y &, ,
The curvature can be approximated as equal to the
second derivative of the displacement:
™š š
›s œu
›•s
[19]
Dynamic Bending Stiffness
By using equation [19] as input for the curvature in
equation [17] the bending moment response as displayed
in the figure below is achieved for a typical amplitude
response with a curvature of 0.001 and a typical double
armoured cable in 7° degrees water:
Fig. 3: Bending moment hysteresis loop
Figure 1 displays a clear hysteretic behaviour which is the
result from the armour wires sliding in the viscoelastic
bitumen but also an elastic component which comes from
the strain in the armour wire and the elastic stiffness of
the other cable components. The dynamic bending
stiffness can be expressed as a simplified linear stiffness
by performing a linear estimation between the maximum
and minimum response which is the green line in figure 3.
stiffness, *PRSBTU@ is 2580 8V = which ca be compared
For the cable used in this example the dynamic bending
to the static bending stiffness, *PW.T.@ that is 10 8V = .
Bitumen will thus have a significant effect on the dynamic
bending stiffness of the cable and it differs a factor of 258
between static and dynamic bending stiffness for this
case.
Structural Damping
When a linear dynamic bending stiffness is used a
damping coefficient is needed in order to take the energy
loss in each cycle into account in reference [1]. That can
be achieved by studying the hysteresis loop.
For a purely elastic material; stress and strain are always in
phase, where the stress is a linear function of strain. In a
viscoelastic material the stress is also a function of the strain
change rate resulting in that stress and strain are not in
phase. For example, there can still be stress in a viscoelastic
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.08
material when the strain is zero and vice versa; the stress
can be zero even though there is a strain in the material.
A viscoelastic material deviates from perfect elasticity
because a component of stress lags strain. The difference
is called phase angle. The relationship between the
difference in phase angle between curvature and moment
is the measure for damping in a viscoelastic material. In
this case the cable is treated like a Maxwell material
where curvature corresponds to strain and bending
moment is proportional to the stress.
In the graph below the bending moment and curvature are
plotted as a function of time. The lag between moment
and curvature is used to predict the viscoelastic damping,
the phase angle has also been shown in the figure:
Fig. 4: Difference between moment and curvature.
Figure 4 clearly shows that the proposed model predicts a
viscoelastic behaviour of the cable since there is a phase
lag between curvature and moment. In the case of a
cable; strain corresponds to cable curvature and stress
corresponds to cable bending moment. The relationship
between viscoelastic damping and other forms of damping
is described below according to reference [8]:
)-./
.TB_∅` % /
= (!!
[20]
From figure 4 the damping is established in terms of
critical damping for a given mode shade, amplitude
response and frequency.
ANALYSIS
The response amplitude for VIV is essential for calculating
stresses and fatigue loading. The amplitude response is a
result of the flow regime around the cable and the
structural damping. The bending stiffness of the cable
governs when onset of VIV occurs and which vibration
frequency that is induced.
VIV in power cables is not covered in any standard such
as Reference [1]. The phenomena has been investigated
in Reference [9] and a model for estimation of onset VIV
is proposed but it requires the dynamic bending stiffness
and gives no method for calculation of the amplitude
response. In order to assess VIV for power cables could
one approach be to use Reference [1] but then it needs to
be adapted to the cable behaviour.
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F2.08 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.08

Cables are in many ways very different from pipelines due
to for example: the high specific gravity, the softer
materials and the more complex behaviour with helical
wires coated in bitumen. With the expression in equation
[17] a linear bending stiffness is calculated for a given
mode shape and by determining the phase difference
between curvature and moment the critical damping ratio
Displayed in figure 5 is also the damping ratio as a
function of amplitude response for mode shape 1, 2 and 3
calculated with the viscoelastic model accounting for the
damping induced by the bitumen layer. The cable used for
the calculation in figure 5 was a double armoured cable
and a span length of 25 meters was assumed. A shorter
span length has the same effect as a higher mode

ratio. The damping ratio of mode 2 is equivalent for a 12,5

is determined. Both parameters are required to determine number with larger curvature causing a higher damping
the amplitude response for a steel pipeline and the main
differences between cables and pipes. meter long free span. The thicker lines are the amplitude
response as a function of damping for the first mode
The amplitude response in reference [1] depends on
shape in red and all other mode shapes in green.
various environmental parameters and a couple of
parameters from the cable. Two of the cable parameters The proposed model for the dynamic bending moment is
are the Eigen frequency and the damping ratio. The Eigen used to investigate how the dynamic bending stiffness will
frequency, 6B is proportional to the square root of the vary with different mode shapes and amplitude
dynamic bending stiffness and is used to determine the responses.
reduced velocity, Ot which is given by the expression
below:
¡n w¡ƒ
Ot =
¢u R
[21]
•N¥¦u§¨“n ©ª «ˆ§ˆ“n
6B = ∝ ¤
–¬
[22]

] = , /&
]4 6 7 6 7 , /&
6B * 6 + , CD
5 J ,
The reduced velocity is used in section 4.4.4 in reference
[1] to calculate the amplitude of the vibrations, a reduced

amplitude is then adjusted with a reduction factor, 3l for

velocity below 2 means no risk for cross-flow VIV. The

damping that is expressed below:

1 G 0,15\-• 6 \-• ® 4
3l -
3,2\-•
'(,¯
6 \-• ° 4
[23]
Fig. 6: Dynamic bending stiffness versus amplitude
\-•
±—U² ³´ response.
oƒ Rs
[24]

5 & 6 7 ,8 / $
Figure 6 shows that the dynamic bending stiffness
4
)0 1 ,
decreases with increased response amplitude. For higher

*66 &&, 8
H is more rapid than for lower. This has to be considered in
shape an amplitude response of 1,3 is achieved. The
By assuming a current dominated case for the first mode
reduction factor can be calculated as a function of the
damping ration and the resulting amplitude response as a
function of damping is displayed in Figure 5 below:
mode shapes the decrease in dynamic bending stiffness
combination with the results in figure 5. The decrease in
dynamic bending stiffness will stop when the damping
curve between the amplitude response in reference [1]
intersect with the increased damping as a function of
amplitude response for the cable, as displayed in figure 5.
By comparing figure 5 and 6 it can be concluded how
much the dynamic bending stiffness will decrease when
the vibrations starts, and in this case it is no more than 5
%.

Fig. 5: Damping ratio versus amplitude response.

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 5/7

F2.08 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Fig. 7: Frequency dependency for damping and
dynamic bending stiffness.
Figure 7 shows that low frequencies has an insignificant
impact on the dynamic bending stiffness; the change in
dynamic bending stiffness is about 2 % between 0.5 Hz
and 2 Hz. Lower frequency results in an increased
damping which reduces the amplitude response but a
lower dynamic bending stiffness results in a higher
reduced velocity, in this case the increase in damping is
dominating over the decrease in reduced velocity.
Frequency dependency is something that characterize
viscoelastic behaviour and submarine cables.
DISCUSSION
Cables are in general known to be very resilient against
fatigue and few cases are known where VIV has been an
issue. This might be due to the fact that submarine cables
are very flexible and easily adapts to the seabed
compared to pipelines. The high damping and viscoelastic
behaviour of the dynamic bending stiffness also
contributes to preventing the onset of vortex induced
vibrations.
However, if free spans occurs there are at the moment no
best practice for assessing the risk for VIV and the
resulting effects for submarine cables. This article
proposes a method to adapt the cable’s behaviour to a
well-established standard for steel pipelines. The
standard, reference [1] takes several environmental
parameters into consideration such as current statistics,
current profile, wave statistics, wave spectrum,
directionality, turbulence, seabed profile, and soil data.
This makes it applicable in all kinds of conditions such as
current dominated, wave dominated, both shallow and
deep water, and for a wide range of soil conditions.
Limited testing has been performed within the area but in
reference [9] a full scale test has been performed and the
vibration amplitude was found to be 0,4 (A/D) for the first
mode shape, which indicates a very high damping level.
The cable in the test was a double armoured mass
impregnated cable with a lead sheath. The difference in
static and dynamic bending stiffness was also observed
2
with a static bending stiffness estimated to 5-15 kNm for
single armoured cables and the dynamic bending stiffness
2
in the range of 70-90 kNm . That observation also
indicates a highly viscoelastic behaviour of the submarine
cable.
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.08
Application in DNV-RP-F105
When predicting VIV for power cables the cable’s dynamic
bending stiffness and damping ratio shall be utilised either
with the full hysteresis loop for a given mode shape in a
purpose built software or with the methodology described
in reference [1]. When using reference [1] the following
approach can be utilised in order to take the cable’s
viscoelastic behaviour into account:
• Calculate the dynamic bending stiffness for a small
curvature and low frequency and then multiply with
0.9 in order to account for the 2% in frequency
dependency and 5% in amplitude dependency. This
approach is to be considered as conservative since a
lower dynamic bending stiffness creates a lower
Eigen frequency and a higher reduced velocity.
• The obtained reduced velocity is then used to
calculate the corresponding response amplitude
without reduction for damping.
• The damping is later obtained in the intersection
between the damping as a function of amplitude
response for the cable and the amplitude response
as a function of the damping ratio with the given
reduced velocity according to reference [8]. This
results in the damping ratio for where the vibration is
in equilibrium with the damping. An example of this is
displayed in figure 5.
• For calculation of the sagging term in reference [8]
the static bending stiffness shall be used in order to
accommodate for the sagging over time.
By following this methodology the cable’s viscoelastic
behaviour is taken into account when both the vibration
amplitude and the vibration frequency is calculated. This
drastically increase the Eigen frequency in the example
given it increases a factor of 16 which results that a 16
times higher water current can be allowed for the same
span length.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank for all the support from
colleagues and especially Andreas Tyrberg in order to be
able to develop and discuss these models.
REFERENCES
[1] DNV Recommended Practice RP-F105 Free
Spanning Pipelines, 2006, Det Norske Veritas
[2] N. Sødahl, O. Steinkjer, E. Gjølmesli and K. Hansen-
Zahl, 2011, “Consistent VIV Fatigue Analysis
Methodology of Umbilicals”, Proceedings
th
of the 30 International Conference on Ocean and
Arctic Engineering, OMAE2011-49459
[3] G. Skeie, N. Sødahl and O. Steinkjer, 2012, “Efficient
Fatigue Analysis of Helix Elements in Umbilicals and
Flexible Risers: Theory and Applications” Journal of
Applied Mathematics, Vol. 2012, 246812
[4] L. Halvor, H. Braaten, T. Kristianssen and F.G.
Nielsen, 2007, “Free-pan VIV Testing Of Full-Scale
Umbilical”, Proceedings of the Seventeenth
International Offshore and Polar Engineering
Conference.
6/7
F2.08 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.08

[5] J. Mullins, D. Morin, A. Tyrberg, C. Sonesson and J.

Ekh, 2015, "Bitumen shear mechanics in a dynamic
subsea electrical cable", Proceedings
th
of the 34 International Conference on Ocean and
Arctic Engineering, OMAE2015-41110
[6] M. Lutchansky, 1969, "Axial stress in armour wires of
bent submarine cables", Journal of Engineering
Industry. 91(3) 687-693.
[7] J.E. Guyer, D. Wheeler and J. A. Warren, 2009,
“Fipy: Partial Differential Equations with Python”,
Computing in Science & Engineering. 11(3) 6-15
[8] R.D. Blevins, 1994, Flow Induced Vibrations, Krieger
Publishing Co., Florida, USA, 336-337
[9] G.E. Balog, K. Bjørlow-Larsen, A. Ericsson and B.
Dellby, 2006, “Vortex Induced Vibration on
Submarine Cables”, Cigré Session 2006
GLOSSARY
VIV: Vortex Induced Vibrations
DNV: Det Norske Veritas
RP: Recommended Practice

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 7/7

F2.11 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.11

DC cable modelling and High Voltage Direct Current grid grounding

system

Dieynaba LOUME, Minh NGUYEN TUAN, Alberto BERTINATO (1), Bertrand RAISON (2)
1 SuperGrid Institute, Villeurbanne, France, dieynaba.loume-ext@alstom.com , minh-2.nguyen-tuan@edf.fr,
alberto.bertinato@alstom.com
2 G2Elab, Grenoble, France, bertrand.raison@g2elab.grenoble-inp.fr

ABSTRACT 2. HVDC SYSTEM TOPOLOGY AND

This paper describes the influence of grounding on MODELLING
voltage and current transients during DC-link fault in a This section describes the HVDC system topology and
High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) cable system. After
presenting the topology and the modelling of the HVDC components modelled in the simulation.
system, the paper focuses on cable parameters
calculation and on propagation behaviour of travelling
2.1. HVDC system topology
waves during fault conditions. DC short-circuit fault is then The point-to-point HVDC cable system under study is in a
simulated for different cable screens as well as converter bipolar configuration rated at ±320 , 1.5 and
station neutral points grounding impedances. The results
presented in the paper provide a preliminary insight for connected with two AC grids according to Figure 1.
HVDC grid protection system design. ! "#$& ! "#$%
+320 +1.5
KEYWORDS
'( )*"+ & '( )*"+ %
DC cable – HVDC cable systems – MMC-VSC – cable G G

grounding – HVDC grounding system.

G G

1. INTRODUCTION −1.5
−320
G G
The use of HVDC system for bulk power transmission G

instead of Alternative Current system has shown its worth

regarding the amount of transmissible power and the
transmission efficiency [1]. Today, most of the existing
HVDC systems are limited to point-to-point connections.
The opportunity to build multi-terminal Direct Current
(MTDC) grids appears thanks to large flexibility provided
by the Modular Multilevel Converters (MMC) [2].
One of the main challenges for the development of future
MTDC grids is related to the protection system design
including sensors, switchgears, relays and algorithms. In
a HVDC cable system, low value of resistance and surge
impedance of cables lead to a fast propagation of the fault
along the system and a sharp fault current rising. The
protection system has to operate in few to ensure the
safety of the DC grid and the stability of the connected AC
grids [3]. While designing such a protection system, the
grounding impedances of converter stations and cable
screens are relevant elements impacting transient waves
propagating into the grid during fault conditions. Modelling
of grid components, in particular cables must be accurate
enough when studying transient behaviours.
The paper is divided as follows: section 2 describes the
topology of the bipolar HVDC point-to-point connection
test system. Characteristics and models of the
components of the system are then presented for
implementation in EMTP-RV 3.0. Section 3 gives an
overview of high voltage cable modelling and its accuracy
for DC application. Finally section 4 focuses on
contributions to DC short-circuit fault current and analyses
influences on it of grounding impedances of cable screens
and converter stations neutral point.
Figure 1:Point-to-Point HVDC cable system
2.2. AC/DC Converter stations
Converter stations in bipolar configuration consist of two
AC/DC converters connected respectively to the positive
and the negative pole of the HVDC system. In normal
operation, station1 feeds station2 through the positive
pole and current returns through the negative pole.
The neutral point of the converter
station is connected to the earth
in order to provide a ground
reference to the converters in
the G =
addition to protecting
equipment. For simulation
purposes, the grounding of the
station is made either effectively
or through a station grounding Figure 2: Grouding
resistance . options of stations
The converter used in the simulations is the Modular
Multilevel Converter (MMC) which is well adapted to the
requirements of advanced HVDC transmissions systems
[2]. The model of MMC used in the simulations is the
average model “model 3” described in [4] based on
switching function concept of half-bridge converters and
available in EMTP-RV. This model allows blocking
capability of the converter IGBTs in case of overcurrent.
Thus, as soon as DC current reaches two times the
nominal current, converter IGBTs are blocked and the
converter behaves like an uncontrolled rectifier.
Station 1 controls the active power exchanged in the
system to a given reference and station 2 controls the DC

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F2.11 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.11

voltage of the system. On one station, each MMC 2.5. DC short-circuit fault
converter is connected to the AC grid through a , /∆
transformer. Relevant parameters are shown in Table 1. A DC short-circuit fault can be internal to a pole or
between the two poles. In an underground cable system,
pole-to-pole faults can occur at the substations connection
point but this type of fault is very unlikely [5]; thus, the
study only focuses on cable internal fault. A cable internal
Table 1: MMC converters parameters short-circuit fault can be modelled as a connection
between the core and the screen through a low resistance
/010 1 /010 2 and a connection to the earth through a fault
L_=
2 34 04 2 34 04 resistance L_ N according to Figure 4. In section 4.2, the
influence of the fault resistance L_ N in DC short-circuit
104 5 64 500 7 500 7
fault conditions is analysed.
/7 54 1 400 400
20 180
9 0 : ; 64 2 0 : <= 2 0 :
l ml 9l Gl
4120 > ?@ 12 A 12 A
L_=
l
L_ N
=?JJ =?JJ

2.3. AC grids
The 400 , 50AB AC grids are modelled as AC voltage
g
sources in series with an impedance corresponding to
C
10 short circuit power and such that the ratio D F 10.
CE

=?JJ =?JJ
2.4. HVDC Cable
The transmission lines are two 320 XPLE HVDC
cables. The cables are 200 long. Each cable consists Figure 4:Modelling of a DC short-circuit fault on a
of two conductors: the core made of copper and 200km bipolar HVDC cable system
surrounded by a XLPE insulation layer, and an aluminum
Table 3: Fault types parameters
screen surrounded by a PE outer sheath. Geometrical
and electrical parameters of the cables shown in Figure 3 O1 :0 0P54 L_= L_ N
and Table 2 are provided by RTE and correspond to the
INELFE link [5]. 9 4 2 44 0.01 Q ∞
9 4 2 44 0.01 Q S0.001 100 QT

/2 44 Y>;Z W :10

9 4 3. UNDERGROUND CABLE MODELLING

K
;Z 04 K410K The aim of this section is first to present the calculation of
\
_ cable parameters. The propagation behavior of the
travelling waves on cables is presented based on wave
[
a
propagation theory. Finally, the accuracy of such a cable
modelling for DC system application is discussed.
G5 :4
3.1. Cable parameters calculation
GH IJ F 0.5 K F 1.33 Underground links constitute distributed parameters
circuits, described by the telegrapher’s equations, which
Figure 3: DC cable cross section link voltages and currents along the cables:
Table 2:XLPE cable parameters U UW
F VW ; F, eq. 1
9 4 Y>;Z W . /2 44 ;Z K410K UB UB
where V is the matrix of series impedances and , is the
1 S T [ F 32 \ F 56.9 _ F 58.2 a F 63.9
matrix of admittances. The elements of these matrices
4 0 3 0P b cΩ. e 1.72 10gh - 2.83 10gh - depend on the cables design and their environment.
54 00 3 0P i - 2.5 - 2.5 Formulae can be found in the literature [6]. They have
been established by solving Maxwell’s equations in the
54 41j : 0P k 1 1 1 1 cables and the surrounding medium. The models
implemented in EMTP-RV are based on Ametani’s work
Cables are modelled using a frequency dependent model [7].
named Wideband model available in EMTP-RV. Cable
modelling and accuracy for DC application are presented
in section 3 .

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 2/6

F2.11 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.11

3.2. Travelling waves on cable 1E+5

1
1E+4
3.2.1.Theoretical background 2
1E+3 3

Damping (dB/km)
A common approach to solve the telegrapher’s equations 1E+2 4
for multi-conductor systems is modal analysis [8]. In the
1E+1
modal domain, the system characteristics are represented
by diagonal matrices, so the equations linking modal 1E+0
1E-1 1E+1 1E+3 1E+5 1E+7
voltages and modal currents are uncoupled and can 1E-1
therefore be solved separately. The change of basis is 1E-2
made through transformations matrices no and np :
1E-3
F no @ ; W F np W@ eq. 2 f (Hz)

In the modal domain, eq. 1 gives: Figure 6: Attenuation of the modes

U\ @ U \ W@
F Γ \ @ ; \ F Γ \ W@ eq. 3
UB \ UB 200
1
180
where Γ\ is a diagonal matrix whose elements are the 160 2
\
square of the propagation constants r@, of the different

Velocity (km/ms)
140 3
120
modes. It can then be shown that mode propagates with 4
100
attenuation: 80
1 F 1000 t 20 t log[x 4 yz{|,} ~ dB.km-1 eq. 4 60
40
at velocity: 20

„ 0
3 F eq. 5 1E-1 1E+1 1E+3 1E+5 1E+7
…zr@, ~ f (Hz)

The electrical waves propagating along the link can be Figure 7: Velocity of the modes
seen as superposition of the travelling modes.
3.3. Cable modelling accuracy for HVDC
3.2.2.Application to a bipolar HVDC link
applications
The simulations presented in this paper were carried out
with EMTP-RV. The system under study comprises two Commonly used cables models, such as the wideband
HVDC cables, whose characteristics are those of the model implemented in EMTP-RV, have been developed
INELFE link described in section 2.4. The cables were for AC cables. The electric field inside the insulation is
modelled by the Wideband model. Examination of the calculated assuming that the charge density is nil.
current transformation matrix np computed by EMTP-RV However, in DC cables, creation and migration of space
shows that the modes can be interpreted as shown in charges cannot be ignored, for they lead to a non-zero
Figure 5. charge density inside the insulation. It is then considered
that the insulation conductivity varies with temperature
and electric field. This makes the computation of the latter
much more difficult [9]. The electrical field within the
insulation of the INELFE cable is plotted on Figure 8.
Beyond a certain temperature drop, the field becomes
stronger close to the metal screen than close to the
conductor. This phenomenon is not observed in AC
Figure 5:Modes for the bipolar HVDC link
cables, in which the field is a Laplace field.
The attenuation and the velocity of the modes are plotted
against frequency on Figure 6 and Figure 7.
Modes 1 and 3 are both coaxial modes. They are
characterized by a relatively low attenuation. At high
frequency, their velocity tends towards the speed of light
within the cable insulation:
c
vinsulation F F 189.6 km.ms g[ eq. 6
√ε•
Mode 2 is an inter-sheath mode. Its attenuation is nearly
constant from 10 Hz to 1000 Hz, and increases beyond.
This is due to skin effect, which in the thin metal screen is
only visible at high frequency.
Mode 4 is a zero-sequence mode. It has a strong
attenuation and a low velocity.

Figure 8:Electric field for different temperature drops

over the insulation
The cable modelling in the present study does not take
into account the above mentioned specificity of DC
cables. Indeed, we think that it is acceptable to consider

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 3/6

F2.11 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
that during a short enough transient, the temperature
distribution and the space charges density remain
unchanged. However, this is still an approximation, and its
impact on the accuracy of simulation results should be
subjected to further studies [12].
Lastly, it is worth mentioning works by De Silva [10], who
proposes to improve models accuracy at DC and low
frequency by modifying the series which approximate
characteristic impedances and propagation constants.
4. MAIN RESULTS OF THE STUDY
In the following sections, influence of cable screens and
converter stations grounding in the behaviour of current
and voltage signals in a HVDC system under DC short-
circuit conditions is highlighted. All simulations are
performed using EMTP-RV 3.0 software; the reference
test circuit is depicted in Figure 1. DC short-circuit current
is first analysed based on the theory presented in section
3. Then, sensitivity analyses of grounding impedance
respectively of converter stations and cables screens are
provided.
4.1. DC short-circuit current analysis
This first simulation aims to support the theoretical
analysis of underground cable modelling held above. A
core-screen short-circuit fault as presented on Figure 4
occurs on the positive pole at t=0s and divides the whole
cable into two sections. Figure 9 shows the different
contributions to the fault current measured at points ml
(left side of the fault) and 9l (right side of the fault). In
order to only get the contribution of cables on the fault
current, converter stations are first disconnected before
the fault occurrence (Figure 9.a). In a second simulation,
they are connected to get the contribution of stations
(Figure 9.b).
Point B+
Point C+
10
Current (kA)
0 Figure 4) occurs on the positive pole at t=0s. Results for
−10
−2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (ms)
(a) Cable discharge contributions
20
10
Current (kA)
0 0
−10
−2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (ms)
(b) Cable and stations contributions
Figure 9: Contributions to DC short-circuit fault
current
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.11
The short-circuit fault current results from the sum of the
two currents measured on points ml and 9l. Comparing
signals on Figure 9.a, cable discharge contributions to the
fault have the same initial magnitude of 13.3 but
different propagation frequencies. Initial magnitude can be
calculated with the following equation (see [11]):
‘<=
W F eq. 7
V=
where ‘<= is the pole to ground voltage before the fault
occurrence and V= the surge impedance of the cable. The
propagation frequencies of each current depend on the
velocity of propagation on the cable and the
corresponding section length : . During core-screen short-
circuit fault conditions, the current flows from the core and
returns through the screen which correspond to the
coaxial mode 1 shown on section 3.2.2. The velocity 3 is
g[ calculated on eq. 6 .The periods
equal to 189.6 .
of oscillations can be deducted as follows:
4:
nF eq. 8
3
For the left section n’“ F 0.42 and for the right
section n”“ F 3.78 , this fits with the time periods on
Figure 9.a.
Figure 9.b shows, at the beginning of the fault, the cable
discharge contribution and a few contribution current from
the station. The difference between the first short-circuit
peaks measured at point ml and point 9l is due to the
initial steady state DC current. The second peak of the
short circuit current measured at point ml is higher than
the first one because of the superimposition of the cable
and converter submodules capacitors initial discharge.
When the energy stored in the cables is totally discharged
( 1•04 ~12 ), only the stations feed the short-circuit.
4.2. Influence of fault resistance
This section presents a sensitive analysis of fault to
ground resistance L_ N influence on the short-circuit
current. A core-screen-ground short-circuit fault (see
low and high values of the fault resistance Lg N
according to Table 3 are compared. Figure 10 shows the
total fault current.
12 14
35
30
25
Current (kA)
20
15
10
5
−5
−40 0 40 80 120 160 200
Time (ms)
12 14
Figure 10: Influence of fault resistance on total fault
current
Figure 10 shows similar fault currents for low and high
fault resistances up to 50 after the fault occurrence. In
order to understand this phenomenon, the modal
decomposition presented in section 3.2.2 is considered.
The electrical waves propagating in the link during core-
4/6
F2.11 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.11

screen-ground short-circuit conditions mainly contain the
coaxial mode 1 and the ground-return mode 4 shown on
Figure 5. It is worth noting that due to the high frequency
of the transients during fault, the velocity of the mode 1 is
about 10 times higher than the velocity of the mode 4.
In practice, signals on point ml and 9l cannot be
measured. Protection algorithms design should hence be
based on measurements on points l and Gl for fault
detection and discrimination. Thus, for the next
simulations, influences of grounding options on signals on
point l are presented.
4.3. influence of cable screen grounding
impedance
Influence of cable screen grounding impedance in short-
circuit fault current is illustrated in this section. Connection
to earth of the cable screens is made at each cable
termination as presented on Figure 4, with impedance
=?JJ varying from 0.01 Ω to 100 Ω. Converter station
neutral points are effectively grounded. A core-to-screen
lead to insulation screen breakdown leading to a core-
screen-ground fault.
4.4. Influence of MMC stations
grounding impedance
In this section, the influence of grounding impedance of
the converter stations neutral point is analysed. Same
simulations as in 4.3 are performed with converter station
neutral points grounded through impedances
varying from 0.01 Ω to 100 Ω and cables screens
effectively grounded. Figure 12 shows the current on the
core of the positive pole (Point l ) and the pole-to-ground
voltage of the healthy negative pole at the cable
termination (Point g ).
15
10

Current (kA)
short-circuit fault occurs at the positive pole of the system.
Figure 11 shows the current on the core of the positive
pole (Point l ) and the screen-to-ground voltage at the 5
cable termination (Point l ) for different grounding
resistances of the screens.
0
−5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (ms)
15
(a) Core current of faulty pole (Point l)
−300
10
Current(kA)

−350
Voltage (kV)

5 −400

−450

0 −500
−5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (ms)
−550
−5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
(a) Current on faulty pole core (Point l) Time (ms)
250
(b) Pole-to-ground Voltage of healthy pole
200
(Point g )
150 Figure 12: Influence of station neutral point grounding
Voltage (kV)

100 impedance
50 Figure 12.a shows the grounding resistance of the
0
converter station neutral point limiting the station
contribution to the fault current. Indeed, similarly as in 4.3,
−50 the equivalent impedance of the fault current return path
−5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (ms) increases while increasing the station grounding
impedance leading to the limitation of the station
(b) Voltage on faulty pole screen (Point l ) contribution. However, even if a high grounding resistance
Figure 11: Influence of cable screen grounding limits the fault current, the pole-to-ground voltage of the
resistance neutral point rises, increasing the stress on the healthy
cable as shown on Figure 12.b.
Figure 11.a shows the AC current contribution to the fault
through the converter. Simulation results show that, for
core-screen fault, the higher the grounding resistances
=?JJ of the cable screens are, the lower the station
contribution to the fault is, because the equivalent
impedance of the fault current return path increases.
However, having a high grounding resistance of the cable
screens is equivalent to having it ungrounded which could
not be convenient. High screen to ground voltage could

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F2.11 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
5. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES
In a HVDC system, short-circuit current is determined by
AC and DC system parameters, transmission lines
characteristics, type of grounding and configuration of the
DC system. This paper focused on the influence of cable
modelling and grounding on DC fault current behaviour in
a HVDC point-to-point cable system. Simulations have
been performed using EMTP-RV software.
Multi-conductor system modelling has been first
presented based on modal approach and has been
applied to the studied system.
Simulation results of the paper have shown that, when
converter station neutral points and cable screens are
grounded through low impedances, high fault currents
propagate on the cable increasing constraints on the
protection system design. However, even if high
impedance of cable screens grounding limits the
converter station current contribution to the fault, the pole-
to-ground voltage of the screens might reach over-
voltages that cannot be withstood. In the same way,
stress caused on the healthy pole by voltage rise on the
stations neutral points limits the possibility of grounding
converter station neutral points with high impedance.
The study presented on the paper has thus provided
possibility to develop the core-knowledge for future
protection system design based on the observed electrical
signals.
REFERENCES
[1] Van Hertem, D., & Ghandhari, M. (2010). Multi-
terminal VSC HVDC for the European supergrid:
Obstacles. Renewable and sustainable energy
reviews,14(9), 3156-3163.
[2] Marquardt, R. (2010, June). Modular Multilevel
Converter: An universal concept for HVDC-Networks
and extended DC-Bus-applications. In Power
Electronics Conference (IPEC), 2010
International (pp. 502-507). IEEE.
[3] Whitehouse, R. S. (2011, August). Technical
challenges of realizing multi-terminal networking with
VSC. In Power Electronics and Applications (EPE
2011), Proceedings of the 2011-14th European
Conference on (pp. 1-12). IEEE.
[4] Saad, H., Dennetière, S., Mahseredjian, J., Delarue,
P., Guillaud, X., Peralta, J., & Nguefeu, S. (2014).
Modular multilevel converter models for
electromagnetic transients. Power Delivery, IEEE
Transactions on, 29(3), 1481-1489.
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F2.11
[5] Descloux, J. (2013). Protection contre les courts-
circuits des réseaux à courant continu de forte
puissance (Doctoral dissertation, Université de
Grenoble).
[6] “Cable systems electrical characteristics”, Cigré
technical brochure 531, 2013.
[7] Ametani, A. (1980). A general formulation of
impedance and admittance of cables. Power
Apparatus and Systems, IEEE Transactions on, (3),
902-910.
[8] Pagnetti, A. (2012). Cable modelling for
electromagnetic transients in power
systems (Doctoral dissertation, UNIVERSITÀ DI
BOLOGNA).
[9] Buller, F. H. (1967). Calculation of electrical stresses
in dc cable insulation. Power Apparatus and Systems,
IEEE Transactions on, (10), 1169-1178.
[10] De Silva, H.M.J.S.P. (2008). Accuracy and stability
improvements in electromagnetic simulations of
power transmission lines and cables (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Manitoba, Canada).
[11] Wasserrab, A., & Balzer, G. (2014, September).
Frequency-dependent cables for the calculation of
line short-circuit currents in HVDC networks. In Power
Engineering Conference (UPEC), 2014 49th
International Universities (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
[12] Nguyen-Tuan, M., Xemard, A., & Wolff, Q. (2015).
Modeling of DC cables for transient studies. In Jicable
conference June 2015.
GLOSSARY
XLPE: Cross-Linked PolyEthylene
PE: PolyEthylene
HVDC: High Voltage Direct Current
MTDC: Multi Terminal Direct Current
INELFE: Interconnexion Electrique France-Espagne
RTE: Réseau de Transport d’Electricité
IGBT: Insulated Gate Bipolar Bipolar Transistor
MMC: Modular Multilevel Converter
VSC: Voltage Source Converter
EMTP: ElectroMagnetic Transient Program
6/6
F2.12 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Development and engineering application of ±160kV XLPE insulated cable to three-
terminal VSC HVDC project in China
Shuai HOU, Mingli FU, Linjie ZHAO; Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid, China,
houshuai@csg.cn, fuml@csg.cn,zhaolj@csg.cn
Qiang KANG; Xi’an Jiaotong University, China, kangq828@163.com
ABSTRACT
Nan-ao VSC-HVDC transmission pilot project with
extruded cable system is the first three-terminal modular
multilevel (MMC) VSC-HVDC system in the world. The
project, rated at ±160kV and 200MW, has deployed a
28.3km-transmission line which comprises extruded DC
land and submarine cables and overhead lines. This
paper summarises the development of cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE) insulated DC cable and its
engineering application to the project. A few detailed
issues on XLPE properties such as the conductivity
correlation with temperature and electric field, and space
charge behaviour are specifically investigated. The cable
system may experience switching impulse and lightning
induced overvoltage in the operation due to the
connection with the overhead line, the insulation
coordination were calculated and clarified by simulation
under PSCAD/EMTDC. As a conclusion, the new testing
procedure of AC-DC-AC voltage withstand tests were
proposed and conducted to ensure the manufacture
quality of the cable. For the first ever such high HVDC
cable system in China, some considerations on the
preventive test to this cable system listed and discussed.
Keywords
VSC-HVDC, XLPE extruded cable, HVDC cable system,
Insulation coordination
INTRODUCTION
The VSC-HVDC transmission has the advantages of
strong controllability, high flexibility and less occupied
area. As a consequence it offers vast application
prospects in the area of large-scale offshore wind farms
connection to the main grid, regional interconnections,
improving power supply reliability and increasing large
cities power supply capacity [1]. By far, there have been
several VSC-HVDC transmission projects under
construction or in operation in the link routs of cable
system or overhead line or the mixture of both [2].
With the rapidly increasing of the off-shore wind farms
generation in which long distance transmission using
VSC-HVDC technology between wind farm and onshore
main grid has been developed and practice over last a
couple years. As a desired technology, XLPE extruded
insulated HVDC cable systems have undergone an
intensive research and long term development process
both in China and elsewhere in the world [3].
The Nan-ao Island wind farm, located in Shantou,
Guangdong Province, has the installed capacity of
267MW. In the past, the wind power is transmitted to the
main grid through the existing AC 110kV oil-filled
submarine cable system which has been operated over
17 years. The aging phenomenon of oil-filled cable
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.12
insulation and several anchoring damages because of
lacking of proper protection measures has become the big
concern for the system’s reliability. In order to improve the
safety and reliability of the grid as well as consider wind
farm’s future extension, VSC-HVDC transmission system
by deploying mixed XLPE insulated DC cable and
overhead line at the voltage level of XLPE 160kV with the
maximum power capacity of 200MW was planned and
constructed in parallel with existing AC system. This was
the first ever in China at such a voltage level of VSC
technology and XLPE insulated HVDC power cable in
engineering application, the project has earned the
support of National High Technology Research and
Development Program of China (863program)
(2011AA05102) [4].
The configuration of the Nan-ao project is illustrated in
Fig.1.The transmission line between Station A and Station
B comprises ±160kV HVDC land and submarine cables
and overhead lines with the total length of 28.3km. The
transmission line between points 1 and 2, 4 and 5 and
points 6 and 7 are land DC cables, the total length of 9.5
km. And points between 2 and 3 and Points 5 and 6 are
two sections of submarine DC cables and their lengths
are 9.5km and 1.2km respectively. Overhead line with
length of about 8.1km is between points 3 and 4. The
maximum water depth of the submarine cable laying
seabed is about 15m. Station B and C is connected by an
±160kV HVDC overhead line with length of 12.5km.
Fig.1: Nan-ao VSC-HVDC pilot project configuration
Copper conductor Copper conductor
Conducor screen Conducor screen
XLPE insulation layer
Insulation screen
XLPE insulation layer
Insulation screen
Swelling tape
Lead alloy sheath Swelling tape
HDPE sheath
Swelling tape Aluminiulm laminate
Optical fiber unit
Steel -wire armor
HDPE sheath
Outer covering
Fig. 2: Configuration of submarine and land cable for
Nan-ao ±160kV HVDC transmission system
The XLPE land/submarine cable for Nan-ao ±160kV
HVDC transmission system are designed and developed
by two Chinese cable manufacturers. The structure details
of the submarine and land cable are shown in Figure2.
1/5
F2.12 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.12

CABLE INSULATION CONDUCTIVITY AND Space charge characteristics HVDC cable

SPACE CHARGE CHARACTERISATION insulation
Material conductivity dependence on The most challenging issue of HVDC extruded cable
temperature and electric stress design is space charge accumulated within the cable
insulation. Space charge accumulation may distort electric
It is well known that the electric field distribution under DC field profile and enhance electric strength in specific area
voltage is proportional with the resistivity of HVDC cable which as a consequence will lead to local material ageing
insulating material, and the fact is that the resistivity is the or even premature failure if the charge density is
function of temperature and electric field,. It’s different sufficiently high [6].
from the situation of an AC cable in which electric is
In the developing test, the space charge characteristics of
governed by dielectric permittivity which is almost
insulation material are measured using pulsed electro-
constant independent of temperature and electric stress
acoustic (PEA) method, as illustrated in Fig.4. A
[5]. Therefore, the conductivity of XLPE used for DC cable
o o o conventional electrode arrangement was adopted, i.e.
insulation is tested at 30 C, 50 C and 70 C under the
semiconducting (SC) electrode as the top electrode and
following electric stress 1kV/mm，5kV/mm，10kV/mm，
aluminum (Al) as the bottom electrode. The PEA system
20kV/mm，30kV/mm，50kV/mm respectively during the has a spatial resolution of 20µm.
HVDC cable system developing test, and the results are
shown in Tab.1 and Fig.3.
Tab.1: The conductivity of XLPE at different
temperature and electric stress
Temperature(oC)
Electric
stress 30 50 70
(kV/mm)
Conductivity(S/m)

1 4.13671E-16 7.97616E-16 4.32265E-15 Fig.4: Schematic diagram of PEA

5 6.07969E-16 1.53876E-15 4.53324E-15 o
Space charge distribution in XLPE samples at 30 C and
o
10 8.08115E-16 2.14605E-15 3.77894E-15 70 C was measured. At either temperature, the initial
poling electric stress was 10kV/mm and space charge
20 1.31712E-15 3.52544E-15 6.82591E-15
was measured at different time over 30 minutes, and then
30 2.23064E-15 5.84620E-15 1.56644E-14 electric field stress increased to 20kV/mm for another
50 9.77998E-15 2.58730E-14 5.53940E-14
round space charge measurement. The highest electric
field stress for space charge measurement was 50kV/mm
6.0x10
-14
and the measurement lasted for 1 hour. Finally, then
30℃
5.0x10
-14
50℃
following short circuit, space charge decaying behavior
70℃ was measured with the sample being short-circuited in
4.0x10
-14
next 1 hour.
Conductivity (S/m)

-14 o
3.0x10
Results at 30 C are shown in Fig. 5, in which red vertical
2.0x10
-14 lines represent the position of cathode and anode. It is
noticed that under 10kV/mm, negative charges injection
-14
1.0x10
near the cathode interface has appeared, and it increases
0.0 with the voltage application time. When electric field
stress increases, seeing Fig 5 (b) and (c), negative charge
0 10 20 30 40 50
Electric field (kV/mm) accumulation also appears near the anode interface as
well. During short-circuit processing, bulk space charges
inside the insulation material are clearly observable at the
Fig. 3: XLPE conductivity at different temperature and
electric stress position of 200µm, adjacent to cathode, and 350µm and
their negative polarity could be evidenced by two positive
As expected, the conductivities of XLPE samples increase induced image charges at electrodes.
with electric stress increasing at three testing 6
o
10
o
30 8C-10kV/mm-30s
temperatures and the change rate at each temperature is 4
O rig inP ro

o
Ev a lu a tion

30 C-10kV/mm-600s
o
O rigin Pro 8 Eva lua tio n
30 C-20kV/mm-30s
O rig in P ro
o
8 E v a lua t io n

30 C-20kV/mm-600s
O rig inP ro 8 Ev a lua t ion

o
O r i g i n P30 C-10kV/mm-1800s
relatively flat and roughly the same at lower electric stress. ro 8 Ev a lu a tion O rigin Pro 8 Eva lua tio n
5
30 C-20kV/mm-1800s
O rig in P ro8 E v a lua t io n O rig inP ro 8 Ev a lua t ion
Charge density (C/m )
Charge density (C/m )

3
3

However, the conductivity grows in an exponential 0

O rig inP ro 8 Ev a lu a tion O rigin Pro 8 Eva lua tio n O rig in P ro 8 E v a lua t io n O rig inP ro 8 Ev a lua t ion

0
manner as soon as the electric stress is higher than O rig inP ro 8 Ev a lu a tion O rigin Pro 8 Eva lua tio n O rig in P ro 8 E v a lua t io n O rig inP ro 8 Ev a lua t ion

-2
30kV/mm. Beyond this point, the conductivities of XLPE O rig inP ro 8 Ev a lu a tion O rigin Pro 8 Eva lua tio n

-5
O rig in P ro 8 E v a lua t io n O rig inP ro 8 Ev a lua t ion

sample are also possessing different increasing rates at -4 O rig inP ro 8 Ev a lu a tion O rigin Pro 8 Eva lua tio n O rig in P ro 8 E v a lua t io n O rig inP ro 8 Ev a lua t ion

three testing temperatures. Above results may simply -6

200 300 400
-10
200 300 400

imply that design and operation electric field of DC cable Thickness (um) Thickness (um)

insulated with this material must be limited below (a) 10kV/mm (b) 20kV/mm
30kV/mm.

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F2.12 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.12

30 10
o o
O riginPro 30 C-50kV/mm-30s
8 Ev alua tio n O ri gi nP ro 8 Ev alua tio n O riginPro 8 Eva lu ation O rShort
30 C- i g i n P r o circuit
8 E v a l -10s
u ation
o o
20 30 C-50kV/mm-600s 30 C-Short circuit-600s
o o
O r i g i n P30
r o C-50kV/mm-1800s
8 Ev alua tio n O ri gi nP ro 8 Ev alua tio n O riginPro 8 Eva lu ation O rShort
30 C- i g i n P r o circuit
8 E v a l -1800s
u ation
5
Charge density (C/m )

Charge density (C/m )

3

10

3
O riginPro 8 Ev alua tio n O ri gi nP ro 8 Ev alua tio n O riginPro 8 Eva lu ation O riginPro 8 Eva lu ation

0 0
O riginPro 8 Ev alua tio n O ri gi nP ro 8 Ev alua tio n O riginPro 8 Eva lu ation O riginPro 8 Eva lu ation

-10
O riginPro 8 Ev alua tio n O ri gi nP ro 8 Ev alua tio n O riginPro 8 Eva lu ation O riginPro 8 Eva lu ation

-5

-20 O riginPro 8 Ev alua tio n O ri gi nP ro 8 Ev alua tio n O riginPro 8 Eva lu ation O riginPro 8 Eva lu ation

-30 -10
200 300 400 200 300 400
Thickness (um) Thickness (um)

(c) 50kV/mm (d) Short circuit

o
Fig.5: Space charge distribution at 30 C
o
Space charge measurement results at 70 C, shown in Fig.
o
6 are similar to those at 30 C. Specifically, under
10kV/mm, negative charges injection near the cathode Fig.7: Arrester configuration scheme
interface has been observed, and the quantity of charges When an earth fault occurs on the DC reactor valve side
increases with the applied voltage amplitudes. Trapped at substation B in Fig.1, the maximum residual
charge distribution within the bulk material can be easily overvoltage reaches 285.6kV at substation A in Fig.1.
acquired from short-circuit testing results. The space When substation C work alone, if a shielding failure by the
charge polarity is mainly negative, which is evidenced negative polarity lightning is applied on DC overhead
again by two induced positive charge peaks at electrodes. incoming line at substation B, the positive polarity of the
Comparing the space charge quantity or the density at DC cable will bear a very high negative polarity
o
different temperature, the total charge at 70 C is less than superimposed voltage which can reach 336.7 kV.
o
that at 30 C, which proves higher temperature may
accelerate charge migration through the dielectric and In this paper, based on comprehensive consideration
results less space charge accumulation. An extra about the number of parallel arresters and arrester’s volt-
evidence for above conclusion is the faster charge decay ampere characteristics deviation, the arresters protection
o
rate at 70 C in Fig 6 (d) in which negative space charge level, the impulse current and the energy can be
almost died off quickly in first 10 minutes.. determined. As a result, the SIPL is specified as 295 kV
6 when a 1 kA current flow through arresters and the LIPL is
o o

4
70 C-10kV/mm-30s
O rig in Pro 8
o
Eva lu ation

70 C-10kV/mm-600s
O rigin Pro 8 Ev aluation 10 70 8C-20kV/mm-30s
O rig in Pro

o
E v alu at io n

70 C-20kV/mm-600s
o
O rigin Pro 8 E valu a tion

specified as 325 kV/10 kA.

o
70 C-10kV/mm-1800s
O rig in Pro 8
Eva lu ation O rigin Pro 8 Ev aluation
70 8C-20kV/mm-1800s
O rig in Pro E v alu at io n O rigin Pro 8 E valu a tion

5
Base on the previous project experience and without
Charge density (C/m )
Charge density (C/m )

3
3

2
O rig in Pro 8 Eva lu ation O rigin Pro 8 Ev aluation O rig in Pro 8 E v alu at io n O rigin Pro 8 E valu a tion

0
O rig in Pro 8 Eva lu ation O rigin Pro 8 Ev aluation
0
O rig in Pro 8 E v alu at io n O rigin Pro 8 E valu a tion
regarding reverse polarity superposition, the withstand
-2
O rig in Pro 8 Eva lu ation O rigin Pro 8 Ev aluation -5 O rig in Pro 8 E v alu at io n O rigin Pro 8 E valu a tion
voltages are specified as switching impulse withstand
-4 O rig in Pro 8 Eva lu ation O rigin Pro 8 Ev aluation O rig in Pro 8 E v alu at io n O rigin Pro 8 E valu a tion
voltage at 354kV (20% margin) and lightning impulse
-6
-10
withstand voltage at 406kV (25%margin). In principle,
200 300
Thickness (um)
400 500 200 300
Thickness (um)
400 500
withstand voltages should be brought into
(a) 10kV/mm (b)20kV/mm correspondence with the standard voltage sequence,
30 10

O rigin Pro
o
70 C-50kV/mm-30s
8 Ev a lu at io n O rig in Pro 8 Ev alua tio n O rig inP ro 8 E valu ation
o
o
O r Short
70 C- i g i n P r o circuit
8 E v a l -10s
u a tion
specifically, 450kV switching impulse withstand voltage
o
70 C-Short circuit-600s
20 70 C-50kV/mm-600s
O r i g i n P70
o
r o C-50kV/mm-1800s
8 Ev a lu at io n O rig in Pro 8 Ev alua tio n
5 O rig inP ro 8 E valu ation
o
O r Short
70 C- i g i n P r o circuit
8 E v a l -1800s
u a tion
and 550kV lightning impulse withstand voltage. The
recommended insulation tests for Nan-ao VSC-HVDC
Charge density (C/m )
Charge density (C/m )

3
3

10
O rigin Pro 8 Ev a lu at io n O rig in Pro 8 Ev alua tio n O rig inP ro 8 E valu ation O r ig inP ro 8 E valu a tion

0
O rigin Pro 8 Ev a lu at io n O rig in Pro 8 Ev alua tio n
0
O rig inP ro 8 E valu ation O r ig inP ro 8 E valu a tion
system is shown in Tab. 2.
-10
O rigin Pro 8 Ev a lu at io n O rig in Pro 8 Ev alua tio n

-5
O rig inP ro 8 E valu ation O r ig inP ro 8 E valu a tion
Tab.2: The recommended insulation tests parameters
-20 O rigin Pro 8 Ev a lu at io n O rig in Pro 8 Ev alua tio n O rig inP ro 8 E valu ation O r ig inP ro 8 E valu a tion
for Nan-ao VSC-HVDC system
-30 -10
200 300 400 500 200 300 400 500
Thickness (um) Thickness (um) No. Test parameter (kV) Specified value
(c) 50kV/mm (d) short circuit
o 1 rated DC voltage (U0 ) ±160
Fig.6:Space charge distribution at 70 C
2 DC test voltage (UT ) 1.85U0

3 DC test voltage (UTP1) 1.45U0

THE INSULATION COORDINATION FOR
Reverse polarity superposition of the LI(+550)+DC(-160)
HVDC CABLE SYSTEM CONNECTED TO 4
lightning impulse test voltage LI(-550)+DC(+160)
OVERHEAD LINE 5
Homo-polarity superposition of the SI(+290)+DC(+160)
switching impulse test voltage SI(-290)+DC(-160)
The DC cable system with extruded insulation also bears Reverse polarity superposition of the SI(+450)+DC(-160)
6
switching and lightning overvoltage apart from space switching impulse test voltage SI(-450)+DC(+160)
charge when it’s connected to overhead line. The
arresters protection schemes for Nan-ao project is shown
in Fig.7 and transient overvoltage protection level was
investigated by simulation computation. On this basis the
EXPLORATIVE TEST: AC-DC-AC VOLTAGE
insulation voltage withstand testing levels of HVDC WITHSTAND TEST
extruded cable system were carefully justified and
determined. The Nan-ao ±160kV HVDC extruded cable system has
successfully passed the factory test carried out according
to the test method recommended by CIGRE TB 496-2012
[7] and mechanical performance test method by Electra
171-1997 [8].

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 3/5

F2.12 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.12

The DC voltage withstand test is regarded as a basic method TEST OF HVDC CABLE ACCESSORIES
of evaluating HVDC cable dielectric performance by CIGRE
TB496. However, international standards and Accessories are regarded as important components of
recommendations normally advise or compel that XLPE extruded HVDC cable system. A set of explorative tests
insulated both AC and DC cables to be tested with properly were carried out on the accessories to assure their
enhance AC voltage in factory or commissioning tests rather qualities.
than DC voltage for the reason that the DC voltage withstand
test not always give the same level of quality check as AC
AC voltage withstand test with partial
test [9]. This has been well accepted by some manufacturers discharge measurement
for the tests of extruded HVDC cables. There is a debate AC voltage withstand test with a 0.8U0 (128kV) AC voltage
over that AC voltage withstand test is not able to check is carried out on the 160kV HVDC cable system including
insulation performance under DC voltage for HVDC cables. two oil-filled terminals and one factory joint with the
Moreover, under certain working conditions such as the duration time of 30min. Partial discharge was measured
MMC converter energizing, the extruded HVDC cable could during the test. No breakdown happened and the
experience the mixed DC voltage and AC harmonic voltage. magnitude of partial discharge was under 5pC which
As Fig.8 indicates, Nan-ao±160kV extruded HVDC cable meant no obvious partial discharge occurred.
bears the combination of 120kV DC voltage and
DC voltage withstand test
17kVrms/150Hz AC harmonic w during the MMC converter
energizing process which lasts from several minutes to no The DC voltage withstand test on the 160kV HVDC cable
more than 30min. The AC harmonic voltage disappears once system with accessories was conducted in the loop as
the MMC converter is de-blocked as shown in Fig.9. shown in Fig.10 and Fig.11.
In order to evaluate the AC harmonic voltage influence, a
set of explorative tests were carried out by applying 0.8U0
for AC voltage withstand test with partial discharge
measurement for 30 minutes. Then a negative polarity
1.85U0 (-296kV) DC voltage withstand test in 60minutes.
And after the DC withstand test the DC cable is
discharged for 24h. Finally, a 0.8U0 AC voltage withstand
test with partial discharge measurement for 30minutes is
applied on the cable for 30 minutes. The results of so-
called AC-DC-AC tests are shown in Tab. 3.

Figure 10: DC voltage withstand test of accessories

Fig. 8: Oscillograph of DC operation voltage during
MMC converter energizingprocess
For the R&D tests on terminations as shown in Fig 11 (a),
in which the terminal was fixed into a nitrogen filled metal
drum, then the negative polarity 1.85U0 (-296kV) DC
voltage is applied on the cable system with a duration of
60min. No breakdown happened during the test. The
pressure inside the metal drum was maintaned as 0.5Mpa.

Fig. 9:Oscillograph of DC operation voltage after the

MMC converter de-blocked
Tab.3: Procedures and results of the explorative test

Tested item/condition Requirement Result

0.8U0(128kV)AC withstand No breakdown Passed

(a) Testing setup (b) Metal tank filled with N2
test with partial discharge No obvious partial Less than
measurement in 30min discharge 5pC Fig.11: 160kV HVDC cable accessories test layout
negative polarity 1.85U0 (-
296kV)DC withstand test in No breakdown Passed
Some additional measurements and checks on cable
60min accessories (e.g. measurement of oil pressure and check
0.8U0(128kV)AC withstand No breakdown Passed of the low pressure alarms of the terminations) are
test with partial discharge No obvious partial Less than
recommended to ensure the integrity of oil-filled
measurement in 30min discharge 5pC termination in the preventive test in service. Some

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 4/5

F2.12 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
chemical and physical analysis such as: dissolved gas
analyses (DGA), dielectric loss measurement of the oil in
the termination, are recommended as well if possible.
SUGGESTION ON PREVENTIVE TESTS
To ensure a long-term reliability of the HVDC extruded
cable system, it is necessary to carry out certain
preventive tests necessary maintenance for cable system
during operation. However, how to justify and implement
these preventive tests on the VSC-HVDC cable system
still remains a challenge since there is no standard or
recommendation available and lack of long-term operation
experience of VSC-HVDC cable worldwide up to now.
The preventive tests of the Nan-ao ±160kV VSC-HVDC
cable system is being in planned, in which following items
have been weighted up. First of all, TDR (Time Domain
Reflectometry) measurement is regarded as the first
choice preventive test. As for submarine cables, the harsh
laying environment and human activities, e.g. anchoring
and fishing, could result in damages to submarine cables.
The length of submarine cables could be dozens of
kilometers or even hundreds of kilometers which makes
fault location more troublesome. Furthermore, specialized
ships and experts are needed to recover the cable from
the sea bed and replace the faulty cable section, which
make repairing of the damaged submarine cables as an
even time-consuming and costly work [10].TDR technique
is an effective technique of fault detection as well as
identification and distance measurement of cable joints
and terminations, which is also recommended in CIGRE
TB 496 as an effective test after installation. . The TDR
measurement will obtain a “fingerprint” of the wave
propagation characteristics of the cable system in good
condition, which then can be used afterwards in
comparing for fault identification and locating.
According to CIGRE TB 496-2012, a negative polarity
1.45U0 DC withstand test for 1 hour is recommended as
an event of the test after installation. The high voltage
withstand test is a basic and effective method to evaluate
the electrical reliability of the cable insulation. For this
work, a 30min negative polarity 1.45U0 DC voltage
withstand test is recommended but the leakage current
measurement is required cable for insulation evaluation at
different operation periods of time.
And some additional measurements and checks on cable
accessories (e.g. measurement of oil pressure and check
of the low pressure alarms of the terminations) are also
recommended as well to ensure the oil-filled termination
integrity.
CONCLUSION
In the development tests of XLPE insulated DC cable, the
fundamental characteristics of insulating material for
HVDC insulation as well as the influence of space charge
are investigated and discussed. For the first ever
engineering application of such high voltage DC cable in
three-terminal modular multilevel (MMC) VSC-HVDC
project, the insulation coordination and test parameters
are investigated and determined correspondingly using
computation simulation. The suggested switching and
lighting impulse withstand voltage are 450kV and 550kV
respectively for cable system and. The ±160kV HVDC
cable system has successfully passed factory tests which
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.12
are conducted according to the electrical performance test
method by CIGRE TB 496-2012 and mechanical
performance test method by ELECTRA 171-1997.
Furthermore, the AC-DC-AC voltage withstand test is
carried out as explorative test to evaluate the effect of the
AC harmonic voltage. Finally, the paper presents the
consideration for the proposed preventive test.
Acknowledgment
The project is supported by China Southern Power Grid
Co. Ltd (Project number: K-KY2014-31) and National High
Technology Research and Development Program of
China (863program) (2011AA05102).
REFERENCES
[1] D.H. Zhang, X.D Feng, J.Q. Sun, J.F. Zhong, 2011,
“Research of VSC HVDC application to China
Southern Power Grid”, China Southern Power
System Technology. vol.5, 1-6
[2] G. Mazzanti, M. Marzinotto, 2013, “Extruded cables for
high-voltage direct-current transmission”, IEEE Press,
New Jersey, America, 42-43
[3] S.Dodds, B.Railing, K.Akman, 2010, “HVDC
VSC(HVDC light) transmission–operating experience”,
Proceedings CIGRE Conference, Paris, B4-203
[4] L.J. Zhao, H. Rao, X.L. Li, 2014, “Development of ±
160kV XLPE cable and its application to the world’s
first three-terminal VSC HVDC system in China”,
Proceedings of CIGRE AORC Technical Conference,
Tokyo, B1-1110
[5] B.Aladenize, R.Coelho,J.C.Assier, H.Janah, and
P.Mirebeau, 1999, “Field Distribution on HVDC
cables: Dependence on insulating materials”, C2.13,
Jicable1999, 20-24
[6]R.N. Hampton, 2008, “Some considerations for
materials operating under high-voltage direct-current
stresses”, IEEE Electra. Insul. Mag.vol 24,5-13
[7] “Recommendations for testing DC extruded cable
system for power transmission at a rated voltage up
to 500kV”, CIGRE TB 496(2012)
[8] “Recommendations for mechanical tests on
submarine cables”, Electra 171(1997)
[9] J. Karlstrand, et al. 2005, “Factory testing of long
submarine XLPE cables using frequency-tuned
resonant systems. in Electricity Distribution”, CIRED
2005. 18th International Conference and Exhibition
on.
[10] M.Bawart, M.Marzinotto, G. Mazzanti, 2014, “A
Deeper Insight into Fault Location on Long
Submarine Power Cables”, CIGRE 2014, Paris, B1-
201
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F2.14 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Relationship between breakdown
parameters of a serviced XLPE cable
Ning LIU, George CHEN; University of Southampton, UK, nl4g12@soton.ac.uk., gc@ecs.soton.ac.uk
Yang XU, Xi’an Jiaotong University, China, xuyang@mail.xjtu.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
In this paper, a new charge trapping/detrapping model
has been developed and further applied to obtain trapping
parameters of an 11-year serviced cable. Different regions
of the insulation have been investigated by using the films
microtomed from the cable. DC breakdown strengths in
different regions have also been measured. The results
suggest a close relationship exists between the trap
density in the material and electrical breakdown strength.
The increase in trap density results in a lower DC
breakdown strength.
KEYWORDS
Space charge, trapping parameters, XLPE, cable,
breakdown strength, ageing.
INTRODUCTION
The storage of space charges in the insulation system can
be ascribed to the result that they can reside within the
wide bandgap of insulators without jumping to conduction
(valence) band directly. And these localized states, or
namely traps, with density , offer charge carriers at an
intermediate energy level, i.e. trap depth . Meanwhile,
the ability of these traps to capture charge carriers relates
to the trapping cross section area . Assuming that traps
are Coulombic-attractive type and one trap site could only
accommodate one charge carrier, thus the cross-section
area could be calculated as = , where is the
distance between the capturing site and its trapped
charge. To summarize, trap density , trap depth , and
trapping cross-sectional area are generally called
trapping parameters, which depict the attributes of traps.
In recent years, many approaches have been developed
on determination or estimation of these trapping
parameters for various insulation materials, especially
polyethylene [1-5]. Chen proposed a trapping-detrapping
model based on two energy levels [1]. And thereafter in
[2,3], by employing the charge detrapping part in the
model established by Chen, trapping parameters of low
density polyethylene(LDPE) and also gamma-irradiated
LDPE were estimated. It has been revealed that physical
and chemical modifications brought by irradiation process
can be reflected on the changes in trapping parameters.
In the case of epoxy resin, Dissado et al proposed a
model considering charge detrapping process within three
steps [4]. Furthermore, with such model, trapping
parameters of different-time aged cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE) cable peelings [5] were evaluated.
Similarly, the changes in trapping parameters between
XLPE peelings in different conditions were reported. The
basic idea of these two approaches to estimate trapping
parameters have something in common: (i) Both
numerical models are applied to condition of charge
relaxation after the removal of the external voltage; (ii)
The trapping parameters were obtained by fitted curve of
specific model parameters with experimental data from
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.14
strengths and trapping
only the depolarization tests, i.e. data from polarization
tests were not exploited; (iii) Observed charge decay after
the removal of the applied voltage was thought to be
caused by detrapping process, or in other words, any
charges escaped from the trap sites were presumed to
flow away instantly; (iv) Both studies tried to separate
traps with a range of energy levels into two equivalent
levels [1] or ranges [4]. And it is noteworthy in the work
based on Chen’s model [1-3], the two types of trap with
different energy levels, i.e. shallow and deep traps, have
been reported relating with physical and chemical defects
in polymeric materials respectively.
In the present paper, a new approach has been proposed,
which not only inherits many merits of the previous two
model works but also improves from many aspects, to
estimate the trapping parameters of insulation materials.
In terms of inheritance, trapping parameters are also
determined by optimum curve fitting results with
experimental data and meanwhile charge decay data are
still meaningful information to the data fitting process.
Except for that, following the previous works, the present
model also classifies the all the traps into shallow and
deep traps. More importantly, comparing to previous
works, the improved model in the present paper has two
distinctive features: (i) In addition to use charge relaxation
dynamics after the removal of the applied voltage, the
preceding space charge accumulation characteristics
during voltage-on stage have been included within the
simulation works; (ii) Observed space charges in the bulk
are considered to be consisted of trapped charges and
mobile charges, which refer to those charges transporting
between traps. Based on the improved model, in the
present work, trapping parameters of 11-year serviced
cable peelings have been estimated. The comparison of
obtained parameters from different layers, together with
DC breakdown strength, has been used to examine the
applicability of trapping parameters as ageing marker.
BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE MODEL
In our improved model, the observed charges are no
longer treated as trapped charges only but include a non-
negligible amount of mobile charges as well. Typically,
space charge profile with homocharge injection could be
divided as positive and negative charge region with
thicknesses respectively equalling to and , as shown
in Fig. 1. Therefore, the mean number density of net
charges in either region can be calculated as:
=
,
, (1)
,
where , is the total charge amount in either charge
region and is the electrode area. The density of net
charge , in either region equals to the sum of trapped
charge and mobile charge density, i.e.:
, = ,
+ ,
(2)
1/6
F2.14 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.14

where and represent trapped and mobile charge be shown in the present paper due to the limit of pages,
density respectively in either positive ( and ) or and details can be found in our paper [10].
negative charge zone ( and ). The second negative term on right side of Eq. 3 describes
the decreasing rate of net charge in positive charge layer.
Such reduction in the charge layer during voltage-
stressing period should be the consequence of the outflow
of holes from local charge region to the opposite
electrode. Here, it is postulated that there is a fix portion
-1
(s ) of mobile charges will outflow from local charge
region.
For the changing rate of positive trapped charge density
, it should consists of three segments, i.e.:

= L + L1 L@
K
01 M 1 (5)

where L 01 and L1 M respectively represent the charge

Figure 1: Space charge profile of homocharge
injection denoted with separated charge region of
positive and negative.
escaping rate from the traps and charge capturing rate by
traps [6]. And L@ 1 is the recombination rate of trapped
holes/electrons and mobile electrons/holes, which flow
from the opposite charge region. Specifically, for positive
charge layer, L@ 1 , L1 M and L@ 1 could be expressed as:
CKP
L 01 = N$ exp O Q (6)
+,

L1 M = . 4 R (7)
Based on single-energy level traps
L@ 1 = S. T
4 (8)
To assist in establishing the improved model in
which new features are introduced, we start with In Eq. (6), N$ is the escape attempt frequency, approx-
imating as 2 7 10U> s at room temperature [6]. T is the
−1
single energy level of traps in the material. The
concepts are then extended to the two energy levels modified trap depth based on original trap depth with
of trapping/detrapping processes. consideration of Poole-Frenkel lowering ∆WMX :
Volts-on condition T
= ∆WMX (9)
Here, an assumption has been made that the energy And the energy barrier lowering ∆YZ[ could be written in
depth of all the traps is on the same level. For instance, in the form [6]:
positive charge region, the changing rate for the injected
net charge density under external applied field can ∆YZ[ = \Z[ ]^._ (10)
be proposed as:
where the Poole-Frenkel constant \Z[ = `\ab .
= (3)
However, it was pointed out by several investigators that
For the first term on the right side of Eq. (3), it represents the Poole-Frenkel effect described by Eq. (10) is not
the increasing rate of number volumic density of holes dominant behaviour in bulk at high fields for polyethylene
coming from the anode by injection. And is injection [7,11,12]. In accordance with Eq. (10) by plotting
current density from the anode. With high voltage applied, conductivity against the square root of electric field
charge injection behavior at the metal-insulator interface (c ]^._ ), it will give a much higher relative permittivity
was verified conforming to Schottky injection mechanism value (14.2) for LDPE, than the true one (~2.2) [7]. Ieda et
[6-8], which has already been applied into some previous6 al. proposed another corrected three-dimensional Pool-
modelling works on polyethylene [9]. If the electric field at Frenkel model, which takes consideration of the angle d
the interface is !" (at the anode, or !# at the cathode), between electric field ] and electron (or hole)-trap
the injection current density at the interface between distance e , and also an energy state f in the reverse
the anode and dielectric could be found as [6]: direction which will increase the trap barrier by certain
amount [13]. And such model could fix the relative
*
= $% exp ) - exp./01 !" 4
$.3
(4) permittivity value of LDPE much closer to the true one [11,
+,
12].
where $ is the constant term, often identified as 1.2 7
109 Am K , : is Boltzmann constant (=1.38 7 10= > J/K),
−2 −1 With such improved Poole-Frenkel model, the averaged
% is temperature, ?$ is the vacuum permittivity, ?@ is the
barrier lowering considering 3-D effect:
relative permittivity for dielectric, and A stands for the
n
gHo hij OC1k0lQH.m
original injection barrier height holes (or A for electrons). ∆WMX = n = 0.3814/MX $.3
(11)
o
CD"
Normally, Schottky constant is written as /01 = BEFG .
+, H GI Meanwhile, considering increased barrier in the reverse
When bipolar charges continuously inject into bulk, !J (or direction of field, the equivalent barrier height lowering
!= ) will be modified. The calculation of !J (or != ) will not
∆WMX
T
could be found as:

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 2/6

F2.14 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.14

T ∆xij … CK ∆xij
∆WMX = :% ln s2 cosh ) -y μ = exp (− )cosh ( )
†i
(12) (14)
+, C +, +,

The full derivation of Eq. (11) and (12) will not be shown in
present paper, which could be found in [10] as well.
In Eq. (7), the rate of charge capture L1 M by traps will be
proportional to the density of mobile holes , ‰‹
unoccupied trap sites’ density − ,where
represents the total traps density for holes, and R is the
drift velocity of charge carriers. Physically, such equation
could be comprehended as: when mobile holes of density
move through the specimen with a velocity of R , in
∆z time, the free charges passing through empty traps of
density − with a cross section area of are
R ∆z. − 4 . If those charges are all captured,
the capturing rate could be found as Eq. (7).
Moreover, in terms of trapping cross section in Eq. (7),
( for holes or for electrons), it has been pointed out
that trapping cross sectional area is corresponding to two
factors: applied electric field [14] and trap depth [15]. In
[14] an inverse power relationship between capture cross
section area and the average electric field has been
found. Hence, we suppose in our model, if trap depth
remains unchanged, the capture cross section area is
proportional to =U.3 [14]. Also, there are some evidences
[2,3,15] indicating that in dielectrics deeper traps should
have a smaller cross section area. Physically, it can be
explained that smaller capture radius will give rise to a
greater Coulombic attractive force upon charge carrier,
hence forming a deeper trap, which is harder for charge
carrier to escape. Especially in [15], it was proposed that
the binding energy { of a Coulombic trap to charge
carrier is inversely proportional to radius of the trap .
The binding energy { directly determines the trap depth
. The larger { becomes, the tighter the charge carrier
bounds to the trap, i.e. trap depth should be deeper. Here,
it is assumed that is proportional to {. Since trapping
cross-sectional area = , we could have S inversely
proportional to . Based on the above analysis, in the
present model, the cross section area with a modified trap
depth T at an applied electric field is assumed as:
CKH C layer, denoted as ŽŽŽŽ
= $ |C P } ) -
K CH
According to references cross sectional area values in
some previous works on trapping parameters estimation
[2], ~^ = •. ^_ × €^=€• m at depth, ]‚^ = € eV under
2
where R kM is the frequency factor of hopping conduction,
and ‡ is the trap separation distance assuming traps are
uniformly distributed in the material with density N with
U
cubic unit m , we could have: ‡ = Š (m).
−3
Eq. (8) gives the recombination rate of trapped positive
charges with mobile electrons ŒT• in positive charge
layer, which will reduce the trapped charge density in
such charge layer.
Volts-off condition
After the removal of external voltage, the Schottky
injection at the metal-insulator interface could be
neglected because electric field at electrodes ! included
within an exponential term is much lowered.
Moreover, in the depolarization stage, charge carriers
should move under field produced by local space charges.
For the mobile carriers, the direction of movement should
be dependent on the direction of local space charge field.
Qualitatively said, mobile positive charges near the anode
will escape from adjacent electrode (anode), whereas
those locating in the proximity of the other edge of the
layer will flow to the opposite electrode (cathode). Again,
without extraction barrier at both electrodes, we still
assume a fix portion P of mobile charges will outflow from
local charge region and the changing rate of net charge in
positive region becomes:
=− (15)
For the changing rate of trapped charges, equations from
(5)~(8) still apply for the volts-off condition. Nevertheless,
with the removal of voltage, some field-dependent
parameters have to be adjusted, which include trap depth
, capture cross-sectional area and drift mobility μ .
Since the profile of space charge changes with time,
electric field should be both time and location dependent.
By modelling the charge amount changing in either
charge layer, the value of electric field could be taken as
the averaged field value across the thickness of such
ŽŽŽŽ
J for positive and = for negative, both
(13)
of which are function of net charge density , and
charge layers’ thicknesses • , • . Full expressions and
derivations of the averaged electric field at both volts-on
and volts-off conditions can be referred to [10].

] = ƒ^kV/mm. Based on dual-energy level traps

For the velocity term R in Eq. (7), it was suggested in By extending the trap depth of model to two energy
[16] that postulating localized states (traps) dominates in levels, Eq. 3 becomes:
the dielectric rather than extended states, the
transportation velocity of charge carrier will become trap- = − = − ( − Š
− o
) (16)
controlled, in other words, each detrapped charge carrier
will hop into the adjacent trap. Thus, R is determined by where Š
and o
represent the positive charges
the product of drift mobility μ and electric field , i.e. captured at shallow and deep energy level.
R = μ . Here, the mobility μ is supposed to follow Based on Eqs. (5)~(8), the changing rate of shallow
hopping mobility (field dependent), and the reason of trapped charges in positive charge layer could be
using such mechanism can also be found in our paper expressed as:
[10], which can be summarized as: it has physically
K Š CKP
meaning and is suitable for polyethylene material [17]. = − N exp |−
Š $
Š
}+ . − 4 UR −
+, Š Š Š Š
Hence, under 3-D Poole-Frenkel effect, μ can be T
S Š
(17)
expressed as:
Likewise, for changing rate of deep trapped positive charges:

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 3/6

F2.14 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
CKP
= N$ exp | }+ . 4
K o o diameter of 6.5mm. The external voltage was applied with
o +, o o
S T
o
where for hole traps at shallow and deep levels
respectively, T Š , T o are the modified trap depth, ∆WMX Š ,
∆WMX o are the barrier height lowering due to Poole-
Frenkel effect, U , are the capturing cross section
area, and R Š ,R o stand for the drift velocity of holes.
SAMPLE PREPARATION AND EXPERIMENT
Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cable sections were
obtained from an 11 year serviced HVAC 110 kV cable
system. The cable structure and the size are illustrated in
Fig. 2. XLPE insulation was sliced to films by a rotary
skiver (a cutting machine to make film by rotation) from
the outer surface of cable insulation. The thickness of
obtained samples was 145 ‘ 10 µm with smooth surface
for space charge measurement and 100 ‘ 10 µm for dc
breakdown test. To remove volatile chemicals in the film,
the cut films were treated in vacuum oven at 80°C for 48
hours for degassing [5].
The film samples for all the experiments were classified to
several parts according to the distance from the surface of
cable insulation as seen in Fig. 2. In this paper, three
different positions were selected as the outer (0~3.6 mm
from surface), middle (7.2~10.8 mm), and inner
(14.4~18.1 mm) layers.
Figure 2: Cross sections and grouping method on
insulation layers of an 11-year serviced 110 kV XLPE
cable.
The pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) technique was used for
observing dynamics of charge profiles and measurements
were made for 60 minutes after the removal of the applied
voltage. For XLPE films with slight different thickness, the
applied voltage was adjusted so the applied field was fixed at
40 kV/mm for all the samples. The time of the applied voltage
was 6 minutes. The short application time of external voltage
is to avoid the positive and negative charge coincidence or
recombination in the sample bulk. Moreover, for samples of
each layer, three or four consecutive measurements were
made. Hence, charge amounts from each layer were
averaged by those measured data.
From each layer, 15 samples of thinner thicknesses,
(100±10) µm, were used for dc breakdown tests. As was
done with thicker samples for the PEA test, those samples
were also processed with degassing treatment in vacuum
oven at 80°C for 48 hours. The prepared sample was
tightly fixed between two sphere electrodes with a
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.14
R
o o a ramping rate of 100 V/s from zero. Moreover, in order to
(18) avoid flashover during test, the two spherical electrodes
with the tested sample in between were immersed in
insulating oil. For each type of sample, 15 measurements
were made to reduce statistical error. To analyze the
obtained breakdown data, the Weibull distribution has
been used to describe their stochastic behaviors [18].
CHARGE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In Fig. 3 (a)-(c), space charge dynamics of both volts-on
and volts-off periods using inner-layer samples were
displayed. Fig. 3 (a) gives the space charge dynamics
during the volts-on period. In order to obtain the injected
space charge in the bulk, subtraction method was
employed to eliminate the capacitive charges on two
electrodes [19], as in Fig. 3 (b). Bipolar charges injection
can be observed. After the removal of external voltage,
the charge decay result is shown in Fig. 3(c).
Charge amount in the positive charge layer could be
found by the following equation:
–
= g–= | O“, z)”| d“
(19)
And in the negative layer, it becomes:
= g$ | (“, z)(−”)| d“ (20)
With several measured data on each layer, charge
amount of each charge layer can be averaged with error
bar shown in Fig. 4 (a)-(c).
SIMULATION OF CHARGE AMOUNT USING
DUAL-ENERGY LEVEL MODEL
Since analytic solutions cannot be found for ordinary
differential equations consisting of Eqs (16)-(18), the Euler
method was carried out by supposing many small time
steps ∆z0 in the whole experimental time z = 2160 s.
Numerical solutions of , and ,
could be found one
by one through MATLAB coding.
Thereafter, the model parameters, which includes
assumed constant of mobile charges’ losing rate ,
trapping parameters ( , , ) and injection barrier (A ),
can be found by the best curve fitting output (highest R-
square value), between experimental data and numerical
solutions. Additionally, in the simulation, the
recombination term was reasonably omitted because a
short application time of the external voltage should
prevent recombination from happening.
For example of inner-layer samples, through the
simulation process based on our improved model, the
fitting curves can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 5. In such
figure, it is noteworthy that when the applied voltage is
switched off, mobile charges start to reduce in each
charge layer while trapped charges continue increasing to
certain amount then fall (for shallow trapped charges) or
almost keep flat (for deep trapped charges). This can be
attributed to the trapping cross section area enlargement
after the removal of external voltage, i.e. under much
weaker field. Thereafter, a number of mobile charges get
retrapped into empty sites. However, as the rapid
decrease of mobile charges to nearly zero, little charges
can be caught into trapped sites and detrapping process
become predominate in the bulk.
Likewise, with minimized R-square values, the fitting
model parameters of three different layers for holes and
electrons can found in Table 1.
4/6
F2.14 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.14

Figure 3: Space charge results of the €ƒ_ µm inner-layer cable peelings, (a) charge dynamics during voltage-
stressing period of 6 minutes, (b) charge dynamics during voltage-stressing period after subtraction algorithm, (c)
charge decay dynamic during depolarization stage.

Figure 4: Averaged positive and negative charge amount of each layer samples, (a) inner, (b) middle, (c) outer.
D €. ^™^ €. €_`
S _. • 7 €^ `›
ƒ. ` 7 €^`_
œ(m-3)
D ƒ. • 7 €^`ƒ €. ^ 7 €^`•
Outer-layer
Parameters
Electrons Holes
˜ (eV) €. €™_ €. €ƒš
S €. ^€_ €. ^•_
]‚ (eV)
D €. ^•• €. €`•
S ›. ` 7 €^ `^
€. • 7 €^`š
œ(m-3)
Figure 5: Simulated curves fitting with experimental D €. _ 7 €^`€ •. • 7 €^`š
data of inner-layer samples, based on dual-energy
level model.
Table 1. Fitting model parameters of cable peelings DC BREAKDOWN RESULTS
from different layers based on dual-level simulation, Fig. 6 shows the Weibull plotting of dc breakdown voltage
and in the table, ’S’ and ’D’ are respectively short for respectively for the three layers. Within 95% confidence
shallow traps and deep traps. bounds, upper and lower bounds at a characteristic value
Inner-layer Ÿ that breakdown probability equals to 63.2%
Parameters (irrespective of shape factor of Weibull distribution) are
Electrons Holes listed in Table 2. The dc breakdown strength declines in
˜ (eV) €. `^^ €. €`™ the following order Ÿ k @ ¡ Ÿ D¢¢ I ¡ Ÿ £D¤¤¥ . This
might indicate the most serious degree of ageing in the
S €. ^€` €. ^__
]‚ (eV) middle layer. When comparing the breakdown strength
D €. ^š` €. €›ƒ and trap density, it is obvious that a close relationship
exists. It is noteworthy that when breakdown strength gets
S `. • 7 €^ `›
€. € 7 €^`_
œ(m-3)
lower, the number of deep trap of holes also experiences
D €. š 7 €^`ƒ ™. ` 7 €^`š a slight increase from 8.8 7 10 9 (outer) to 1.0 7 10 ¦
(middle) whereas that of electrons increases
Middle-layer tremendously from 1.5 7 10 U (outer) to 4.8 7 10 E(middle).
Parameters
Electrons Holes It indicates deep trap density of electrons is more
sensitive to the changes in polymeric material, i.e. more
˜ (eV) €. `^ƒ €. €€› suitable to be used as a tool to monitor ageing.
]‚ (eV) S €. ^`™ €. ^™ƒ

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 5/6

F2.14 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Figure 6: The Weibull plot of the cumulative
probability of breakdown versus breakdown voltages
for 11-year operated cable peelings.
Table 2: Breakdown strength for each layer of
samples within ™_% confidence bounds at
unreliability = š›. `%
95% Lower Breakdown 95% Upper
Bound Strength Ÿ Bound
Layer
(kV·mm-1) (kV·mm-1) (kV·mm-1)
Inner 391.3 410.1 428.4
Middle 352.7 365.7 378.3
Outer 404.0 425.0 445.6
CONCLUSIONS
An improved charge trapping/detrapping model has been
developed which utilizes charge dynamics from both
voltage on and off periods. This gives a more accurate
account of charge trapping and detrapping processes.
Simulation based on experimental data obtained from an
11 year serviced 110 kV XLPE shows that holes traps
generally have a generally greater density and deeper
depth than electrons’. The injection barrier for electrons is
generally higher than that for holes.
The increase in trap density results in a lower DC
breakdown strength and the number of trap density has a
potential as a tool to monitor insulation status.
REFERENCES
[1] G. Chen and Z. Xu, 2009, “Charge trapping and
detrapping in polymeric materials,” Journal of Applied
Physics 106, 123707.
[2] T. Zhou, G. Chen, R. Liao, and Z. Xu, 2011, “Charge
trapping and detrapping in polymeric materials:
Trapping parameters,” Journal of Applied Physics
110, 043724.
[3] N. Liu and G. Chen, 2012, “Changes in charge
trapping/detrapping in polymeric materials and its
relation with aging,” in Electrical Insulation and
Dielectric Phenomena, Annual Report Conference on
, Shenzhen.
[4] L. Dissado, V. Griseri, W. Peasgood, E. Cooper, K.
Fukunaga, and J. Fothergill, 2006, “Decay of space
charge in a glassy epoxy resin following voltage
removal,” IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and
Electrical Insulation 13, 903–916.
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F2.14
[5] A. Tzimas, S. Rowland, and L. Dissado, “Effect of
electrical and thermal stressing on charge traps in
XLPE cable insulation,” IEEE Transactions on
Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation 19, 2145–2154.
[6] L. Dissado and J. Fothergill, Electrical degradation
and breakdown in polymers, 9th ed., edited by P. N.
Morgan, D.V. and K. Overshott Peters, London,
United Kingdom.
[7] J. Brunson, 2010, Hopping conductivity and charge
transport in low density polyethylene, Ph.D. thesis,
Utah State University.
[8] Y. Miyoshi, and K. Chino, “Electrical properties of
polyethylene single crystals,” Japanese Journal of
Physics 6, 181–190.
[9] S. Roy, P. Segur, G. Teyssedre, and C. Laurent,
2004, “Description of bipolar charge transport in
polyethylene using a fluid model with a constant
mobility: model prediction,” Journal of Physics D:
Applied Physics 37, 298–305.
[10] N. Liu, M. He, H. Alghamdi and G. Chen, 2015, “A
novel model to estimate trapping parameters in
polymeric materials and its application on normal and
aged LDPE”, submitted to Journal of Applied Physics.
[11] R. Nath, T. Kaura, and M. Perlman, 1990, “Steady-
state conduction in linear low-density polyethylene
with Poole-lowered trap depth,” IEEE Transactions on
Electrical Insulation.
[12] G. Raju, 2003, Dielectrics in electric fields, Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York, United States.
[13] M. Ieda, G. Sawa, and S. Kato, 1971 “A
Consideration of Poole-Frenkel Effect on Electric
Conduction in Insulators,” JouSrnal of Applied
Physics 42, 3737–3740.
[14] D. Buchanan, M. Fischetti, and D. DiMaria, 1991,
“Coulombic and neutral trapping centers in silico
dioxide,” Physics Review B 43.
[15] G. Blaise and W. Sarjeant, 1998, “Space charge in
dielectrics. Energy storage and transfer dynamics
from atomistic to macroscopic scale,” IEEE
Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
5, 779–808 .
[16] R. Toomer and T. Lewis, 1980, “Charge trapping in
corona-charged polyethylene films,” Journal of
Physics D: Applied Physics 13. 1343–1356.
[17] R. Nath and M. M. Perlman, 1989, “Steady-state bulk
trap-modulated hopping conduction in doped linear
low-density polyethylene,” Journal of Applied Physics
65, 4854.
[18] M. Khalil, 2000, “The role of BaTiO3 in modifying the
dc breakdown strength of LDPD”. IEEE Transactions
on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, 7(2): 261-268.
[19] N. Liu, C. Zhou, G. Chen, and L. Zhong, 2015,
“Determination of threshold electric Field for charge
injection in polymeric”, submitted to Applied Physics
Letter.
6/6
F2.15 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.15

Characteristics of Electrical Treeing Initiation and Propagation in Silicone

Rubber
Yun-xiao ZHANG, Yuan-xiang ZHOU (1), Xu ZHANG (2), Rui LIU (3)
1 State Key Lab of Control and Simulation of Power Systems and Generation Equipments, Department of Electrical
Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China, zhangyxthu@gmail.com, zhou-yx@tsinghua.edu.cn.
2 North China Electric Power Research Institute Co, Ltd, Beijing 100045, China, zhangxu2013ncepri@163.com.
3 State Grid Hubei Electric Power Research Institute, Wuhan 430077, China, liurui0728@gmail.com.

ABSTRACT
Electrical tree is an important reason of insulation failure
in silicone rubber (SIR) which affects the SIR insulated
electrical equipment reliability seriously. In order to
prevent this kind of failure, we should look into the
characteristics of the electrical treeing initiation and
propagation. In this article, two-dimensional (2D) and
three-dimensional (3D) images of electrical tree were
observed. It is found that the electrical treeing branches
are hollow insulating channels. Partial discharge (PD) was
recorded with the electrical treeing growth. It is believed
that PD magnitude and pulse sequences are well (a) Failure cable accessory
corresponding to the treeing growth which illustrates that
PD drives the trees to propagate after they initiate. This
mechanism explains most of the phenomenon observed
in electrical treeing experiments of SIR, and provides a
theoretical basis to proper application of SIR in cable
accessories.

KEYWORDS

Silicone rubber, electrical tree, treeing image, channel

characteristics; partial discharge;
INTRODUCTION
Silicone rubber (SIR) is widely used as main insulation
material of prefabricated cable accessories due to its
excellent electrical, thermal and mechanical performance.
Electrical tree is an important reason of insulation failure
in polymeric dielectrics. In fact, electrical tree is a kind of
insulation defect which looks like tree. Occasional
breakdown failures caused by electrical tree in SIR have
threatened the reliability of extra-high-voltage XLPE
(cross-linked polyethylene) power cable lines which have
been strongly developed. Figure 1(a) shows the failure
cable accessory used in the power cable line where the
breakdown phenomenon caused by electrical tree was
found (as shown in Figure 1(b)).
Recent researches of SIR mainly focus on the short-term
characteristics, such as the influence of frequency [1],
cracks [2], curvature radius [2] and temperature [3, 4] on
electrical tree and electrical property of SIR. Electrical
treeing growth is closely related to its partial discharge
(PD) characteristics [5 - 7]. Meanwhile, the growth can
also be characterized by microcosmic physical parameter
and chemical structure [8, 9]. In SIR, however, the
process of electrical treeing initiation and propagation is
unclear. To reveal the role of PD in electrical treeing
growth, not only PD characteristics need to be studied,
but also physical and chemical characteristics of
discharge channels should be combined.
(b) Electrical treeing channels found in Fig. 1(a)
Fig .1: Failure cable accessories and its electrical
treeing channels
In this paper, electrical trees were observed and the
corresponding PD characteristics of electrical treeing
growth were obtained by experiments. The characteristics
of electrical treeing channels were studied by two-
dimensional (2D) image and SEM. Then, the confocal
laser scanning microscope (CLSM) was used to obtain
three-dimensional (3D) fluorescence electrical treeing
images [8]. Based on the observed results and PD theory,
characteristics of treeing growth under the PD are
explained. In addition, it is proved that electrical treeing
channels in SIR are hollow channels generated by PD,
which corresponds to the observed results.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Test samples
The SIR used in samples is two-component high
temperature vulcanization (HTV) liquid SIR. Figure 2
shows the sample configuration with needle-plate
electrode system simulating defects and protrusions in
cables, which cause electric field distortion under certain
voltage. The cone angle of needle tip is 30° and electrode
curvature radius is 3 µm. The diameter of needle
electrode is about 250 µm and vertical distance between

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F2.15 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.15

tip and plate is 3 mm. The needle electrode is well pre- SIR
embedded and fixed in SIR before vulcanization so that Needle Electrode
the sample is free from mechanical destruction especially 40 mm
near the needle tip [10]. The samples are prepared under
following conditions: vulcanization under the temperature
of 165°C and pressure of 6 MPa for 10 minutes. m
m
30
Electrical treeing experiments

The method to test the breakdown characteristics of solid

materials is according to IEC 60243, a continuously rising 3±0.1 mm
voltage was applied to make trees initiate rapidly in the
SIR. The whole experiment system is shown in Figure 3. Semiconductor SIR
A sine-wave power supply with a frequency of 50 Hz was Fig .2: Experiment sample with a needle in SIR
established to fit the experiment purposes. Experimental
samples were immerged into transformer oil to prevent
the interface flashover and to control the temperature.
Voltage was smoothly raised at a constant rate of 500 V/s.
When the length of tree channels initiated to 10 µm at the
tip of the needle, the voltage was recorded as the treeing
initiation voltage. All these processes were observed by a
digital image processing set consisting of a microscope, a
digital camera, PD detector and a computer.

The fluorescence microscopy observation method was

used in the field of insulation defect diagnosis [8].
Following the steps, fluorescence microscopy images and
optical images were recorded at the same time layer by
layer. 3D images were reconstructed by image process
software produced by Nikon Corporation. Fig .3:PD monitoring and electrical trees images
acquiring apparatus
ELECTRICAL TREEING IMAGE AND
CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS
Treeing image under optical microscope

After the electrical tree initiated, the electrical treeing

growth and the formation mechanism of every kind of
electrical tree is different from each other, which can be
divided into four typical types: twig-like trees, branch-like
trees, pine-like trees and bush-like trees [11], as shown in
Figure 4. Twig-like trees have single or few branches as
shown in Figure 4(a). Branch-like trees only have a few
branches, as shown in Figure 4(b). The color of the
branch is slight, and the channels are sparse. For the
pine-like trees, as shown in Figure 4(c), the color is darker.
The speed of electrical treeing growth is faster, and the
channels are obviously thick. Many bifurcate branches
generate from the channels, meanwhile, some serried Fig .4:Typical forms of electrical trees in SIR
visible needle-shaped pine leaves generate on the
bifurcated branches. For bush-like trees, as shown in (a) Twig-like trees;(b) Branch-like trees;
Figure 4(d), after the electrical tree initiated, a large (c) Pine-like trees;(d) Bush-like trees
number of new channels generate near the tip in a short
period of time, gathering around the tip to form a dense
bush-type electrical trees. The pine-like trees develop fast,
which may lead to breakdown in a short time easily; while
the bush-like trees are denser, but they hardly lead to
breakdown soon [11].

Treeing channel characteristics

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is an effective
technology to demonstrate surface morphology of
samples. In this experiment, observed samples are cross Fig .5:SEM image of treeing channels and the channel
section surface of electrical trees. Based on SEM imaging diameter statistical distribution in SIR
theory, some positions on the surface reflect more
secondary electron such as tip, flat, edge, cavity and

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F2.15 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.15

particles. Thus, these positions look bright via the SEM.

Figure 5(a) is cross section surface image of electrical
trees in SIR. Figure 5(b) is the statistical diameter
distribution of 32 electrical treeing channels. It illustrates
that the scope of diameters of treeing channels distributes
from a few tenths of microns to tens of microns, being
similar with previous studies [12].
As for electrical treeing process of carbon-chain polymers,
due to breakage and degradation of main chain, channels
are usually attached to some carbonized product, which Fig .6: Observation of treeing channels under
looks black, and the black substances enhance reflection light
conductivity of channels obviously [13]. However, it was
found that the electrical trees in SIR showed white by
observing under reflection light (as shown in Figure 6). It
illustrates that there is no or little elemental carbon
produced in the process of electrical treeing in SIR. The
Raman study of SIR also gives evidence to this result [9].
3D treeing image
Three-dimensional (3D) image is a more complete
representation which does not lose information of the
electrical treeing structure. Figure 7 shows the 3D
fluorescence electrical treeing image in SIR, which
illustrates micromorphology of electrical trees directly. In
the figure, the red branches are reconstructed electrical
trees in the observed sample with the fluorescence signal
received by the sensors on the CLSM. According to
Figure 7, it is noted that electrical trees grow three-
dimensionally in samples and their branches are hollow,
forming tree-like shapes in SIR.

PD CHARACTERISTICS OF TREEING
GROWTH
PD magnitude of treeing growth
For shortening the experimental aging time, the voltage of
14 kV was applied and 200 SIR samples were tested to Fig .7: 3D fluorescence image of electrical trees
find out the relationship between PD and aging time. As (applied AC voltage 10 kV for 5 min)
seen in Figure 8, the classical growth curve was drawn
and the corresponding treeing image and PD magnitude
was given. There were two propagation and stagnation
stages [11]. In the process of initiation, the PD magnitude
increased steadily. And then, it went to propagation stage,
the PD magnitude held at a certain number. After 400 s, it
went to stagnation stage and the PD magnitude
decreased unsteadily. When it came to 900 s, it recovered
to grow and finally grew faster after 1400 s. It illustrates
that in the process of treeing growth, PD happens with the
electrical treeing initiation at the same time. Moreover, the
time of large PD magnitude is corresponding to the faster
treeing growth stage at the same time.

PD pulse sequences (PDPS) of treeing

growth

In the study of the PD process of electrical treeing in SIR,

the PDPS were intercepted and analyzed at the same
time. In this paper, the PDPS and electrical treeing image
were compared correspondingly. Figure 9 shows the
images of electrical tree in experimental samples and the
corresponding time of several PDPS. It is found that Fig .8: PD magnitude and treeing images of treeing
PDPS have a close relationship with the development of growth in SIR (applied AC voltage is 14 kV)
electrical tree in SIR.

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F2.15 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.15

Fig .9: PDPS characteristics of treeing growth (applied AC voltage is 14 kV)

volatile small molecule cyclic polysiloxane when PD
In the experiments, the initial presentation image was occurs under high electrical field. Due to these results,
single-branch-like trees when electrical tree initiated for 30 three - capacitances model of PD in dielectrics under AC
s to 35 s (shown in Figure 9(a) and Figure 9(b)). Treeing voltage (as shown in Figure 10) could be used to discuss
elongation occurred with the PD pulse came, and the PD the PD characteristics in SIR.
pulse magnitude reached to 300 pC. When developed to
around 500 s (shown in Figure 8(c) and Figure 8(d)), it When the size and the whole defect of insulation are not
grew to the pine-like trees with 4 branches. A trunk- comparable, the voltage of defects ug follows equation (2):
branch channels elongated rapidly, corresponding to the
Cb
large PDPS of positive half cycle which is consistent with ug = u ⋅ (2)
the relationship between PD pulse magnitude and the Cb + C g
treeing degree discussed above.
Where Cg is the capacitance of defects, Cb is the
Furthermore, when the main channels have clear form capacitance of the structure in series with the defects, Cm
(such as twig-like trees, branch-like trees, pine-like trees), is the capacitance of the structure paralleled with Cg and
the number of large discharge pulse in half cycle is Cb. u is the applied AC voltage.
corresponding to the number of main channels, especially
the obvious channels are corresponding to the positive As the electrical treeing channels of SIR have good
half-cycle pulse which is more than 300 pC. It is thought insulating characteristics, the plate capacitor model could
that these PDPS are mainly from the discharge of main be used to estimate the channel capacitance. The voltage
channels. And it also illustrates that PD magnitude of the of the channels ug and the average electric field eg could
main treeing channels is larger and PD pulse has less be obtained as the equation (3) and (4):
mutual interference to each other in SIR. In this ε r 2d g
experiment, the voltage is maintained at a high level, ug = u ⋅ (3)
therefore, it can be considered that each channels can ε r1d b + ε r 2 d g
discharge in the half cycle, and have an active growth.
εr2
eg = u ⋅ (4)
DISCUSSION ε r1 d b + ε r 2 d g
Where the dg is the length of channels, db is the insulation
The PD characteristics of electrical treeing growth support
distance in series with the channels. εr1 is the relative
that PD is a major factor that causes electrical treeing
growth after initiation. The single channel starts under permittivity of channels which is close to 1, εr2 is the
high electrical field. PD occurs in a confined atmosphere relative permittivity which is close to 3.
with high temperature [4] and absence of oxygen. Under
this condition, main chains of SIR are pyrolyzed and
volatile small molecule cyclic polysiloxane is generated Cg
ug g
according to reaction equation (1):
Cm
u
ub Cb
(1)

(a). Model structure (b). Circuit model

Combined with the 3D image and 2D image of electrical Fig .9: The three - capacitances model of partial
tree results, it illustrates that electrical treeing branches discharge in dielectrics under AC voltage
are hollow insulating channels which are filled with the

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F2.15 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Similarly, the average electric field eb could be calculated
as equation (5):
ε r1
eb = u ⋅
ε r1 d b + ε r 2 d g
As εr1<εr2，The electric field of channels is larger than that
of SIR, but the breakdown voltage is far less than the
latter. PD comes from the treeing channels of SIR in the
process of treeing growth. PD in the channels leads to
gas expansion and electromagnetic force which cause
further treeing damage of SIR. Assumed PD could totally
releases the electric charge, the PD magnitude qg could
be calculated as equation (6):
qg = ε 0ε r1eg S
Where S is the channel area. That is, the bigger the
channel area, the larger the PD magnitude
correspondingly. It could explain the characteristics of PD
magnitude and PDPS with the treeing growth in SIR.
In conclusions, PD magnitude and PDPS are well
corresponding to the treeing growth which illustrates that
PD drives the trees to propagate after they initiate. Small
molecule cyclic polysiloxane generates and is filled with
the channels in SIR with the PD happens. Therefore, the
electrical treeing branches are hollow channels which
have good insulating characteristics. This mechanism
explains most of the phenomenon observed in electrical
treeing experiments of SIR, and provides a theoretical
basis to proper application of SIR in cable accessories.
CONCLUSIONS
(1). 3D electrical tree image were obtained by
fluorescence microscopy. Electrical treeing branches are
hollow channels which have good insulating
characteristics.
(2). PD magnitude and PDPS are well corresponding to
the electrical treeing growth. The large discharge pulse
number in half cycle is corresponding to the number of
main channels.
(3). PD is a major contributing factor that causes electrical
trees growing after inception. Small molecule cyclic
polysiloxane generates and is filled with the channels in
SIR with the PD happens.
(4). It is believed that PD drives the trees to propagate
after they initiate and it explains most of the phenomenon
observed in electrical treeing experiments of SIR, and
provides a theoretical basis to proper application of SIR in
cable accessories.
ACKOWNLEDGE
The authors are very grateful to the Special Fund of the
National Priority Basic Research of China under Grant
2014CB239501, and supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (NSFC 51377089) and the
Science and Technology Project of State Grid of China.
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.15
REFERENCES
[1] Q. Nie, Y. X. Zhou, Z. Z. Chen, et al., 2009,
“Influence of frequency on tree initiation voltage and
(5)
electrical tree shape in silicone rubber”, High Voltage
Engineering, vol. 35, 141-145
[2] Y. X. Zhou, Q. Nie, L. X. Jiang, et al.. 2008,
“Influence of Curvature Radius of Needle Tip on
Characteristics of Electrical Treeing in Silicone
Rubber”, Proceedings of the CSEE, vol. 28, 27-32.
[3] B. X. Du, Z. L. Ma, Y. Gao, et al., 2011, “Effect of
ambient temperature on electrical treeing
characteristics in silicone rubber”, IEEE Transactions
on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, vol. 18, 401-
(6) 407
[4] Y. X. Zhou, F. Hou, Q. Nie, et al., 2012, “Influence of
temperature on electrical tree initiation in
polyethylene”, High Voltage Engineering, vol. 38,
2640-2646.
[5] J. V. Champion, S. J. Dodd, 1998, “An approach to
the modelling of partial discharges in electrical trees”,
Journal of Physics D-Applied Physics, vol. 31, 2305-
2314.
[6] X. R. Chen, Y. Xu, J. Xu, et al., 2010, “Propagation
stage characteristics of electrical tree in 110kV XLPE
cable insulation at 50Hz power frequency voltage”,
High Voltage Engineering, vol. 10, 2436-2443.
[7] Y. X. Zhou, R. Liu, Y. X. Zhang, et al., 2015,
“Corresponding Relation Between the Micrographs
and the Partial Discharge Properties of Electrical
Trees in Silicone Rubber”, High Voltage Engineering,
vol. 41, 132-139.
[8] Y. X. Zhou, X. Zhang, R. Liu, et al., 2014, “Study on
Micromorphology of Electrical Trees in Silicon
Rubber”, High Voltage Engineering, vol. 40, 9-15.
[9] Y. X. Zhou, R. Liu, Y. X. Zhang, et al., 2014, “Study
on Electrical Tree’s Initiation and Propagation
Processes in Silicone Rubber”, High Voltage
Engineering, vol. 40, 3656-3664.
[10] D. W. Kitchin, O. S. Pratt, 1958, “Treeing in
polyethylene as a prelude to breakdown”,
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vol. 77, 180-186.
[11] Y. X. Zhou, R. Liu, F. Hou, et al., 2013, “Morphology
of electrical trees in silicon rubber”, Journal of
Electrostatics, vol. 71, 440-448.
[12] T. Iizuka, Y. Ohki, T. Tanaka, 2008, “Effects of
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characteristics of epoxy/silica nanocomposites”,
Electrical Insulating Materials, International
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[13] A. S. Vaughan, I. L. Hosier, S. J. Dodd, and S. J.
Sutton, 2006, “On the structure and chemistry of
electrical trees in polyethylene”, J. Phys. D. Appl.
Phys., vol. 39, 962-978.
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F2.16 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.16

Optimization of High Voltage electrodes and HV cable accessories design

by using MATLAB and FEMM
Enis TUNA,
Demirer Kablo Accessories Design, 4 Eylül Mah. İsmet İnönü Cad. No:279 BİLECİK / TURKEY
enis.tuna@masscable.com

ABSTRACT
In this study an essential approach to electrical geometric
field control is done by defining / introducing the over
stresses in parallel electrode edges and similarities in real
applications in AC HV cable accessories. After
understanding the necessity of electrical field control,
special mathematical equations based on Borda and
Rogowski profile are introduced, optimized and compared
under the perspective of success to control field strength
in a limited area.
Fınally a computer aided “profile design method” is
introduced to design a field control part with an iterative
process based on known Borda and Rogowski equations
and product design parameters without using the physical Fig.2: Field Distribution on Non-Screened Cable
drawing of the final product by using MATLAB, FEMM, VB
Aided Software and SOLIDWORKS. In HV cables electrical field lines distributed
homogenously around the cable axis and electrical stress
KEYWORDS is decreasing proportionally with increasing thickness of
insulation layer.
High voltage cable accessories, MATLAB, FEM, Borda
profile, Non-uniform field, Weibull distribution, Llifetime
Enis TUNA, Demirer Cable-HV Cable Accessories
Design- R&D ,Bilecik/TURKEY

INTRODUCTION
Prefabricated high voltage and extra high voltage cable
accessories which are used at state of the art HV
transmission lines requires stress control elements/
systems to provide continues stress control to limit the
electrical stress at the cut end of cables to a value to
guarantee, by using available insulating materials, an
expected life time of the cable system of at least 40 years.
In all type of HV cables screen/shield layer around the Fig.3: Field Strength Distribution on Cylinder System
insulation layer (XLPE, Paper insulation, PE, EPR etc.)
provides a ground potential around the cable insulation
which is helping to ensure a uniform electrical field ∗
distribution in the cable dielectric insulation.
This outer sheath is also preventing surface electrical During the assembling of terminations and joints because
activity and possible discharges which would reduce the of the nature reasons; screen layer of the cable must be
lifetime of cable significantly.[1] removed to a certain point from HV potential (cable
conductor).Distance in-between High Voltage potential
and screen layer depends on the operating voltage level
and insulation ambiance in cable assembling.(air,oil,SF6
etc.)
Removal of the screen layer results to non-homogenous
field distribution which means that the electrical field is no
longer uniform along the cable axis.

Fig.1: Electrical Field Distribution on Screened Cable

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F2.16 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Fig.4: Peeled HV Cable
Fig.4: Discharge at the edge of Semi Conductive [1]
Fig.5: Equipotential line distribution an screen
termination point
As can be seen from Fig.5; electrical field lines focuses at
the cut end of screen layer, which shows us the
occurrence of the high electrical stress at that area. The
level of field stress in screen point can exceed the stress
limit of insulation material and initiate partial discharges
which can lead to a complete breakdown. To prevent
insulation failures (partial discharges, breakdown) stress
concentration in the screen layer must be
controlled / reduced.
In this study, problematic region in HV cables is defined
by “Parallel Plane Electrode” system and the
geometrical profiles like “Rogowski” and “Borda”
profiles introduced to reader. Then the method for
transferring the mathematical equations to real physical
world is explained. In the later stage; automatic stress
control. With this new computer aided design method, HV
accessories designers are just need to give the cable
diameter and Voltage level information to software (TUNA
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.16
HVAD) as an input and then the Software automatically
calculates geometrical stress control profile and simulates
electrical field distribution performance of created profile
with related voltage level.
PARALLEL PLANE ELECTRODES IN HV
ACCESSORIES
In HV cable systems while terminating or jointing the
system, unconsciously we create a parallel electrode
setup (in a limited area which creates over stress at the
edge of semi-conductive passage are as can be seen in
Fig.6
Fig.6: Parallel Electrode Behaviour on HV Cable
In 2D perspective field strength in parallel planes is:
Depending on the insulation material in cable, field
strength at the edges of parallel plane like in Fig.6 can
damage the insulation layer in-between conductor and
screen layer.
In 3D perspective, the plane system is actually having an
axial rotation which makes our problem a three
dimensional and equation [1] must be applied describing
field distribution in coaxial cylinder. Total goal -on axial
parallel plane system in HV cable assembling- is to keep
the highest stress on a level equal to homogenous field
where the layers (conductor-screen) are in parallel and to
accomplish that a certain field control profile must be
created which will keep field strength at the curved edges
should be lower than E=V/d (equation [2]) [2]
GEOMETRICAL STRESS CONTROL VIA
ROGOWSKI PROFILE
Rogowski proposed electrodes for uniform fields for axially
symetrical systems whose profile follows the analytical
function first introduced by Maxwell. [2]
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F2.16 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.16

As can be seen from graphic, field strength has its max

values between the plates in the homogeneous field
region(where the plates are in parallel) and decreases
gradually within the curvature with increasing values of
“u”.[2]There is also another profile type called Borda
Profile which performs completely constant field
distribution along the profile surface.

GEOMETRICAL STRESS CONTROL VIA

BORDA PROFILE
The Borda profile is used for example in the field of high
voltage engineering, to avoid extreme field strength spikes
or to create uniform fields. This results in considerably
Fig.7: Field distribution on Rogowski profile smaller fringing regions as compared to the Rogowski
Rogowski realized that parallel metal plates of finite profile.
dimensions create a problem of electrical stress control at
the edge of plates. Rogowski proposed electrodes whose BORDA PROFILE
13
profile follows the mathematical function as: [3]

HEIGHT OF THE BORDA PROFILE

12
. ! "
11

# ! . $% ! & 10

9
Rogowski has choses the profile defined by v=π/2 and
- ∞< u <+∞ because it is the most compact profile that 8
has this property. [4]
LENGTH OF THE BORDA PROFILE
7
ROGOWSKI PROFILE -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
14
HEIG HT OF THE RO GO W SKI PROFILE

13
Fig.9: Borda Profile dimensional behaviour

12 Electrical field distribution performance of Borda profile is:

11
BORDA PROFILE FILED DISTRIBUTION
10 1

9 0.9
FIELD STRENGTH [kV/mm]

8 0.8

7 0.7

6 BORDA
0.6

5
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 0.5

Fig.7: Rogowski Profile dimensional behaviour 0.4

0.3

Electrical field distribution performance of Rogowski

profile is: 0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

BORDA CONTOUR LENGTH

ROGOWSKI PROFILE FIELD DISTRIBUTION

FIG.9: Borda profile electrical field performance
1

Borda profile achieves even lover field intensity beyond

0.9
the main field region than in case of Rogowski profile
FIE LD STR EN G TH [kV/m m ]

[4].In Fıg.10 and Fıg.11 two profile types are compared

0.8

with dimensional and field distribution performance with

0.7
ROGOWSKI the same gap setup and same applied voltage.

0.6

0.5

0.4

ROGOWSKI CONTOUR LENGTH

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Fig.8: Rogowski Profile electrical field performance

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F2.16
ROGOWSKI-BORDA HEIGHT DIFFERANCE
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
-25
Fig.10: Rogowski-Borda dimensional comparison
FIELD DISTRIBUTION DIFFERANCE [kV/mm]
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0 10
Fig.11: Rogowskı-Borda field comparison
With both perspectives Borda profile is providing better
performance compared to Rogowski profile.
HV ACCESSORIES DESIGN
After theoretical calculations and decision to the
appropriate profile type; the most important step of
designing HV accessories is transfer the mathematical
equations into real physical world which at the end
designers can submit the actual product dimension to
initiate production process. In following sections a new
design method will be introduced. First the manual version
of this design method will be explained to readers than
computer aided “TUNA HVAD” HV accessories stress
control elements design programme will be explained.
Creation of Profile Coordinates
After selection of required profile type (Borda, Rogowski
etc.) according to related mathematical equations,
physical coordinates of the profile must be created. In this
step, via MATLAB real x and y values of the selected
profile can be created easily; only critical parameter is
selection of proper coordinate quantity which helps to
create smooth profile afterwards in CAD program.
Fig.12: Profile Coordinate Creation
9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.16
Creation of Profile
ROGOWSKI
Coordinates of the selected profile is processed by 3D
drawing program Solidworks (SW) by creating electrode
shapes following the coordinates which were created with
MATLAB at earlier stage. Same process can be
implemented with any other CAD soft wares but the main
BORDA
advantage of SW is; it automatically makes the profile
smoother even the designer selects coordinate increment
step(sample coordinate number) low.
ROGOWSKI-BORDA PROFILE LENGTH DIFFERANCE
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
ROGOWSKI-BORDA PROFILE COMPARISON
ROGOWSKI
Fig.13: Profile Creation by SolidWorks
BORDA
From this point to finalize the stress control element the
designer must select a shape which needs to be placed at
the edge of electrode profile. This ending type (radius
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 sphere, spline etc.) depends on designer, moulding
ROGOWSKI-BORDA PROFILE CONTOUR LENGTH
technology (as the calculated electrode will be semi-
conductive silicon injection moulded at later stage).
Electrical Performance of Designed Product
To finalize the design process, new designed stress
control element must provide a uniform field distribution.
To accomplish the testing process the calculated design
must be placed into real position where it will perform the
stress control process, like joint, stress cone, indoor-
outdoor terminations etc. Electrical field analyze was
performed with 2D-open sourced FEMM which makes
simulation via FEM technique.
Fig.14: FEMM 380 kV 3000mm2 joint simulation
After simulation process according to design criteria, the
semi-finished design can be finalized. If the stress
intensity is higher than expected values, the related area
needs to be modified or the complete design can be
modified until all the stress levels in design are under the
given design limits.
Computer Aided Automatic Design
All design steps which were introduced in previous
sections are done by manual operations which means in
all new design process HV accessories designer must
perform all separate steps, like creation of coordinates,
transferring the coordinates to CAD program, defining the
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F2.16 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.16

ending style at the edge of selected profile and finally

putting the stress control element into electrical field
simulation program. Also for FEM simulation every
material (insulation layers, conductive sections and
ambiance etc.) sections must be defined. All these steps
having a lot of possibilities for mistakes and are time
consuming even the new design requires only small
modification like changing some radiuses, length or arcs
etc.

Fig.17: Sample view from MATLAB script

Fig.15: TUNA HVAD main screen

Visual Basic supported TUNA HVAD software as can be
seen in Fig.15, mainly requires the HV cable diameter and
related voltage level which the stress control element be
designed for. “Increment step” input defines the data
(coordinate) quantity in selected profile whether the profile
is Borda or Rogowski. Higher coordinate quantities make
the overall profile smoother.
u = [-5 : i : 1] ; i for Rogowski profile [6]
a = [0 : i : pi/2] ; I for Borda profile [7]
TUNA HVAD either can use MATLAB (to create
coordinates and later stages to optimize stress control
element), SolidWorks (to draw 3D drawing of product) and
FEMM (open source software to simulate electrical fields.)
or simply by pass MATLAB and only can use Solidworks
and FEMM. Another possibility is if the
company / designer has a 3D electrical field calculation
software (like Coulomb, COMSOL etc.) TUNA HVAD can
establish a bridge in-between 3D drawing software and
3D simulation software. It is completely modifiable.
Fig.18: SW electrode output sample
The Software automatically transforms profile into a stress
control element (also this shape can be modified later on
and be used for another purposes like HV electrode in
joints etc.). (Attention needs to be paid to the end of
profile edge and backside of the profile design depending
on the mould technique). After completion of profile
drawing, software runs second MATLAB script which
establishes a bridge between MATLAB and FEMM. In the
first run software checks if the profile field intensity levels
in design limits or not. If this is not the case, MATLAB
script starts to make small iterations at exceeding section
till design limits are fulfilled.
At the end of successful iteration process MATLAB scripts
records new coordinates and transfers those data to SW
to re-draw new stress control element. Consequently new
stress control element is designed just with cable
diameter and related voltage level without involving into
design process.

Design via MATLAB-SW-FEMM Option

When the designer enters required information to the
software, the program automatically runs the first
MATLAB script to create coordinates. Program records
coordinates in .txt file (in case of designer can use these
coordinates in another purpose) then the program
activates SW to draw profile from coordinates which was
created by MATLAB.

Fig.19: Final stress control element FEMM output

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 5/6

F2.16 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Designed Products via Computer Aided
Software
With this new automatic calculation method, HV
accessories designed and produced up to 380 kV voltage
level including the product family as follows;
• Conical electrodes for stress cones and joints-
• Stress control elements(stress cones) for
terminations(indoor-outdoor)
• HV electrodes (Faraday cage) for joints
• HV cable joints
• Corona head armatures for terminations (indoor-
outdoor)
Fig.20: Produced side electrode designed by software
Fig.21: Produced middle electrode designed by
software
Fig.22: Rogowski oil test electrodes designed by
software
Fig.23: Rogowski corona part designed by software
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.16
CONCLUSIONS
In Fig.20 and Fig.21 the 170 kV range designed HV
electrode and ground deflector can be seen before
combined to a complete joint and stresscone. 170 kV
R&D tests (voltage withstand till breakdown, lightning
impulse tests ) are in progress now to proof calculated
design by using Weibull Distribution calculation to get
information on field stress and lifetime of accessories.
Type test following IEC will be performed during June
2015 for 170 kV HV accessories which accessories
designed completely with this new method.
Further developments to design 380 kV accessories are in
progress while type test, and related PQ test, is scheduled
to begin end of 2015.
After successful type test results, computer aided HV
accessories design software will be further developed to
have, for each type of cable accessories like “HV Outdoor
Termination Designer”, ”HV Joint Designer” etc., a
separate module available. This will enable us to have a
very accurate and efficient design process minimizing the
risk of failures during this design process and reaching an
optimized accessories design.
REFERENCES
[1] Ali HIRJI, 2011, “A Review of Electrical Stress
Control Systems for Medium and High Voltage Cable
Accessories”
For a book citation:
[2] E.KUFFEL, W.S. ZAENGL, J.KUFFEL, 2000, “High
Voltage Engineering”, Newnes, Oxford, ENGLAND,
206-207
[3] Jean-François OSTIGUY, 1993, "Longitudial Profile
and Effective Length of a Conventional Dipole
Magnet", 1993 IEEE, 2901-2902
[4] Ravindra ARORA, Wolfgang MOSCH, 2011, “High
Voltage and Electrical Insulation Engineering”,
WILEY PUBLICATION, New Jersey, USA,21-22
GLOSSARY
SW : SolidWorks
HVAD : High Voltage Accessories Designer
VB : Visual Basic
6/6
F2.17 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.17

Influence on measured conductor AC resistance of high voltage

cables when the screen is used as return conductor

Marcus HÖGÅS, Karl-Erik RYDLER; SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Sweden, Marcus.Hogas@sp.se
karlerik.rydler@sp.se,

ABSTRACT
THEORY
At Jicable 2011 a measuring system of conductor AC and
DC resistance using synchronous sampling was Geometry
presented. In the method the current circuit is made
coaxial to minimize the influence of external magnetic Let us consider a High Voltage AC cable with a wire
fields and to minimize error due to mutual coupling to the screen where the conductor is assumed to be solid with a
voltage circuit. However, it has been questioned if the radius and conductivity . A sinusoidal current with
current in the screen induces additional power loss in the frequency is passed through the conductor and the
conductor due to eddy currents which will influence the screen is used as return conductor. The screen is
measured AC resistance. In this paper we use a first order assumed to be made up of isolated wires with radius
approximation of an iterative method to show that the at a distance from the conductor (i.e. the distance from
additional power loss is negligible.
the centre of the conductor to the centre of the screen
KEYWORDS wires). The wires are either laid straight or are wound.
(Hereafter SG refers to cables with “straight geometry”
High Voltage AC cable, coaxial cable, AC resistance, and WG refers to “wound geometry”.) We will consider
induced power loss, eddy current, wound wire. each of these two cases separately. The wires are
assumed to be laid out periodically in the rotational
INTRODUCTION direction of the conductor (the azimuth direction). Thus in
a specific transverse cross-section of the cable, each
The maximum current limit of High Voltage AC cables wire, wire number say, can be characterized by an angle
depends on the AC resistance of the cable conductor. In , see Fig. 1. In the WG case we also have a distance
the development of, specifically, segmented High Voltage that is the lay length of the screen.
AC cables with large conductor cross-sections, there is a
need to measure conductor AC resistances with high
accuracy to verify their performance. The CIGRE Working
Group B1.03 recommends that the AC resistance of large
cable conductors should be measured when cable
designs are being type tested [1]. The reason for this
recommendation is the calculation complexity of existing
theoretical models.
In line with this a measuring system of conductor AC
resistance of high voltage AC cables was presented at the
Jicable’11 conference [2]. In this method the AC
resistance is measured using a low current and the
screen of the cable is used as the return conductor to
minimize the inductance of the circuit. This will also
minimize the mutual coupling between the input current
and the output voltage (the voltage drop along the
conductor). However, it has been questioned if the current
in the screen induces additional power loss in the
conductor due to eddy currents which will influence the
measured AC resistance. This question is particularly
relevant in the common case where the wires of the
Fig. 1: Schematic figure of a transverse cross-section
screen are wound, where the analogy with an ideal
of the cable with conductor and one screen wire
coaxial cable with a solid screen is not applicable.
included.
In order to estimate the induced power loss in the
conductor due to the magnetic flux density generated by Iterative method
the current in the screen wires we make some In our case, let the starting point, or zeroth order
geometrical assumptions on the cable and then utilize an approximation, of the iterative method be that the current
iterative method based on Maxwell’s equations. The density, , in the conductor is that of an ideal coaxial
iterative method is well established and is presented e.g. conductor when a current of frequency is passed
in [3]. A similar method was used by the CIGRE Working through it, i.e.
Group B1.03 to estimate induced power loss in
conductors [1]. , (1)

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 1/6

F2.17 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
(cf. [4]) where is the Bessel function of first kind order
and is defined as – 1 + " ⁄# where # is the skin depth
%1⁄ & ' . The subscript ( indicates that it refers to the
current density of the conductor and the superscript 0
indicates that it is the zeroth order approximation.
Now let us add the screen wires to the setup and assume
as a zeroth order approximation that the current is
homogeneously distributed in the screen wires. Let *
refer to this zeroth order current density in the screen so
that the total zeroth order current density is + Note that the starting point of this method was that the
* . Note that since the current density is sinusoidal a
magnetic flux density, + say, will develop as a result of
the current density . Since is the sum of the zeroth
order conductor current and the zeroth order screen
current the total magnetic flux density + will have a
contribution from both these current densities according to
the superposition principle. Inside the conductor the
zeroth order magnetic flux density due to the conductor
current is given by
,
+ ., 0 ≤
- ≤
(cf. [5]), and the zeroth order magnetic flux density inside
the conductor due to one of the screen wires, wire number
say, is
,
+ ,* . ,
- ≤
1 2
where and -. are declared in Fig. 1 as the radial
cylindrical coordinate and angular cylindrical base vector
respectively, conveniently defined by the wire itself. The
total magnetic flux density from the screen wires is the
sum of the magnetic flux densities from all wires:
+* ∑14 + ,* .
Obviously the zeroth order magnetic flux density due to
the conductor current, (2), does not induce any current
density in the conductor other than the current density
already included in the expression (1) for . To be sure,
(2) is rather the exact magnetic flux density that is
generated in the conductor with the screen wires excluded
when a current of frequency is passed through it.
However, + does induce a current density, *, say, in
the screen wires. The first of the two subscripts indicates
that it refers to the current density in the screen and the
second subscript indicates that it is the current density
induced by the magnetic flux density generated by the
conductor current. On the other hand, the magnetic flux
density due to the current in the screen wires, (3), induces
a current density in themselves, *,* , due to skin effect
and proximity effect. They also induce a current density,
,* , in the conductor. To summarize, the total first order
correction to the current density is Δ *,
,* .
Now to first order approximation the total current density
is + Δ . Moreover, looking at Δ this current
density will in its turn generate a magnetic flux density,
Δ+ , that will induce a new current density Δ in the
conductor. The total magnetic flux density is now + +
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.17
Δ+ and the total current density +Δ +
Δ , and so on ad infinitum. Note that all these current
densities should add up to a current density that, when
integrated over the area of the conductor, is equal to the
current, , passed through the conductor. One can
continue this step by step process up to arbitrary high
order and if the method is applied to a well behaved
problem the current density and magnetic flux density
converges to the exact solution in the limit as the number
of steps goes to infinity.
current was homogeneously distributed in the screen
wires. This is in fact realized for a DC current, but with
increasing frequency eddy current effects become
increasingly important causing the current density to
deviate from a homogeneous distribution. Thus a first
order approximation can be expected to give a reasonable
estimate of the induced power loss for low frequencies
where the skin depth is not much smaller than the radius
of the screen wires. The High Voltage AC cables are
typically not used for frequencies larger than 100 Hz which
(2) corresponds to a skin depth of approximately 5 mm for a
copper conductor. Thus the skin depth is not much
smaller than the radius of a typical screen wire. Hence we
expect the first step in the iteration process to give a
reasonable estimate of the induced current density in the
conductor due to the screen current.
(3)
In order to obtain an explicit expression for the induced
current density we start with Faraday’s law
∇×= −?@ + (5)
where = is the electric field and ?@ denotes differentiation
with respect to time, A. The current that is passed through
the conductor and the screen is assumed to be sinusoidal
(4) so from (5) we derive
∇×= "2& + (6)
where " is the imaginary unit. Hereafter the time
dependence is suppressed and phasor notation is used.
Now we take the surface integral on both sides of (6) over
a rectangular surface with two of its sides parallel to the
longitudinal direction ( ) and two of its sides parallel to the
D ) and its normal forming an angle E with
radial direction (C
the F-axis. One of the sides parallel to the longitudinal
axis is assumed to be placed at the centre of the
conductor. The sides parallel to the longitudinal axis are
taken to be very short (i.e. with length G ≪ ) and the sides
parallel to the radial direction are assumed to have length
.
Imposing Stoke’s theorem on the left hand side of (6)
converts the surface integral into a curve integral and
noting that the curve integrals of the two sides parallel to
the radial direction cancel each other, we get
O ′ , EPQ O
+ *,* + IJ , E − IJ 0 "2& K LM N (7)
where we have also used Ohm’s law to obtain the current
density from the electric field. The subscripts denote the
corresponding component of the fields.
Now we want to utilize (7) for the purpose of estimating
the induced current density in the High Voltage AC cable
conductor due to the screen current. In order to do this we
2/6
F2.17 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.17

plug in the zeroth order approximation of the magnetic flux +

X] ,
.
- (13)
1 2
density in (7). Due to the superposition principle we can
separately consider the contribution to the current density
from the magnetic flux density of the conductor itself and where and -. are declared in Fig. 1 as the radial
from the screen. Hence cylindrical coordinate and angular cylindrical base vector
respectively, conveniently defined by the wire itself. The
IJ, ,* , E > IJ, ,* 0 "2& K LM, ,*
O, E
Q O
(8) superscript T^ is to indicate that we are considering the
SG case. It is possible to show that in the cylindrical
where the first subscript indicates the corresponding coordinates defined by the conductor, (13) becomes
components of the vector fields, the second subscript, (, X] ,
+ > sin E > D!
C
indicates that it refers to the current density or magnetic 1 Y _` Y a ` bcd Mae2 (14)
flux density in the conductor, and the third subscript, R, ! > cos E > .P
-
indicates that it is the contribution from the magnetic flux
density generated by the current density in the screen. where ≡ 2& > 1 ⁄ . The total magnetic flux density is
However, note that the current density at the centre of the the sum of the magnetic flux densities from all wires:
conductor coming from the screen wires must be zero due
to rotational cylindrical symmetry. Also note that + ∑14 + . (15)
IJ, ,* , E is the induced current density in the conductor
due to the zeroth order currents in the screen, so we have Now using (9) the induced current density in the
longitudinal direction is
IJ, ,* ,E "2& K LM, ,*
O, E Q O. (9) Y Y _` Y a
X] ` bcd Mae2
IJ, ,*
∑14 ln [ \. (16)
l 1 `Y
This expression is also in agreement with [6]. A similar
expression for the induced current density in the angular Here (and below) we do not care about modifying the
direction can also be derived: current in (1) in order to obtain a total current of in the
conductor (with the induced current included) since, as we
IM, ,* ,E "2& K LJ, ,*
O, E OQ O. (10) will see in the evaluation section, the total induced current
is very small compared to . Hence the relative magnitude
As we show below it turns out that the induced current of the induced power loss compared to the self-induced
density in the longitudinal direction sets an upper limit for power loss is not affected appreciably by this modification.
the induced currents in the angular and radial directions.
Furthermore, utilizing Ampère’s law on differential form on
So in order to estimate an upper limit of the magnitude of
the expressions (14) and (15) for the magnetic flux density
the induced current and power loss in the conductor it is
in the conductor due to the magnetic flux density
sufficient to calculate the induced current density in the
generated by the screen current it is straightforward to
longitudinal direction and then estimate the total power
show that the components of the induced current density
loss as three times the power loss due to the induced
in the conductor in the angular direction and the radial
current in the longitudinal direction.
direction are zero. Hence the induced power loss due to
The induced power loss, S, over a cross section area T of the screen current can be calculated from (11) using the
the conductor due to a current density is expression (16) for the induced current density.

S
U
∬X | | QT. (11) Wound geometry
Let us consider one of the screen wires, number say.
From (11) and (1) we can immediately calculate the power When the screen wires are wound they are not parallel to
loss in the conductor due to the conductor current itself: the conductor (the n -axis) but trace out helixes in the
longitudinal direction and thus we can define a lead angle,
| |Y
S [ ! \ (12) o, of the wire (see Fig. 2).
Z U

where is the modified Bessel function of the first kind

order . Now in order to estimate the induced current
density (and from that the induced power loss) we need to
know the magnetic flux density that the screen wires
generate. In the case that the wires are laid straight there
is a close analogy with an ideal coaxial cable with a solid
screen. Indeed when the number of wires grows large we
expect the cable to be in arbitrarily close conformity with
the ideal coaxial case in terms of measureable
parameters and hence no additional power loss in the Fig. 2: Schematic figure of a longitudinal cross-
conductor is induced. However, in the case that the wires section of the cable with a plane crossing the centre
are wound we cannot a priori expect that to happen. of the cable and with surface normal parallel to the p-
axis. Hence the cable is seen from “above”. In the
Straight geometry figure the screen wire number q is also indicated even
though it does not lie in the cross-section plane but
“above” it. The lead angle r is the angle between the
Without loss of generality let us consider one of the
projection of wire q on the cross-section plane and the
screen wires, number say. The magnetic flux density
generated by this wire is
-axis.

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 3/6

F2.17 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.17

Y
€]
During one lay length, , each screen wire traces out a IJ, ,* cos o ∑14 <
l 1 bcdY • bcdY Mae2 _d‚ƒY Mae2
distance % ! 2& , thus the lead angle, o , can be
bcd Mae2 a` Y _ Y d‡bY • d‚ƒY Mae2
determined by and as < †ln [ \!
`Y

cos o . (17) > 2 sin o sin E > arctan cos o cot E > !
Y bcd • bc‹ Mae2 `a bcd Mae2 _ d‡b • d‚ƒ Mae2
s _[Ytu\
v > arctan [ \\Π.
`
(20)
Let us assume that the lay length is long, i.e. a small lead
angle. Quantitatively we assume that ≫ 2& so that The question now remains how large the contributions are
cos o x 1 ( o x 0 ). E.g. if 50 mm and 1 m then from the radial and angular components of the induced
cos o x 0.954 (i.e. close to 1 ), or if 50 mm and current density. However, remembering that in the SG
5 m then cos o x 0.998 (i.e. very close to 1). We also case the radial and angular components were zero we
note that the WG case is in close conformity with the SG have strong reason, due to the close conformity between
case when the lead angle is small. SG and WG, to expect that these components are at least
smaller than the longitudinal component also in the WG
Even though the fields are dependent on the n coordinate case. It is indeed possible to check explicitly that this
in the WG case the effect of moving a distance n O on the expectation is correct, which we do immediately. The
n -axis is just } , E, n → } , E, n ! n O } ,E ! magnetic flux density is given in (19). From that the
2&n O ⁄ , n where } is some vector field, e.g. the magnetic induced current density in the longitudinal and angular
flux density + or the current density . I.e. the field at directions are obtained via (9) and (10) respectively. The
n ! n O is equal to the field at n rotated by an angle 2&n O ⁄ . total induced power loss is then calculated using (11). The
Now remember (11), which states that the induced power result of comparing the induced power loss due to the
loss per unit length in the n-direction is proportional to | | longitudinal and angular current density is shown in Fig. 3.
integrated over the transverse cross-section, i.e. a surface It is assumed that the conductivity is 60 MS/m (the
integral where E goes from 0 to 2& . Therefore, since conductivity of copper), the radius of the conductor is
, E, n ! n′ , E ! 2&n O ⁄ , n , the total induced
25 mm, the radius of the screen is 50 mm, the lay length
is 5 m , and that a 1 A current of frequency 50 Hz is
power loss in the conductor due to the screen current is
the same in all transverse cross-sections. So without loss
of generality we consider the n 0 plane. Furthermore, passed through the conductor.
since the lead angle is assumed to be small we
approximate the wire with a straight wire whose projection
on the cross-section plane of Fig. 2 makes an angle o
with the n-axis and which is at distance from the centre
of the conductor when n 0 . This is a sensible
approximation in the neighborhood of n 0. However, it is
only the currents in the neighborhood of n 0 that
contributes significantly to the induced power loss at n 0
so this approximation is expected to give a reasonable
estimate of the induced power loss if ≫ 2& .
With these assumptions the magnetic flux density
generated by wire is approximated as

+
€] ,
. .
- (18)
1 2
Fig. 3: Power loss due to the induced currents in the
. are the radial cylindrical coordinate and
conductor calculated as a function of the number of
Here and - wires. The power loss due to the -component and the
the angular cylindrical base vector respectively, --component are calculated separately using (11) in
conveniently defined by the wire itself. (Note that this is each case. (The power loss of the --component was
not the same as and - . in the SG case.) Transforming calculated using (19) and calculating the integrals (10)
coordinates from , E to , E it is possible to show and (11) numerically.) Note that the power loss due to
that the angular current is consistently smaller than the
€] ,
+ <
power loss due to the longitudinal current, as
1 bcdY • bcd Mae2 a` Y _ Y d‚ƒY Mae2 expected.
< „> cos o sin E > CD! (19)
€] €] €]
. Thus IJ, ,* sets an upper limit for I , ,* and IM, ,* .
! cos o > cos E > - ! sin o sin E > ….
Finally an upper limit of the induced power loss can be
estimated by letting all components of the induced current
The total magnetic flux density is obtained by summing €]
over all according to (15). From (9) and (19) the be given by IJ, ,* and plugging the corresponding
€]
longitudinal component of the induced current density in expression for ,* into (11). Hence
the conductor is calculated:
’ €]
S €]
0 ∬X “IJ, ,* “ QT . (21)
U

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F2.17 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.17

EVALUATION Fig. 5: Transverse cross-section of the conductor with

the screen laid straight. The relative induced power
From (11) we see that | ′, E′, n′ | ⁄ 2 may be loss calculated per unit volume in the conductor due
interpreted as the power loss per unit volume at a certain to the screen current is indicated as a contour plot.
point ′, E′, n′ of the conductor due to the current density Here • šž.
at that point. Thus the quotient “IJ, ,* “ ”“I “ at a When 16 the induced power loss per unit volume has
certain point of the conductor may be interpreted as a decreased significantly to be smaller than 2 < 10aŸ ppm of
measure of the relative induced power loss due to the the self-induced power loss.
screen current at that point, normalized against the self-
induced power loss. From now on we assume that the
conductivity is 60 MS/m (the conductivity of copper), the
radius of the conductor is 25 mm, the radius of the
screen is 50 mm, and that a current of frequency 50 Hz is
passed through the conductor.

Fig. 6: Transverse cross-section of the conductor with

wound screen. The relative induced power loss
calculated per unit volume in the conductor due to the
screen current is indicated as a contour plot. Here
• šž and the lay length is š .
As expected, we note that in the WG case the relative
Fig. 4: Transverse cross-section of the conductor with induced power loss per unit volume is larger than SG (in
the screen laid straight. The relative induced power Fig. 6 by approximately one order of magnitude compared
loss calculated per unit volume in the conductor due to Fig. 5) but still the induced power loss is very small.
to the screen current is indicated as a contour plot.
Here • –. In this figure as well as in the figures
below only the first quadrant of the conductor is
shown. However, no information is lost since the
three remaining quadrants are obtained by rotating
the figure —˜°, š–˜°, and ›œ˜°.
Note that already when 8 the maximum induced
power loss per unit volume in the conductor is smaller
than 2.5 ppm of the self-induced power loss.

Fig. 7: Transverse cross-section of the conductor with

wound screen. The relative induced power loss
calculated per unit volume in the conductor due to the
screen current is indicated as a contour plot. Here
• šž and the lay length is ¡ .
Comparing Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 we observe that the induced
power loss per unit volume is smaller when the lay length
is longer (1 m compared to 5 m). This is reasonable since
a greater lay length for WG implies a closer conformity

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F2.17 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
with the SG case and hence a smaller power loss.
Fig. 8: Relative induced power loss in an arbitrary
transverse cross-section of the conductor per unit
length of cable, calculated as a function of the
number of wires. Three different cases are shown,
SG, WG with lay length š , and WG with lay length
¡ . The induced power loss is normalized against
the self-induced power loss so the vertical axis is
dimensionless.
Fig. 4-Fig. 8 shows that when the number of wires grows
large the induced power loss due to the screen current
approaches zero for both SG and WG, as in the ideal
coaxial cable with solid screen. In fact the decrease is
exponential with the number of wires as can be seen in
Fig. 8. We also see that the decrease is faster the longer
the lay length is, even though the difference between
1 m and 5 m is small. This is not surprising since
a longer lay length implies a closer conformity with SG
and hence a faster decrease with the number of wires and
a smaller induced power. In summary, all seems quite
consistent with what one expects of this approximation.
Also observe in Fig. 8 that the induced power loss is
below ppm level compared to the self-induced power loss
already when the number of wires is greater than 7.
Indeed in the typical case the number of screen wires is
much larger than 7 and therefore the induced power loss
due to the screen current may be taken as negligible for
all practical purposes.
Motivated by the observation that the estimated induced
power loss becomes extremely small when the number of
wires grows, one might ask whether the presented
method for estimating these effects is equally accurate
when the number of wires grows large. However, there
seems to be no reason to assume otherwise. Concerning
the convergence of the iterative method that seems
primarily to be a question of the homogeneity of the
current distribution in the screen wires, but that depends
mainly on the frequency of the current and not on the
number of wires in the screen. Perhaps one could reply
with the objection that the proximity effect of nearby wires
would be more significant with an increasing number of
wires since that implies that the wires lie closer to each
other. Then the starting point of a homogeneous current
distribution of the screen wires would be less appropriate
and therefore the convergence of the iterative method
would be slower and the first order approximation would
be less accurate. However, there are good reasons to
think that this is not the case. In order to see this we
consider the SG case. When the number of wires
increases in the SG case we should approach the ideal
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.17
coaxial cable in terms of measureable parameters.
However, if the skin depth is large compared to the screen
thickness then the current is homogeneously distributed
throughout the screen in the case of an ideal coaxial cable
with solid screen. Therefore we should expect that the
current is homogeneously distributed in the screen wires
also in the case where the number of wires is large, i.e.
the proximity effect is negligible. Due to the close
conformity between SG and WG this is expected to hold
with reasonable accuracy also for WG.
The approximation of a straight wire in the WG case is
quite independent of the number of wires in the screen so
an increasing number of wires should not affect the
accuracy of this assumption.
Finally we draw the conclusion that the accuracy of the
iterative method should not be expected to depend
significantly on the number of wires.
CONCLUSION
Taking the first step in an iterative method we have
estimated the induced current density and power loss in
the conductor of a High Voltage AC cable due to the
current in the screen wires. The calculation was done both
in the case that the wires are laid straight and in the case
that the wires are wound. In this way it was shown that the
induced power loss decreases exponentially with the
number of wires in the screen. In the typical case when
the number of wires is greater than about 7 the induced
power loss is already less than one ppm compared to the
self-induced loss. Thus for most practical purposes the
induced power loss due to the screen current is
completely negligible.
REFERENCES
[1] CIGRE Working Group B1.03, 2005, Large cross-
sections and composite screens design, Electra
Technical Brochure 272, 45-52
[2] K.-E. Rydler, M. Sjöberg, and J. Svahn, 2011, ”A
measuring system of conductor AC and DC
resistance”, Proceedings Jicable’11, A.8.1
[3] J. Lammeraner, and M. Stafl, 1966, Eddy Currents,
Iliffe Books Ltd., London, United Kingdom, 166-175
[4] S. Ramo, J. R. Whinnery, and T. van Duzer, 1994,
Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics, 3rd
ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, United
States, 181
[5] S. Ramo, J. R. Whinnery, and T. van Duzer, 1994,
Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics, 3rd
ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, United
States, 183
[6] J. Lammeraner, and M. Stafl, 1966, Eddy Currents,
Iliffe Books Ltd., London, United Kingdom, 167-168.
GLOSSARY
SG: Straight geometry
WG: Wound geometry
6/6
F2.18 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Measurement of the conductor temperature in power cable production
Henning FRECHEN, Ralf PUFFER, Armin SCHNETTLER; RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany,
frechen@ifht.rwth-aachen.de, puffer@ifht.rwth-aachen.de, schnettler@ifht.rwth-aachen.de
Gregor BRAMMER; Forschungsgemeinschaft für Elektrische Anlagen und Stromwirtschaft e.V., Mannheim,
Gregor.Brammer@fgh-ma.de
ABSTRACT
In this article a method for the non-destructive
measurement of the conductor temperature during power
cable production is presented and optimized regarding
different power cable designs. In the water cooling bath
after the continuous vulcanization line the reflection of
ultrasonic impulses at the interface between the XLPE
insulation layer and the inner semiconductive layer is
evaluated. Using the temperature dependency of the
acoustic material characteristics a method for the
estimation of the conductor temperature which was
developed in previous works is presented. The method is
refined in this article to take different cable and conductor
geometries into account. Their influence on the
measurement results is shown.
KEYWORDS
Power cable production, insulation system, temperature
monitoring, ultrasonic testing
INTRODUCTION
In state of the art power cables polymeric insulation
systems are used, with cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)
being the most common material. The insulation system,
which consists of an XLPE insulation layer and an inner
and outer semiconductive layer (short: semicon), is
produced in two immediately consecutive steps. At first
the raw plastic materials with incorporated cross-linking
agents are extruded onto the metallic conductor.
Subsequently, the cable core is fed into the continuous
vulcanization line (CV-line), where the cross-linking is
performed by first heating the cable core to activate the
cross-linking agents. After cross-linking, the cable core
has to be cooled down to stop the cross-linking process
before the core leaves the CV-line.
Furthermore, a sufficient mechanical stability of the plastic
insulation system has to be ensured, which is critical for
the spooling of the core onto the drum for storage and
degassing. Due to the high thermal capacity of the
metallic conductor, the cable core may be reheated from
the inside during cooling in the water bath from outside.
This reheating process can lead to a degradation of the
mechanical stability and to a reactivation of the
crosslinking process, which produces gaseous byproducts
that can lead to the formation of electrically critical voids in
the insulation system. Hence, the production speed has to
be reduced to ensure sufficient cooling and to eliminate
the appearance of critical temperatures. Therefore, the
temperature inside the cable core during cooling is a key
parameter for the production of the insulation system. The
knowledge of the conductor temperature would be helpful
for a continuous optimization and control of the production
process. Previous works have shown that the ultrasonic
measurement technique can be a suitable tool for the
measurement of the conductor temperature [2-4].
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.18
METHODICAL APPROACH
The measurement of the conductor temperature in power
cable production relies on the evaluation of ultrasonic
measurement data on the power cable core. In general,
acoustical properties of polymeric materials show a
dependency on temperature [2-4]. Therefore, ultrasonic
measurements are performed on power cable cores with
variation of the conductor temperature to verify the
dependency of measured ultrasonic amplitude on
temperature. Additionally, different cable core designs
with varying insulation thickness as well as conductor
designs are investigated to assess the influence of the
design onto the measurement method. In particular, the
influence of the movement of the power cable core during
production is examined. Based on the amplitude of the
reflected impulses in the cable core and simultaneous
temperature measurement using thermocouples, a
measurement method for the conductor temperature is
developed and discussed.
ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE
Ultrasonic measurement technique uses acoustical waves
with frequencies in the kHz to MHz range, which are
generated in an ultrasonic transducer using the
piezoelectric effect, for the examination of materials. The
excitation of the piezoceramic is achieved by voltage
impulses in the range of 100 to 400 V. In principal, two
different wave types can be created, which are
longitudinal and shear waves. For the application of
ultrasound measurements in cable production, water of
the cooling pipe is used for acoustic coupling between the
transducer and the cable surface. Shear waves cannot
propagate in water and are therefore neglected in the
further elaboration [1]. In Figure 1 a typical ultrasonic
impulse with a center frequency of 2 MHz is shown.
4
1 x 10
0.5
Amplitude in a.u.
0
-0.5
-1
1 2 3 4 5
Time-of-flight in µs
Fig. 1: Typical ultrasonic impulse
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F2.18 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.18

The representation of the ultrasonic impulse shown in frequency dependency which is shown in Figure 2 [2].
Figure 1 is called A-Scan, which is a plot of amplitude
given in arbitrary units (a.u.) versus time-of-flight typically 1800
given in microseconds. All measured signals are 20°C
evaluated in terms of e.g. signal amplitude, time-of-flight 1600 30°C
40°C
or frequency behavior. 50°C
1400
60°C
For measurements using the impulse-echo method, the 70°C

Attenuation in dB/m
same transducer emits and acquires the ultrasonic 1200
impulse. The time-of-flight needed for the impulse to travel
through a material can be measured and is dependent on 1000

the speed of sound c of the material, which is given by

800
Θ
2d increasing
c= [1] 600

t 400

with the propagation distance d in the material and the

200
time-of-flight t [1]. Taking into account that the ultrasonic 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
impulse passes the sample twice after reflection at an Frequency in Hz
x 10
6

inner interface, a factor of 2 is inserted. In general the

speed of sound in materials is dependent on the
temperature θ. Using the temperature dependent density
ρ(θ) of the material the acoustical sound impedance Z can
be calculated by
Z (Θ ) = c (Θ )ρ (Θ )
Typical values for the sound impedance are in the range
6 6
of 2·10 kg/(m²·s) for XLPE [3] or 17·10 kg/(m²·s) for
Aluminium [1] at room temperature. While the
dependency of the acoustical sound impedance on
temperature is strong for the polymeric materials, the
acoustical sound impedance is constant for metals on the
temperature range occurring during power cable
production. The knowledge of these material
characteristics allows for a description of the propagating
ultrasonic impulse by methods of signal theory. In
particular, the reflection at inner interfaces between two
materials with different acoustical sound impedances Z1
and Z2 can be described by
Fig. 2: Temperature dependency of the attenuation of
cross-linked poly ethylene (XLPE) [2]
The ultrasonic attenuation in XLPE is in a range of 300 to
1800 dB/m for common frequencies used in non-
[2]
destructive testing. Besides the linear relation of
attenuation to frequency, a non-linear behaviour can be
found for the temperature dependency, where the
maximum attenuation occurs at a temperature of about
35 °C. For higher temperatures the attenuation is
decreasing, e.g. for about 290 dB/m from 40 to 70 °C at a
test frequency of 2 MHz [2,3].
Using the different material characteristics the time-signal
of a measured ultrasonic impulse p(t,θ) can be described
as follows
p (t , Θ )= p 0 (t , Θ ) ⋅ D ( Θ) ⋅ R ( Θ) [5]
where p0(t,θ) represents the sent ultrasonic impulse from
the transducer, D(θ) the attenuation term and R(θ) the

Z 2 (Θ ) − Z1 (Θ )
reflection coefficient at the interface. With the knowledge
R(Θ ) = of the acoustical parameters for the materials in the
Z 2 (Θ ) + Z1 (Θ )
[3]
insulation system of a power cable, the reflected impulses
at the interface between XLPE and inner semicon as well
The temperature dependency of the reflection coefficient as at the interface between inner semicon and the
R(θ) at the interface between the XLPE insulation and the conductor can be modeled regarding their temperature
semiconductive layer is used for the measurement of the dependency. Further, the evaluation of the reflected
conductor temperature, which is explained in detail later in impulses can be used to estimate the temperature in the
this article [3,4]. cable core, which is presented in the next section.

Furthermore, the propagating ultrasonic impulse is MEASUREMENT SETUP

influenced by attenuation in the material, which is a
combination of two different phenomena. While absorption
is dominant in homogenous materials like XLPE, the
effect of scattering becomes important for filled materials.
For the exemplary description of an ultrasonic impulse
propagating through an attenuating medium, the
attenuation term D(θ,f) is introduced
D ( Θ, f ) = e ( −2⋅a ( Θ , f )⋅d )
which increases exponentially with the sample
thickness d. As with the speed of sound, a factor of 2 is
introduced, since the ultrasonic impulse travels the
distance in the sample twice. The attenuation coefficient
α(θ,f) is similar to the speed of sound specific for different
materials and shows a temperature and additionally
The test setup used for development and verification of
the measurement method is designed to reproduce the
conditions in the water after the CV-line used for cooling
of the cable core during production. A principal sketch is
shown in Figure 3, where the ultrasonic transducer is
mounted perpendicular to the surface of the examined
cable core on a movable transducer mounting. The cable
[4] core is fixed in a water tank. Additionally, the movement of
the transducer allows for a simulation of the cable
movement during production.

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F2.18 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.18

Transducer position. The underlying temperature profile during the

Transducer movement
mounting
measurement is shown in Figure 4. It can be seen that the
amplitudes of the reflected signal at the conductor and at
the inner semicon are dependent on the conductor
temperature [2,3].
IHeating

11000 2000
Conductor (MV)
Cable Water bath 10000 Semicon (MV) 1800

Conductor - Amplitude in a.u.

Semicon - Amplitude in a.u.

core
Transducer 9000 1600

Fig. 3: Top view of the test setup 8000 1400

Furthermore, both ends of the conductor are short- 7000 1200

circuited. Using a high-current transformer a defined
current can be induced into the loop to heat the cable core 6000 1000
from the inside. The temperature in the cable is measured
5000 800
with K-type thermocouples at different depths, i.e. close to
the conductor and in the middle of the insulation layer. 4000 600
Figure 4 shows the temperature distribution during a
measurement series of a standard medium voltage (MV) 3000 400
40 50 60 70 80 90
cable core (NA2X 1x150RM 12/20 kV). At the beginning Temperature in °C
of each series, the temperature distribution in the cable
core is stationary but inhomogeneous due to a conductor Fig. 5: Ultrasonic amplitude of the reflection at the
temperature of up to 95 °C and the water bath at room conductor and inner semicon in a MV cable core
temperature to reproduce production conditions. After
While the amplitude of the reflection at the conductor
switching off the high-current transformer the conductor
increases almost linearly over the shown temperature
temperature declines with a gradient of up to 5 °C/min to
range, the amplitude of the reflection at the inner semicon
room temperature.
increases slowly up to 75°C, after which a rapid increase
can be seen. Since the reflection coefficient at the metal
100 conductor is nearly constant over the temperature range
Θ Conductor as explained above, the increasing amplitude has to be
90
Θ Insulation caused by the decreasing attenuation in the XLPE
80 Θ Water insulation layer (cf. Figure 2 and equation 5). This general
Temperature in °C

rise in amplitude is also given for the reflection at the inner

70 semicon. Additionally, a change in the reflection
coefficient due to a change in the acoustical sound
60
impedances of XLPE and semicon can be found, which
50 leads to the nonlinear slope of the amplitude seen in
Figure 5.
40
Figure 6 shows the measured amplitude for the reflected
30 ultrasonic impulses at the conductor and inner semicon
for a high voltage cable core.
20
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time in s 800 200
Conductor (HV)
Fig. 4: Temperature distribution in HV cable core Semicon (HV)
Conductor - Amplitude in a.u.

Semicon - Amplitude in a.u.

700 160
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT METHOD
A fundamental correlation between the amplitude of the 600 120
reflected impulse at the conductor surface and the
conductor temperature could be shown in previous works.
500 80
There, the measured ultrasonic amplitude is looked up in
a calibration curve, which was determined beforehand, to
evaluate the current conductor temperature. These 400 40
investigations were limited to a single MV cable geometry
with a solid conductor and the transducer position was
fixed [2,3]. To assess the influence of the cable geometry, 300 0
40 50 60 70 80 90
further investigations on a MV cable core with a stranded Temperature in °C
conductor and a HV cable core with a Milliken Conductor
(2X 1x1600RMS 127/220 kV) are made in the course of Fig. 6: Ultrasonic amplitude of the reflection at the
this article. Figure 5 shows the results of the ultrasonic conductor and inner semicon in a HV cable core
measurements, where the amplitude of the reflected
signal at the stranded conductor and the inner semicon is
evaluated regarding the conductor temperature at a fixed

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 3/5

F2.18 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
It should be noted that for the MV cable core the absolute
value of the amplitude is one order of magnitude higher
than in the HV cable core (cf. Figure 5), due to the fact of
a lower insulation layer thickness and a corresponding
lower sound attenuation. Apart from that, both figures
show a similar behavior for the respected impulses, with
the amplitude of the reflection at the inner semicon
increasing rapidly above 80 °C.
In summary, it can be stated that a dependency of the
reflected amplitude on the cable core design is found and
has to be considered for the measurement method.
Therefore, for every design a different calibration curve
would have to be determined, which is not feasible for
monitoring in a power cable production line. Furthermore,
this method is dependent on the temperature distribution
in the insulation layer, which affects sound attenuation (cf.
Figure 2). As a consequence, determining the conductor
temperature by solely evaluating the amplitude of the
reflection is not sufficient for monitoring purposes during
production.
To address the explained disadvantages, instead of
evaluating the pure amplitude, the ratio of the amplitude of
the two reflected impulses is analysed. Using equation 5
for the description of the reflected impulse at the interface
XLPE-inner semicon pSemicon and the reflected impulse at
the conductor pConductor, an estimation for the reflection
coefficient at the interface XLPE-inner semicon can be
calculated
p Semicon (Θ)
Rmeasured (Θ) ~
pConductor (Θ)
Since the conductor is metallic and its acoustical sound
impedance does not show a temperature dependency on
the observed temperature range, it can be used as a
reference impulse. In Figure 7 this ratio of the two
measured impulses is presented for the MV and HV core.
The measurement at the MV cable core was repeated
four times to assure reproducibility, which can be seen in
the figure.
0.25
MV M1
Ratio PSemicon / PConductor in a.u.
MV M2
MV M3
0.2
MV M4
HV
0.15
0.1
0.05
40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature in °C
Fig. 7: Quotient of the reflected amplitude at the
semicon
The value of the ratio is decreasing for the MV up to
60 °C, followed by a constant plateau up to 75 °C. For
temperatures above 75 °C the ratio rises rapidly, caused
by the sudden change in amplitude of the reflection at the
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.18
inner semicon (cf. Figure 5). The shape of this curvature
cannot be used for a distinct temperature measurement in
the range of 60 to 75 °C, but definitely allows for an
application as a monitoring tool during power cable
production. While the ratio of the two impulses is below
0.11, the conductor temperature is in a safe range for the
further spooling of the cable core onto the drum.
For the ratio measured at the HV cable core a similar
behavior can be found, with a plateau in the range of 60 to
78 °C, where the values are constantly below 0.1. The
small offset of the HV to the MV cable core in this range is
due to the different thicknesses of the inner semicon
between the two different cable designs. The introduction
of a geometrical correction factor, which compensates the
additional decrease of the signal amplitude in the inner
semicon is the course of current investigations.
Furthermore, in the temperature range of 50 to 60 °C in all
Figures 4 to 7, a change in slope can be detected, which
is likely due to a change in the thermal and mechanical
properties of XLPE. Investigations on these parameters
are presented in [5] and support this assumption, by
showing e.g. a decrease of thermal conductivity of XLPE
at 60 °C.
INFLUENCE OF CABLE MOVEMENT
As mentioned in the paragraph above, the evaluation of
the reflection coefficient uses the reflected impulse at
conductor as a reference. Hence, the signal quality of the
reference impulse at the conductor has to be sufficient. To
[6]
assess the influence of different conductor types and the
movement of the cable core, the ultrasonic measurements
were performed at different positions alongside the cable
axis with a step width of 1 mm (cf. Figure 3). Figure 8
presents a more detailed view of a cable core.
Pos 15
Pos 5
Transducer
Outer Semicon
XLPE
Inner Semicon
Conductor
Fig. 8: Transducer movement during measurement
The ultrasonic impulses propagate starting from the
transducer through the three layer insulation system and
are reflected at the conductor. Figure 9 shows the
amplitude of the reflected ultrasonic impulses depending
on the transducer position for the MV cable core with a
stranded conductor at different stationary temperatures.
The position dependency shows a pattern, which
correlates to the apexes and interstices of the single wires
in the stranded conductor. Visual examination confirms
that on positions with high amplitude (e.g. 5 mm) the
transducer is placed over the apex of a single wire while
at positions with low amplitude (e.g. 15 mm) the
transducer is positioned over the interstice between two
wires. The slight increase of the amplitude at position
15 mm can be explained by interference phenomena in
the groove.
4/5
F2.18 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.18

At last, for the industrial applicability a rough estimation

300
for the achievable longitudinal sampling rate during
production is made. Assuming a line speed of 5 m/min
250 and an ultrasonic impulse repetition frequency of 100 Hz
the distance between two measurement positions is
200 0.83 mm. This value is even lower than the 1 mm step
Amplitude in a.u.

width chosen in the measurements, which proofed to be

150
sufficient.

100 SUMMARY
52°C In this article a method for the measurement of the
50 64°C conductor temperature during power cable production is
76°C presented and analyzed. Using ultrasonic technique,
90°C
0 measurements on MV and HV cable cores are performed
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 over a temperature range for the conductor up to 90 °C. A
Transducer position in mm
clear dependency of the amplitude reflected at the
Fig. 9: Position dependency for a stranded conductor conductor as well as at the interface between the XLPE
(MV) insulation layer and the inner semicon could be found. A
difference for the MV and HV cable core in the magnitude
In addition, Figure 9 indicates that the temperature of the amplitude is found, which is mainly determined by
dependency of the ultrasonic amplitude in the MV cable the larger insulation layer thickness in HV cables. An
core is in accordance with the explanations and approach for compensation by calculating the ratio of the
assumptions made above, since the amplitude is rising reflection at the inner semicon and at the conductor
over the presented temperature range. shows promising results. The proposed method is
independent of the insulation layer thickness and allows
As a comparative measurement, the position dependency
for a distinction between critical and noncritical
of the reflected ultrasonic amplitude on a solid conductor
temperatures in the power cable core during production.
was investigated in a MV cable core for different
Besides the thickness of the insulation system, an
temperatures (NA2X 1x120RE 12/20 kV). For a solid
influence of the design of the conductor on the
conductor a position dependency cannot be determined
measurement could be found. Depending on the position
(Figure 10).
of the transducer along a stranded conductor, a change in
amplitude is detected, which is addressed by an
300 automated algorithm choosing the correct position for the
signal evaluation.
250
REFERENCES
200 [1] J. Krautkrämer, H. Krautkrämer, 1986,
Amplitude in a.u.

Werkstoffprüfung mit Ultraschall, Springer, Berlin,

150 Germany
[2] G. Brammer, 2011, "Online-Monitoring of the
100 conductor temperature in MV power cable production
using ultrasonic diagnosis", Jicable 2011,
43°C
55°C
Session C.4.3
50
67°C [3] G. Brammer, 2013, Dissertation, "Kontaktlose
81°C Messung der Leitertemperatur in der
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Energiekabelproduktion mittels Ultraschall", RWTH
Transducer position in mm Aachen University
Fig. 10: Position dependency for a solid conductor [4] G. Brammer, 2011, "Measurement of temperature in
(MV) XLPE insulation of power cables using ultrasonic
diagnosis", ISH 2011, Session F-046
In summary, it can be stated that the influence of the
[5] X. Qi, S. Boggs, 2006, “Thermal and Mechanical
conductor geometry cannot be neglected. For the
Properties of EPR and XLPE Cable Compounds”,
evaluation of the reflection coefficients it is necessary, that
IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., Vol. 22, No. 3, 19-24
the reference signal with the best signal quality is chosen.
Due to random noise superimposing on the measured
signal, higher signal amplitude relates to higher signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR), which is an indicator for signal quality.
The choice of the best signal is automatically
accomplished by an algorithm.

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F2.19 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.19

Improvement of ampacity ratings of Medium Voltage cables in protection

pipes by comprehensive consideration and selective improvement of the
heat transfer mechanisms within the pipe

Constantin BALZER, Volker HINRICHSEN; High Voltages Laboratories, TU Darmstadt, Germany

balzer@hst.tu-darmstadt.de, hinrichsen@hst.tu-darmstadt.de
Christoph DREFKE, Johannes STEGNER, Ingo SASS; Applied Geothermal Science and Technology, TU Darmstadt,
Germany
drefke@geo.tu-darmstadt.de, stegner@geo.tu-darmstadt.de, sass@geo.tu-darmstadt.de
Klaus HENTSCHEL, Bayernwerk AG, Germany, klaus.hentschel@bayernwerk.de
Jörg DIETRICH, HeidelbergCement AG, Germany, joerg.dietrich@heidelbergcement.com

ABSTRACT Moreover, information about the dynamic behavior and

In the present paper, the implementation of a finite
element model of a distribution cable system, laid inside
an air-filled protection pipe, will be presented. Therefore,
the theoretical background of the three heat transfer
mechanisms involved will be highlighted. After validating
the output with data collected on a field test, the results of
the simulation for stationary load cases as well as the
temperature response to dynamic loads will be outlined
and compared to the existing analytical approximations.
Finally, the possibility of increasing the current carrying
capacity with the help of specialized backfill materials that
can be pumped into the protection pipes will equally be
assessed.
INTRODUCTION
The exorbitant growth of dispersed power injection, which
was triggered by the political subsidies in Germany,
represents a major challenge for the concerned
distribution system operators (DSO). Especially in
Bavaria, South Germany, power generation from
photovoltaic panels leads to significant changes in the
load amplitude and dynamic that cable systems are
facing. In order to integrate the renewable energies
efficiently and avoid oversizing the cable systems, one
major aim is to determine the thermal current carrying
capacity of cable systems under highly fluctuating load
regimes.
When considering the ampacity rating of buried cables
systems, one must always consider the calculations for
the “weakest link” of the whole cable length. Within
distribution networks in rural areas, these thermal hot-
spots often appear where the cables are laid inside an air
filled protection pipe in order to prevent mechanical
damages. Therefore, particular attention should be paid to
this configuration.
Despite this importance with regard to the calculation of
the thermal current rating, little tangible information about
the temperature development is available that provides
clear guidelines for cable engineers. This is due to the fact
that heat transfer within such systems encompasses all
three mechanisms, of whom two are temperature
dependent: Conduction, convection and radiation.
In [1], an analytical simplification is given that furnishes
useful approximation about the thermal resistances in
steady-state operation. However, the simplifications on
which the description relies – i.e., the description of the
heat transfer mechanisms for isothermal, concentric
cylinders - have never been the object of further
investigation.
heat capacitance have not yet published, making it difficult
to assess the impact of a changed dynamic in load on the
ampacity rating of such cable system.
Therefore, a model was set up with the help of the
commercial finite element software COMSOL in order to
examine the thermal resistance and capacity per unit
length of cables systems laid in a protection pipe under
different load cases. The present paper first highlights the
physical backgrounds of each heat transfer mechanism
and gives approximations about their influence on the
overall system. Then, results of a three-dimensional
model are compared with recorded data at the cable test
side at TU Darmstadt in order to validate the results of the
simulation. Finally, the possibility of the model to study
easily the effect of a changed load flow dynamic is used to
evaluate the difference between the current standardized
load curve and new types of load flows in regions with
high penetration of dispersed photovoltaic injection.
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
In the first place, the physical basics behind the simulation
will be highlighted. The understanding of these
mechanisms is not only crucial to validate the results, but
also provides first estimations about their impact of the
thermal current rating.
Conduction
Within solids, heat is transferred by interactions of
oscillating molecules, so that a flow of heat can be
expressed as the product of the gradient of a potential
field, i.e. the temperature distribution, and the thermal
conductivity of the medium:
= − ∙ grad [1]
With:
flow of heat in
thermal conductivity in
∙
Temperature in K
Combining this equation with the conservation of energy,
that is that the divergence of the flow of heat equals the
derivative of time of the heat content, yields the well-
known potential equation of conductive heat transfer in
homogenous and isotropic solids:
,
Δ =− − [2]

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F2.19 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.19

With: external force. Hence, for the component of the force

acting in the coordination direction i, one can write:
thermal diffusivity; =
*D * 9Q * 9Q * 9Q
"# EO = − +PM + + N + EI2R,O [10]
! specific thermal capacity in *O *; *? *A
"$∙

% mass density in
"$ With S ∈ Ux, y, zY and:
&
"$
' (, ) heat production at point ( and time ) P dynamic viscosity in
∙HIJ
With regard to the examined configuration, heat
Conservation of energy
conduction appears inside the cables and the protection
pipe, at contact points of the cables and the pipe and - as Finally, the conservation of energy must be respected,
soil will be simplified as a homogenous solid – within the i.e., a net inflow of energy into an infinitesimal volume
bedding material. must translate into generated heat and heat dissipation by
viscosity inside the volume:
Convection
* * *
0 ∙ !D M12 + 17 + 18 N
The term convection encompasses the combined heat *; *? *A
* * *
and mass transfer mechanisms within a fluid. The = M + + N + P ∙ Φ + ' (, ) [11]
*; *? *A
mathematical solution of convection problems must satisfy
three major conservation laws [2]: Where the term µΦ denotes the viscous dissipation that
can be neglected for the regarded case of natural
Conservation of mass
convection.
As mass cannot be lost, the net inflow of mass into a It shall be noticed that the term on the left hand side in Eq.
volume results in a change of density inside the volume: [11] represents the transport of energy due to the bulk
* + *-
fluid motion, whether the first term on the right hand side
+ =0 [3] stands for the heat conduction inside the fluid.
* *
As there is no ventilation system inside a protection pipe
With: for distribution cable systems, only natural convection
"$ needs to be taken in consideration. In this case, the
m+ flow of mass into an infinitesimal volume in & temperature related bouncy forces, which are related to
"$ changes in density of the fluid, acts as an external force in
0 density of the fluid inside the volume in &
equation [10]. Therefore, the differential equations that
Denoting the vector of the flows velocity with describes the fluid movements (Eq. [6] and [7]) and its
temperature (Eq. [11]) are closely coupled, making
1 = 12 3, 4, 5 ∙ 62 + 17 3, 4, 5 ∙ 67 + 18 3, 4, 5 ∙ 68 [4]
analytical solutions only possible for very simple
configurations and under the assumption of various
allows the change of mass in an infinitesimal volume to be
simplifications.
expressed as follows:
However, it can be demonstrated that the heat transfer
* + * -∙9: *<-∙9= > * -∙9@ from a surface into a fluid depends on a function including
= + + = div 0 ∙ 1 [5]
* *; *? *A two dimensionless parameters, called the Prandt number
Pr and the Grashof number Gr:
Therefore Eq. 5 becomes:
[ = \ − ] ∙ f _`, a` [12]
*-
div 0 ∙ 1 + =0 [6] Where:
*
bc de f g&
Conservation of impulse _` = [13]
h
h
In general, the change of impulse of the fluid’s particles a` = [14]
must equal the sum of forces acting on them: With:
*D
=E [7] [ heat flow normal to the surface into the fluid in
*
\ temperature on the surface in K
With:
"$∙ ] temperature in the uninfluenced part of the fluid in K
G
p impulse of the fluids particles in
HIJ
i coefficient of thermal expansion in
"$∙
G
F Force that acts on the particles in
HIJ for ideal gases: i =
Inserting
L=0∙1 [8] j characteristic length of the arrangement in m
k kinematic viscosity in
for the impulse density and applying the chain rule of HIJ
partial differentiation, one can express the left side of The two parameters arise if Eqs. [7] and [11] are
equation [7] as follows: normalized with regard to a characteristic velocity 1l with:
*D G
*9 G
*9 G
*9 G
9
=0∙M ∙ 12 + ∙ 1? + ∙ 1A + N [9] 1l = mni \ − ] j [15]
* *; *? *A

The forces that act on the particles are composed of Nonetheless, the origin is not only of a mathematical
changes of the pressure, the internal friction force and an nature: They both express ratios that have an important

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F2.19 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.19

influence on the convection: The Prandtl number gives the For most non-reflecting surfaces, the graybody-
ratio between the thermal and the impetus diffusivity, the approximation is fairly acceptable. Moreover, when
Grashof number sets the bouoncy force in relation to the considering the exchange of heat between two
viscous force. Moreover, the product of the two, the so- graybodies, it must be taken into consideration that a
called Rayleigh number Ra, determines whether a fraction of the incoming irradiation is reflected. Hence, the
convection is of laminar or turbulent nature. In the case of total radiosity of the surface can be expressed as the sum
horizontal cylinders, the motion of the fluid becomes of the emission and reflection:
9
turbulent for Ra > 10 . For example, in [3] is derived that
the heat transfer by convection between two concentric š\ ~\ , 0›\ [21]
cylinders of the diameters Di and Do, held at temperatures With:
Ti and To, can be approximated by:
š\ radiosity of the surface in
o pq
= w− x ∙ f a` ∙ yzl.p}
{{ [16]
g r[ st ⁄su ›\ irradiation on the surface in
With Racc as function of the diameters, the Prandt number 0 reflection coefficient
of the fluid and the Grashof number with the space
between the diameters as characteristic length. This leads to extension of Eq. [19] for the heat transfer
between two isothermal surfaces via radiation to [4]:
Radiation ˜œ• e˜œž
–RxR, e‰ Ÿ ¡• Ÿ Ÿ ¡ž [22]
¢ ¢
The third mechanism that has to be taken into account is •• ¡• •• ∙£• ž •ž ¡ž

the transport of heat via thermal radiation. The radiation of

a surface that absorbs all incoming light – which is the VALIDATION OF THE MODEL
case for an ideal blackbody – is proportional to the fourth
power of its temperature: The implementation of the three heat transfer
mechanisms into the finite element software COMSOL is
~• •
€∙ \ [17] then used to study the heating of a cable system in trefoil
With: formation within a protection pipe. With regard to the
focus of the study on distribution grids, the simulated
~• total emissive power of a blackbody surface in cable was chosen to be a common medium voltage cable
in Germany, consisting of an aluminium conductor with a
€ Stefan-Boltzmann constant; € ‚ 5,67 ∙ 10e‡ ˆ
cross section of 150 mm², XLPE insulation, copper
When considering the heat exchange between two screen, and HD-PE outer jacket. As the ohmic losses of
surfaces, the geometric view factor is, apart from their the conductor amount to more than 98 per cent of the total
total emissive power, the major parameter to be heat losses, skin – and proximity – effects as well as the
determined. Considering the two surfaces “A” and “B”, the losses due to induced currents within the screen are
view factor in 2D is defined as: neglected in the following studies. The protection pipe
G ‹Œ ∙•G‹Œ→‹• ∙ G[‹• ∙•G‹Œ→‹•
e[
consists of PVC and has a diameter of 16 cm.
E e‰ Š Š‰ d‘d' [18]
p|•G‹Œ→‹• |&

With:
Gn“”,“• normal vector at point db and da respectively
r“”→“• vector from point b to point a
Behind this rather unhandy equation hides the fact that
the view factor gives the portion of the radiation, emitted
by surface “A”, that reaches surface “B” under the
assumption of a diffuse blackbody radiation. Therefore,
the rate of heat exchanged between the two surfaces can
be expressed as follows:
• •
– e‰ ' ∙E e‰ ∙€ ‰ [19]
Where TA and TB denote the temperature of the surfaces.
However, real surfaces have lower emissive powers than
blackbodies. If the reduction is considered to be the same
over the total wavelength of the radiation, one can speak
of a graybody approximation and define the emissivity as Figure 1: Temperature distribution in Kelvin of a cable system
with a screen realized as copper wires. Current set to 300 A,
the ratio between the body’s emissive power and the one
temperature at the outer pipe fixed at 280 K.
of a blackbody:
˜™ In order to reduce the numerical size of the simulation, it
—H [20] was first studied whether the azimuthal heat transfer of
˜Œ
the helix – structured copper wires of the screen can be
With: approximated by a simple hollow cylinder of the same
—\ emissivity of the surface cross section. Therefore, a three dimensional model of the
two configurations was set up and simulated, with a
~H total emissive power of the real surface in current of 300 A flowing through the cables and the
temperature of the outer pipe set at 280 K.

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F2.19 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.19

As it can be seen in in Figure 1, even under the imposed RESULTS

high temperature gradients from conductors to the outer
pipe, the screen leads to a sufficient temperature
homogenization within the insulation. Results for the
hollow cylinder of the same cross section are almost
identical, so that in the following, a two dimensional model
of the cable system can be used.
In a second step, the simulation results should be verified
with the help of temperature data that was collected at a
test side of the Institute of Geothermal Science and
Technology. There, two pipe-type cable systems – one
filled with air, the other one filled with a backfill material -
are buried at a depth of 0,7 m inside a sandy soil of a
-1 -1
thermal conductivity of about 1,5 Wm K . Temperatures
at the conductor and within soil are measured with the
help of PT 100 sensors. The length of the cable systems
at the test side was restricted to three meters, so that -
before comparing the data with the output of the two
dimensional simulation - it was first necessary to build up
another three dimensional model of the cable test field in
order to study the influence of the longitudinal heat
transfer along the conductor. It was shown that the
longitudinal heat transfer at the test side during the up-
heating of the cable amounts to less than five percent of
the total losses, thus providing a sufficient accuracy.
With these verifications, the temperature development of
a cable system inside a protection pipe was simulated and
compared to the measured data on the test field. The pipe
was buried at 0,7 m depth when exposed to a sudden
increase of the current from zero to 300 A Initial
temperature distribution within the soil has been set
according to the seasonal temperatures. Results are
shown in Figure 2.
345
temperature in Kelvin →
With the simulation verified, it may be used to study the
produced results. This will first be performed by
comparing the output with statements of the actual current
rating regime in steady state conditions. In a second step,
the temperature development at stationary load conditions
will be presented. In order to simplify the interpretation of
the results, all simulations assume the thermal
-1 -1
conductivity of the soil to be 1Wm K as well as the initial
temperature to be 293,15 K. The boundary condition at
the surface was fixed at a radiation into an ambient
temperature of the same height.
Stationary load conditions
Under the mentioned boundary conditions, the admissible
current of cable system in trefoil formation of infinite
length in an air filled protection pipe is 270 A. At this
current, the conductor temperature of the upper cable
reaches 363 K. As the two other conductors only
-1
amounted to 359°K, the total heat loss was 55,9 Wm .
Most of these losses are transported via convection from
the cable outer surface to the inner side of the protection
-1
pipe, namely 44,5 Wm , whereas radiation amounts to
-1 -1
only 8,0 Wm . The resulting 3,4 Wm is conducted at the
contact points between the cable system and the pipe.
Calculating the thermal resistance outside the pipe in a
depth of 0,7 m according to [5]:
,• l,©}
¤R¥,Hxwr = ∙ ln M N= [23]
p ™tu¦ q l, ¨ ™tu¦
the remaining thermal resistance from the conductor of
the upper cable to the outside of the protection pipe Rth,rem
can be subsumed to:

ªl
335 ¤R¥,•I = − 0,35 = 0,91 [24]
}},« ¬
325
This value shall now be compared with the thermal
315 resistance according to the existing approximations.
Therefore, the sum of
305

295
1. The thermal resistance of the examined cable in trefoil
formation [6]:
285
¤R¥,J¯•Ir,△ = 0,44 [25]
275
0 20 40 60 80 2. The approximated resistance between the cables and
time in h → the pipe according to [5]
³
Figure 2: Temperature increase of a cable system inside an air- ¤R¥,Je² = = 0,61 [26]
filled pipe due to a in increase from 0 to 300 A at the conductor ¢l, ´¢µ∙¶•· s¸∗
(black) and outer jacket (grey) of the upper cable system as well
Where
as at 5 cm above the protection pipe (red). Measured data as full
line, simulation results represented as dotted lines.
º = 1,87 ¼ = 0,312 ¾ = 0,0036
As it can be stated, the calculated temperatures correlate
quite well with measured data, with differences of the ¿I∗ equivalent diameter of the trefoil formation, in
measured and simulated conductor temperatures of only this case [6]:
a few degree Kelvin. However, the measured ¿I∗ = 2,15 ∙ ¿I = 36,6mm [27]
temperatures of the outer jacket differ significantly from
the simulated curve. This can be due to the neglect of the Θ¯Á average temperature between the cable and the
thermal expansion (and hence increase of the thermal pipe, in this case:
resistance) of the cables components, leading to a higher
Θ¯Á = 69,1°C [28]
temperature drop above the insulation. Moreover, the
semiconductor layers and swelling tapes have been 3. The thermal resistance of the pipe itself
neglected, leading to some inaccuracies of the simulation. ‡l
In contrast, the simulated temperature rise 5 cm above ¤R¥,²w²I = ∙ ln M N = 0,06 [29]
pq∙l, } ª},©
the protection pipe is in good accordance with the leads to resistance (excluding the thermal resistance of
measurements. the bedding) of:

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 4/6

F2.19 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.19

∗
¤R¥,•I = ¤R¥, ¯•Ir,△ + ¤R¥,Je² + ¤R¥,²w²I = 0,82
©
Hence, the resulting thermal resistances matches fairly
well with the result of the simulation. However, it shall be
noticed that the average temperature inside the pipe (Eq.
[28]) was taken from the simulation. Usually, it is not
known in the first place and must be approximated in the
first place and then refined by iterative adoption.
[30] outer side of the pipe when the cable is exposed to a load
curve that serves as the basic of the current German
standard regarding ampacity ratings, DIN-VDE 0276. The
peak current in this case was 310 A, the ambient soil
temperature and thermal conductivity are the same as in
the steady state analysis.
370 350

temperature in Kelvin →
In order to evade this procedure, temperature distribution 360 300
on the outer jacket as well as the inner pipe will be studied

current in A →
250
for different cable and pipe types as well as environmental 350
conditions. As an example, Figure 3 shows that there are 200
340
significant differences alongside the pipe surface for the 150
studied case. In a second step, the two main heat transfer 330
mechanism – i.e., convection and radiation – will be 100

approximated using relations like the ones in Eqs. [16] 320 50

and [22] that take into account the temperature
310 0
differences. This will allow the generalization of the 0 10 20 30 40
results.
time in h →
360
Figure 4: Simulated temperature of the upper condutor (black,
temperature in Kelvin →

355
full line) and the highest temperature at the outside of the pipe
350 (black, dotted line) when the standard load profil of a peak value
of 310 A is applied (red, secondary axis)
345

340
When exposed to a load curve that appears inside areas
of a high penetration of photovoltaik power injiection, the
335 admissible current increases to 330 A.
330

325 INCREASE OF AMPACITY RATINGS BY THE

320
315
0 0,2 0,4
normalized arc length →
Figure 3: Temperatures at the outer cable jacket (red), the inner
side of the pipe (black, full line) and the outer side of the pipe
(black, dotted line) as a function of the normalized arc length,
starting at φ = -90.
As it was expected, the influence of the thermal
conductivity of the soil on the current rating of cables, that
are laid in protection pipes, is minor comparing to directly
buried cable systems. This is because of the
supplemental resistance between the cable system and
the pipe and the pipe itself. Table 1 gives an overview on
the admissible current ratings for steady state operation
under the presumed circumstances as result of the
simulation.
USE OF BACKFILL MATERIALS
To increase the current carrying capacity of a cable
0,6 0,8 1 system inside a protection pipe, a new backfill material
has been developed. By filling out the entire space
between the cable system and the protection pipe, heat
transfer no longer relies on convection but exclusively on
conduction. Besides the avoiding of drying out in contact
to the cable surface, the viscosity of these materials must
be low enough to enter confined areas when pumped
between the cable system and the protection pipe. In
order to quantify the gain of the current rating of pipe-type
cable systems that has been filled with such a material, it
was equally modelled and verified with the measurements
taken from the installed system at the cable test field. As it
can be seen in figure 5, the simulation results are equally
coherent with the recorded data.
315
temperature in Kelvin →

310
Table 1: Admissible current in steady state operation Imax in
dependence of the thermal conductivity of the soil λsoil for an air- 305
filled pipe and mentioned environmental conditions
300
-1 -1
λsoil in Wm K 0,5 1 1,5 2 295

Imax in A 220 270 290 300 290

285
Dynamic load conditions
280
As it was mentioned in the beginning, the temperature
response of cable systems with regard to a changed load 275
0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0
dynamic is getting more and more important, as DSO are
time in h→
facing higher penetration of renewable energies. Against
this background, the ability of a FEM model to derive the Figure 5: Temperature increase of a cable system inside a
protection pipe filled with backfill material due to a sudden
temperature development from any load profile is an
increase of the current to 300 A at the conductor (black) and
important advantage. Figure 4 shows the temperature of outer jacket (grey) of the upper cable system. Measured data as
the conductor as well as the highest temperature at the full line, simulation results represented as dottedlines.

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F2.19 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.19

With regard to the steady state operation, results of the leads to an approximate increase of the admissible
simulation and the comparison to the ampacity rating for current of about 20 per cent. It should be pointed out that
air filled pipes are given in Table 2. It can be stated that in the named values apply on cable systems of a long
general, the admissible current can be increased by about length. Longitudinal heat transfer inside the conductor in
20 per cent. the case of restricted length, as it is described in [7], was
not yet taken into consideration.
Table 2: Admissible current in steady state operation Imax in
dependence of the thermal conductivity of the soil λsoil for a pipe However, in order to provide useful guidelines to cable
filled with backfill material and mentioned environmental system engineers, general formulations of the thermal
conditions
resistances and capacities still have to be derived from
-1 -1 the model results. This will allow the reduction of the
λsoil in Wm K 0,5 1 1,5 2
simulation to a thermal network, and, combined with the
Imax in A 260 320 350 370 effect of the longitudinal heat transfer along the conductor,
making it possible to derive quickly the effect of changed
Increase with regard load cycles to the ampacity rating of various cable
18% 19% 21% 23%
to the air filled pipe systems in protection pipes.

The admissible current when exposed to the standard

Acknowledgments
load profile was 380 A, which represents an increase of We would like to thank “Deutsche
22,5 per cent. Regarding the current rating of the cable Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG)” for their financial support
when exposed to the load profile that includes a high in the framework of the Excellence Initiative, Darmstadt
proportion of photovoltaic profiles, an increase of even 27 Graduate School of Excellence Energy Science and
per cent at 420 A can be achieved. This little increase is Engineering (GSC 1070).
due to the higher capacity that is added by the backfill
material, thus damping the temperature oscillations. This Furthermore, we are also grateful to Mr. Dr. Steffl from
is shown in figure 6, where the temperature development Borealis AG for his input regarding the thermal properties
of a cable system inside an air filled protection pipe of cable insulation.
(exposed to a peak current of 330 A) and a cable system REFERENCES
inside a pipe filled with backfill material (exposed to a
peak current of 420 A). However, the heat capacity of the [1] Buller, F.H., Neher, J.H., 1950, “The Thermal
cable elements stays dominant. Resistance Between Cables and a Surrounding Pipe
or Duct Wall”, Transactions of the American Institute
370 of Electrical Engineers, vol 69 Issue 1
[2] Incropera, Frank P., 2013, Foundations of heat
360
transfer Wiley, Singapore
temperature in Kelvin →

350 [3] Raithby, G.D., Hollands, G.T., 1975, “A General

Method of Obtaining Approximate Solutions to
340
Laminar and Turbulent Free Convection Problems”,
330 Advances in Heat Transfer, vol 11, Academic Press,
New York, USA
320
[4] Lindon C. Thomas, 1993, Heat Transfer, Prentice-
310 Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA
[5] IEC Standard 60287-2-1 2006, Electric cables –
300
0 5 10 15 20 calculation of the current rating. Part 2.1: Thermal
time in h → resistance – calculation of thermal resistance. Edition
1.2, Internation Electrotechnical Comission, Geneva,
figure 6: Comparison of the simulated temperature Switzerland
developement of a cable system inside an air filled protection [6] Anders, G. J., 1997: Rating of electric power cables,
pipe (red) and one that has been filled with backfill material
ampacity calculations for transmission, distribution,
(black). Peak currents are 330 A for the cable in the air filled pipe
and 420 A for the cable inside the backfill material. and industrial applications. IEEE Press in association
with McGraw-Hill, New York, USA,
CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK [7] Brakelmann, H., Anders, G. J., 2001: “Ampacity
reduction factors for cables crossing thermally
The present paper provides a broad overview of the unfavourable regions”, IEEE Transactions on Power
temperature modelling of a medium voltage cable system Delivery, vol 16, IEEE Power & Energy Society
inside an air filled protection pipe. This includes a short
introduction to the governing physics as well as the
necessary validations.
With the help of the simulation, admissible current ratings
in steady state and under dynamic load are studied and
compared to analytical formulae. It was shown that the
load flow dynamic has a significant influence on the
current rating. Furthermore, the possibility of increasing
the ampacity rating of the cable system by filling the pipe
with a special backfill material was demonstrated. This

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F2.20 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Characterization of Transparent Fluorescent Silicones
for Optical Monitoring of High-Voltage Cable Accessories
Krzysztof KUCHARCZYK, Szymon BANASZAK, Konstanty GAWRYLCZYK, West Pomeranian University of Technology,
Szczecin, Poland, k_kucharczyk@o2.pl, szymon.banaszak@zut.edu.pl
André LEISTNER, Polymerics GmbH, Berlin, Germany, al@polymerics.de
Daniel SIEBLER, BAM Federal Institute of Materials Research and Testing, Berlin, Germany, daniel.siebler@bam.de
Gerd HEIDMANN, IPH Institut „Prüffeld für Elektrische Hochleistungstechnik“ GmbH (CESI Group), Berlin, Germany,
heidmann@iph.de
ABSTRACT
The mechanical and electrical properties of new transpar-
ent silicone materials modified with two fluorescent dyes
were investigated by measuring stress-strain behaviour,
electrical breakdown strength, capacity and dissipation
factor, before and after thermal ageing, as well as electri-
cal and optical partial discharges.
Mechanical properties of the new materials are compara-
ble to the reference and the addition of dyes stabilises
them against thermal ageing. All materials are equivalent
in terms of breakdown strength and capacity. The added
value of transparency and fluorescence make them suita-
ble materials for novel diagnostic applications in HV cable
accessories and insulators.
KEYWORDS
Silicones, fluorescent dyes, partial discharge, electrical
treeing, breakdown strength, tensile strength, elongation
at break, thermal ageing
INTRODUCTION
Current monitoring systems for high-voltage (HV) cable
accessories are realized on the basis of electrical meas-
urements. The diagnostics of HV cables accessories
relies on voltage test and insulation resistance measure-
ments. In some cases, partial discharge (PD) measure-
ment systems are used as well. Unfortunately, those sys-
tems are heavy, expensive, and complicated to use. Fur-
thermore, the results often contain inaccuracies. In addi-
tion to that, electrical measurements are very susceptible
to electromagnetic interference. Therefore, alternative
methods are explored which do not suffer from these
limitations and which will be more accurate, reliable, and
insensitive to any interference.
One solution to this problem is the optical detection of
partial discharges which demands the use of transparent
insulation materials for cable accessories, such as optical-
ly clear silicones. Non-transparent silicones have been
used in HV engineering for many years [1]. They show
very good insulating properties and – being elastomers –
they can be extremely flexible. Key benefits from silicones
are their high electrical resistivity, resistance to environ-
mental degradations and to electrical ageing as well as
their hydrophobicity, which results in lower assembly and
maintenance costs [2, 3].
Highly transparent silicones have not been widely used in
high voltage applications so far. The aim of this work was
to investigate these materials in terms of their mechanical
and electrical properties and compare them to non-
transparent silicones which are already used in HV appli-
cations. In addition to this, transparent silicones were
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.20
modified with fluorescent dyes in order to enhance the
optical PD detection sensitivity.
EXPERIMENTAL
Materials
PS 60 is a pourable, non-transparent, addition-curing,
two-component silicone rubber that cures at room tem-
perature. It was obtained from commercial sources and is
typically used for cable accessories and insulators. PS 72
is a pourable, highly transparent, addition-curing, two-
component silicone rubber that cures at room tempera-
ture. It is typically used for prototyping and potting of elec-
tronic components. PS 76 is a new highly-transparent
addition-curing, two-component silicone rubber that cures
at high temperature above 120 °C.
FD 1 (green) and FD 2 (orange) are two fluorescent dyes
functionalised so that they can covalently bind to silicone
PS 76. Both dyes were produced in our laboratories with
very high purity ≥ 99% and they were used to modify the
silicone rubber PS 76. For the modification each dye was
chemically attached to a low molecular weight H-siloxane.
The solvent was evaporated and the catalyst was re-
moved from the reaction mixture and the reaction product
was homogeneously distributed in the PS 76 matrix. After
that the silicone was cured.
Sample Preparation
Mechanical and Electrical Test Samples
Special care was taken to produce bubble-free, plane-
parallel sheets sized 100 × 100 × 2 mm from the silicones.
Silicone components were mixed according to manufac-
turer’s recommendations and evacuated in a vacuum
oven until the foaming mixture collapsed. The mixture was
poured into a sandwich mould consisting of glass and
polycarbonate plates and evacuated again until a defect-
free surface was obtained. The mould was then closed
with a second set of polycarbonate and glass plates. The
sandwich arrangement was then clamped to prevent
movement during curing. Curing was performed for 1 h at
100 °C for PS 60, 2 h at 120 °C for PS 76. After unmould-
ing, paddle-shaped specimen were die-cut from the sili-
cone sheets, according to DIN EN ISO 527-2 type 5A for
the mechanical tests. Optical markers were attached to
the paddles in a distance of 20 mm. Electrical tests were
performed on the 100 × 100 × 2 mm sheets.
Breakdown Voltage Samples
Samples for breakdown voltage measurements were
produced in a similar way to the mechanical samples as
thin films with a thickness of 0.5 mm. The films obtained
were used for measurement without further processing.
1/5
F2.20 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Electrical Treeing Samples
Electrical treeing samples were produced in a two-step
process. First, a rectangular prism (50 × 50 × 70 mm) was
prepared from transparent silicone PS72 with an embed-
ded cylindrical placeholder (diameter 20 mm × height 22
mm) and an embedded needle electrode on the opposite
side. After curing of the silicone, the cylindrical placehold-
er was removed and the cavity was filled with the test
material (PS 76 and PS 76 modified with FD1 and FD2,
respectively) and sealed with a grounding electrode (Fig.
1). The whole specimen was then cured for 2 h 120 °C.
Methods
Mechanical
Mechanical tests included the recording of the stress-
strain behaviour of the materials in order to determine
tensile strength and elongation at break. Tests were per-
formed according to DIN 53504 at room temperature (23
°C) at a crosshead speed of 250 mm/min using a
Zmart.pro universal testing machine by Zwick/Roell (Ulm,
Germany). An average of 6 specimen was tested of each
material.
Breakdown Strength
Breakdown voltage tests were performed using an
MPD 540 device (Omicron Mtronix Technology) and soft-
ware at room temperature. Each sample (sheets 0.5 mm
thick) was placed between two electrodes in a silicone oil
bath. The high voltage electrode had a shape of a sphere
(polished or replaced after each breakdown, diameter 20
mm). The grounding electrode had a shape of planar
surface. The measurement consisted of gradual increase
of voltage from level zero in steps of 1 kV (AC, 50 Hz) with
1 min equilibration time for each step. Tests were ended in
the moment of noticeable complete penetration of the
material by the electric arc. At least five measurements
were performed on each sample film. For PS 60 and
PS 76 three specimens were tested. For each modified
PS 76 only one specimen was tested.
Dissipation Factor and Capacity
Dissipation factor and capacity measurements were per-
formed using a test cell for solid insulants type 2904 by
Tettex Instruments (Basel, Switzerland). Selected samples
were placed between electrodes and covered with a glass
bell. Measurements of capacity and dissipation factor
carried out at room temperature at a voltage of 1.5 kV
(AC, 50 Hz) and a weight of 1 kg and 4 kg and a test
surface of 20 cm². The sensitivity of the device was ad-
justed step-wise After the measurement at room tempera-
ture the same samples were heated to 92 °C and a se-
cond measurement was carried out at weights of 4 kg and
1 kg. After these initial measurements , the samples were
aged by thermal cycling. Measurement of capacity and
dissipation factor was repeated after thermal ageing.
Partial Discharges and Electrical Treeing
A special chamber, free from partial discharges and
shielded from external electromagnetic field influences as
well as protected from visible light (circa 600–800 fC
background QIEC) was used. Partial discharge measure-
ments were performed using electrical and optical detec-
tion systems simultaneously. Electrical detection was
measured using an MPD 540 by Omicron Mtronix Tech-
nology device. Optical detection was performed using
optical lens arrangement, a grey filter (50%) for photode-
tector protection, and an APD 500 (Omicron Mtronix).
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.20
Fig. 1: Electrical Treeing Sample
All measurements began from a background charge test
procedure and then the test voltage was switched on and
gradually increased in steps of 1 kV (AC, 50 Hz) for 1 min
starting at a level of 3 kV until partial discharges were
observed. After that the voltage was decreased in steps of
1 kV until PDs disappeared.
Electrical treeing was observed after the PD incep-
tion/exception measurement cycle. High voltage was set
to 25 kV (AC, 50 Hz) and the specimen was photo-
graphed with a digital camera every 30 seconds for 2
hours.
Thermal Ageing
Thermal ageing was performed based on IEC 62067.
Each ageing cycle consisted of heating the sample from
room temperature to 95 °C for 2 h, then holding isother-
mally at 95 °C for 2 h and finally cooling to 25 °C for 8 h.
Thermal ageing was performed for 20 cycles. Compared
with IEC 62067 the thermal ageing was conducted twice
as fast.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mechanical
Fig. 2 shows elongation at break of the new and aged
materials. The industrial reference material PS 60 breaks
at an elongation of 452% which decreases to 383% after
ageing. The transparent materials PS 76 and its modifica-
tions with fluorescent dyes exhibit similar elongations at
break in the range of 410 to 478%. The dyes have a small
reinforcing effect on PS 76. After ageing the materials
show no differences of elongation at break within the
margins of error.
Fig. 3 shows tensile strength of the new and aged materi-
als. PS 60 exhibits a tensile strength of 6.6 N/mm² which
decreases to 6.2 N/mm² after ageing. The new material
PS 76 and its modifications have a tensile strength be-
tween 4.1 to 5.4 N/mm² which is 30 to 38% lower than
PS 60 but still considered to be in the usable range. The
addition of the dyes increases the ageing resistance of the
material, especially in the case of modification with FD1.
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F2.20 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.20

600 40
New Aged New Aged
35
500

Dissipation Factor @ 90 ºC [10-4]

30
Elongation at Break [%]

400
25

300 20

15
200
10
100
5
452 383 410 388 467 353 478 384 37.2 12.9 18.3 22 18.6 18.7 19.3 17.7
0 0
PS 60 PS 76 PS 76 + FD1 PS 76 + FD2 PS 60 PS 76 PS 76 + FD1 PS 76 + FD2

Fig. 2: Elongation at Break Fig. 6: Dissipation Factor at 90 °C

8
New Aged Breakdown Strength
7 Breakdown strength was only measured on new, non-
6
aged samples due to time-consuming and difficult speci-
Tensile Strength [N/mm²]

men preparation (0.5 mm thin films). The missing data will

5 be elaborated in a future investigation. Fig. 4 shows the
4
breakdown strength data of the materials. All samples
break down at field strengths in a narrow range from 29.6
3 to 32.7 kV/mm. The tested samples do not exhibit signifi-
cant differences.
2

1
Dissipation Factor and Capacity
6.6 6.2 5.4 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.6 4.1 Dissipation factor and capacity measurements were con-
0
ducted with weights of 1 and 4 kg which did not show
PS 60 PS 76 PS 76 + FD1 PS 76 + FD2
significant differences due to the elastomeric nature of the
Fig. 3: Tensile Strength tested materials. Therefore, average results were calcu-
40
lated using each value regardless of the applied weight.
New
35
Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 show the results of dissipation factor
measurements at 25 °C and 90 °C, respectively. The
Breakdown Strength [kV/mm]

30 industrial reference material PS 60 has a dissipation fac-

–4
tor of 7.3 × 10 at 25 °C which strongly increases to 37.2
25 –4
× 10 at 90 °C. This dramatic change is not visible in the
20 new material PS 76 and its modifications where the dissi-
–4
pation factor is around 9 × 10 at 25 °C and it increases
15 –4
to ca. 19 × 10 at 90 °C. The strong increase for PS 60
10 might be due to incomplete curing of the material, despite
following the manufacturer’s recommendations, which
5
should be investigated further in the future. Thermal age-
0
29.6 30.6 32.3 32.7
ing slightly decreases or does not change the dissipation
PS 60 PS 76 PS 76 + FD1 PS 76 + FD2 factor for most of the materials.

Fig. 4: Breakdown Strength Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show the results of capacity measure-
ments at 25 °C and 90 °C, respectively. The industrial
40
New Aged reference PS 60 has a capacity of 25 pF at 25 °C which
35 almost does not change with increasing temperature.
Ageing does not have any significant influence on the
Dissipation Factor @ 25 ºC [10-4]

30
capacity either. The same is true for the new material
25 PS 76 and its modifications. No significant change of
capacity can be observed with increased temperature or
20 thermal ageing. The value of capacity is almost the same
15
for all tested materials in the range of 21 to 24 pF.

10

5
7.3 4.3 9.1 8.2 8.7 8.5 8.8 8.6
0
PS 60 PS 76 PS 76 + FD1 PS 76 + FD2

Fig. 5: Dissipation Factor at 25 °C

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 3/5

F2.20 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.20

30
New Aged

25
Capacity @ 25 ºC [pF]

20

15

PS 76 PS 76 + FD1 PS 76 + FD2
10
Fig. 11: Electrical Treeing at 25 kV
5
Partial Discharges and Electrical Treeing
24.7 25.4 22.9 23.4 24.6 23.2 23.7 23.7
0 Partial discharge inception voltage determined by electri-
PS 60 PS 76 PS 76 + FD1 PS 76 + FD2 cal and optical measurement is shown in Fig. 9 and Fig.
10 respectively. The industrial reference was not included
Fig. 7: Capacity at 25 °C in this investigation due to lack of transparency.
30
New Aged The electrical measurement shows, that unmodified mate-
25
rial PS 76 has an inception voltage of 12 kV. The physical
background of this inception voltage in comparison with
non-transparent industrial use silicones is discussed by
Capacity @ 90 ºC [pF]

20
Plath et al. in [4]. The addition of fluorescent dyes de-
creases the inception voltage by about 33% to 8 to 9 kV.
15
This difference in the electrical inception voltage is proba-
10 bly caused by the electron configuration of the fluorescent
dyes. This influence can be reduced by decreasing the
5 concentration of the dye in the silicon matrix due to its
high quantum yield which produces very intense fluores-
23.2 23.3 21 22.2 22.7 21.4 22.1 23.7
0 cent light emissions.
PS 60 PS 76 PS 76 + FD1 PS 76 + FD2
The values obtained by optical measurement are general-
Fig. 8: Capacity at 90 °C ly higher than those from the electrical measurement. The
20
difference between electrical and optical inception voltage
Electrical is about 1 kV for the pure PS 76 material and about 4 kV
for the modified materials. This difference is probably
caused by the grey filter in the optical system which re-
15
PD Inception Voltage [kV]

duces light intensity by 50%.

Fig. 11 shows photographs of the electrical treeing exper-
10 iments conducted at 25 kV. Typical treeing time for the
tested materials was 1.5 to 2 hours. The addition of fluo-
rescent dyes leads to the formation of a halo effect around
5 the tree structures. Future investigations will show if the
halo effect could be used to improve the sensitivity of the
optical PD measurement setup. Treeing time was slightly
0
11.6 8.9 7.8 shorter for the modified materials but could not be quanti-
PS 76 PS 76 + FD1 PS 76 + FD2 fied due to the dynamic nature of tree growth.

Fig. 9: PD Inception Voltage – Electrical

CONCLUSIONS
20
Optical The mechanical and electrical properties of a new, trans-
parent silicone with and without modification with fluores-
15
cent dyes have been investigated and compared to an
PD Inception Voltage [kV]

industrial grade non-transparent silicone used for cable

accessories and insulators. The investigated properties
comprise elongation at break, tensile strength, electrical
10
breakdown strength, dissipation factor, capacity, electrical
treeing and inception voltage of partial discharges. Some
properties were measured before and after thermal age-
5
ing. The main conclusions are as follows:
1. Elongation at break of the new materials is in the same
13 13.3 11.8
0 range as that of the reference material (ca. 400%).
PS 76 PS 76 + FD1 PS 76 + FD2 Thermal ageing decreases elongation by 15% for the
reference and up to 25% for PS 76 modified with FD1.
Fig. 10: PD Inception Voltage – Optical

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 4/5

F2.20 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
2. Tensile strength of the new materials is ca. 35% lower
than for PS 60 (6.6 N/mm²) which is still considered to
be in the usable range. Thermal ageing decreases ten-
sile strength by 7 to 25%. Interestingly, the addition of
fluorescent dyes stabilizes the new material against
thermal ageing.
3. All tested materials are equivalent in terms of break-
down strength and capacity. Differences were observed
for the dissipation factor. While the reference material
shows a 5-fold increase of dissipation factor from room
temperature to 90 °C, the new materials only show a 2-
fold increase. Thermal ageing slightly decreases or
does not change the dissipation factor for most of the
materials.
4. The optical system detects partial discharges at slightly
higher voltage than the electrical system due to the
grey filter. However, the detection threshold is still far
below the inception voltage of tree growth.
5. The addition of fluorescent dyes leads to the formation
of a halo effect around the tree structures. Treeing time
was slightly shorter for the modified materials.
6. The new transparent silicone materials modified with
fluorescent dyes have properties comparable to the in-
dustrial reference material. The added value of trans-
parency and fluorescence make them suitable materi-
als for novel diagnostic applications in HV cable acces-
sories and insulators. Such applications include on-line
monitoring of partial discharge formation, short circuit
prevention systems, live localization of HV cable de-
fects.
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.20
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support of this work by the European Regional
Development Fund (EFRE) and the Berlin Pro FIT pro-
gramme under grant agreement number 10155108 is
gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] E. Gerlach, “Silicones in Industrial Applications” in
Inorganic Polymers, edited by Roger De Jaeger and
Mario Gleria, Nova Science Publishers
[2] R.S. Gorur, E.A. Cherney, J.T. Burnham, Outdoor
Insulators, Ed. Ravi S., Gorur, May 1999, Phoenix Ar-
izona, 185–193
[3] J. Oesterheld, “Dielektrisches Verhalten von Silikon-
elastomer-Isolierungen” (Dielectric Behaviour of Si-
licone Insulations), Dissertation, TU Dresden, Fort-
schrittsberichte Reihe 21 Nr. 178, VDI-Verlag Düssel-
dorf 1995.
[4] R. Plath et al., Progress in optical PD detection for
translucent and transparent HV cable accessories
with improved fluorescent optical fibers, Jicable 2015
Proceedings
5/5
F2.21 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Predicted rating system for directly buried cables
Rui HUANG, James A. PILGRIM, Paul L. LEWIN; University of Southampton, UK, rh5g10@soton.ac.uk,
jp2@ecs.soton.ac.uk, pll@ecs.soton.ac.uk.
David SCOTT, Anna BLACKWELL, Daniel MORRICE; National Grid plc, UK, david.g.scott@nationalgrid.com
ABSTRACT
In recent years, increasing attention has been placed on
cable dynamic rating systems to increase asset utilization
and decrease constraint costs. However, the variations in
dynamic ratings makes them difficult to plan with. In this
work, a novel cable rating concept, Predicted Cable
Rating, is introduced. This concept integrates a day-
ahead load forecasting system into the dynamic rating
system to provide the time-limited emergency rating
calculated forward from any point within the next 24
hours.
KEYWORDS
Dynamic cable rating; Load prediction; Online monitoring;
Predicted cable rating; Support Vector Machine; Finite
Difference Method.
INTRODUCTION
System operators need to be confident in the ratings of
the circuits in order to make effective plans, particularly
where generation and circuit configuration may lead to
high power flows being transported via particular circuits.
As a result, it is beneficial to the system operators to
examine new cable rating methods to assess the real-time
thermal condition of the cable and optimize asset
utilization, but with minimum risk.
The majority of high voltage cables are sized and
operated based on a continuous, current rating. In most
cases, the load on the cables themselves will not match
these assumptions and may vary significantly depending
upon the time of day, day of the week and season. Given
the relatively short durations of peak loads and the
comparatively long thermal time constants of high voltage
cables, it is often possible to load cables beyond their
continuous current rating without the cable exceeding its
operating temperature limit. Many utilities are now
beginning to use dynamic ratings to use this additional
capacity safely [1-3], however this data is not available at
the day ahead planning stage, which would be very
valuable to network operators.
To solve this problem, it is necessary to employ a
predictive rating method [4], capable of providing network
operators with accurate short term current ratings at the
day ahead stage. This has the double benefit of reducing
variations in dynamic ratings (which makes them difficult
to plan with), while reducing the risk of thermally
overloading the cable.
In this paper, a novel cable rating concept, Predicted
Cable Rating, is introduced. This concept integrates a
day-ahead load forecasting system into the dynamic
rating system to provide the time-limited emergency rating
calculated forward from any point within the next 24
hours. A dynamic thermal model for a buried cable
installation is built by using the finite difference method
(FDM). The real-time load current is used to calculate the
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.21
heat losses in the conductor and sheath of the cable. The
day-ahead load forecasting is achieved by using the
Support Vector Regression (SVR) method. Time-limited
short-term ratings can then be calculated 24hrs ahead,
based on the predicted load data. In addition, an error
estimation system based on the exponentially weighted
moving average (EWMA) equation and multiple linear
regression (MLR) is used to estimate the predicted
conductor temperature error quickly.
PREDICTED CABLE RATING
Based on the dynamic thermal model, day-ahead
prediction system and error estimation system, the
predicted rating system can be implemented by the
structure shown in Fig. 1.
Real-time Day-ahead load
measurement data prediction system
Dynamic thermal model
Predicted error
Rating calculation
estimation system
Dynamic rating Predicted rating
calculation calculation
Fig. 1: Structure of predicted rating system
The real-time load and environment data are measured
and used in the dynamic thermal model to update the
thermal parameters and heat losses which are essential
to calculate the temperature response of the cable in each
step. With these real-time temperature and historical load
information, the normal dynamic rating can be obtained. In
order to predict the cable rating 24 hours ahead, the day-
ahead ambient temperature and load information are
needed at each time step. In this work, the ambient
temperature forecast data is assumed to be available and
perfect. A load prediction system in [4], based on the
Support Vector Regression (SVR) technique to forecast
next 24hours’ load at each step, is used.
Based on the real-time cable temperature results from the
thermal model, these day-ahead prediction data are used
to estimate the cable temperature 24 hours ahead. Thus,
the predicted rating which provides the time-limited
emergency rating calculated forward from any point within
the next 24 hours can be performed. At the same time, a
rating error estimation system based on the exponentially
weighted moving average (EWMA) equation and multiple
linear regression (MLR) techniques can estimate the
prediction rating error without using the dynamic thermal
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F2.21 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.21

model to perform a fast and reliable error estimation. Table. 1: Geometry and materials of the cable sample
When the estimated rating error is higher than a set value,
the predicted rating value in the system will be replaced Outer
by the real-time rating value. Thus, the risk can be Component Diameter Material
reduced in the whole system. (mm)
Conductor 65.0 Copper
An example of predicted rating is given in Fig. 2. The
current time step is at t=48 hour. The hourly load Conductor screen 68.6 XLPE
predictions from 48hr to 72hr (blue dash line) are Dielectric 112.6 XLPE
generated from the load prediction system. Based on
Dielectric screen 115.8 XLPE
these load prediction data, the cable temperature can be
predicted during this period. If the 12hr ahead 6hr Screen/Bedding 121.0 Copper/Semicon
emergency rating is required, the predicted cable Sheath 128.4 Lead
temperature at (t+12, 60 hour) will be used to calculate
the 6hr emergency rating, the maximum step current the Outer Sheath 139.6 PE
cable can carry from 60hr to 66hr. When the time step
comes to (t+12), the predicted error estimation system will
obtain an estimation of predicted rating error quickly Conductor losses and Sheath losses from the cable are
(within 0.1 second). In this case, the predicted rating calculated based on the IEC 60287 standard, but further
overestimate the 6hr emergency rating by 22A, if this consider the feature of their temperature dependency.
value is higher than the set limit, the predicted rating Three single-phase cables are buried 500mm below the
values will be replaced by the real-time rating value. It ground surface horizontally with 400mm phase spacing.
should be noted that the whole procedure of 24hr-ahead All the soil is assumed to has the same thermal
predicted rating will be processed at every hour in the parameters and is treated as a uniform medium with
-1
system. As a result, the predicted ratings will be updated thermal resistivity of 1.5KmW and volumetric heat
-3 -1
by more accurate values at each hour. capacity of 1MJm K .
The thermoelectric equivalent circuit for the buried cable
2600
12hr ahead 6hr emergency circuit is presented as Fig. 3. The material of the
2400 rating prediction conductor screen and insulation screen of this cable
2200 circuit is a conductive XLPE compound, as a result, these
two layers are assumed to have the same thermal
2000
real-time 6hr emergency rating properties as the XLPE insulation. Some assumptions are
load (A )

1800
incorporated in this model: the ground surface is
real load
1600
predicted load
isothermal by using the Kennelly hypothesis [9]; thermal
1400 properties of the ambient soil and cable components are
1200
assumed to be constant which ignores changes in the
thermal properties from moisture migration in the soil; the
1000
thermal field occupied by adjacent cables and image
800
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78
cables are assumed to be the same with soil; the metallic
time(h) t t+12 parts in the cables are regarded as isothermal by
assuming negligible thermal resistances.
Fig. 2: Predicted rating example
In the FDM model, the components in each cell of the
thermoelectric circuit are regarded as isothermal. In order
DYNAMIC THERMAL MODEL to obtain more accurate solutions, the thick layers or the
Most existing dynamic rating methods for buried cable are layers with high thermal resistance need to be divided into
based on the IEC 60287 [5] and IEC 60853 [6] standards. more layers to fully represent the shape of the
However, the poor performance of IEC models in real- temperature profile in the radial direction. The test results
time condition shows that they are not the ideal models for suggest that 10 layers of insulation and 50 layers of
dynamic rating system [7]. ambient soil should be sufficient to get the accurate
temperature result in transient study. Thus, the first 14
Nowadays, available computation technology means the layers are used to represent the internal cable from
cable thermal model can be easily computed by using the conductor to cable surface. To take into account the
Finite Difference Method (FDM). Cigré Electra 87 [8] ground surface boundary, three additional layers are
presents a FDM method for the calculation of the thermal placed in the soil In order to consider the heat generated
transient response of single-core cables to a step from adjacent cables and image cables. As a result, there
function. Compared with IEC standard, the thermal circuit are 53 layers to simulate the thermal transfer in the soil.
in FDM model is refined by increasing the number of cells, The boundary of the soil is 20 meters away from the rated
although the assumption that the heat flow is radial both cable and set as a constant temperature according to the
inside and outside the cable domains still exists. In this soil temperatures in different seasons.
work, the transient thermal responses in the cable and soil
to varying current input are solved by a FDM model in The heat sources in the cable are represented by W1
terms of both time and space. The cable considered in (conductor losses), W2-W11 (dielectric losses), W12
this work is a 275kV XLPE cable with geometry and (armour losses), W13 (sheath losses), W31 (adjacent
materials shown in Table.1. cables losses) and W46-W47 (image cables losses). T1-
T67 are used to simulate the thermal conduction between
each layer. C1-C66 are the thermal capacitances at each
node. The temperature at each node is calculated using:

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 2/6

F2.21 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.21

W1 W2 W11 W12 W13 W31 W46 W47

T1 T2 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T30 T31 T45 T46 T47 T67
C1 C2 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C31 C46 C47

Conductor Conductor Screen & Wire Metallic Outer Ambient Soil Boundary
Insulation & Screen Sheath Sheath
Insulation Screen & Bedding
Fig. 3: Thermal circuit for bureid cables

θ n −1 ( t ) − θ n ( t ) θ n ( t ) − θ n +1 ( t ) Input
− + Wn ( t − 1)
Tn −1 Tn data
[1]
θ n ( t ) − θ n ( t − 1)
= Cn Weekend/
∆t Workday
Holiday
where n is the node number, t is the time step, ∆t is the
time step interval and θn(t) means the temperature at
node n and time t. SVR SVR SVR SVR SVR SVR
... ...
With the equation at each node re-arranged into
1 2 24 1 2 24
tridiagonal matrix form, the entire cable model can be
solved using one set of matrices. Thus, the temperature of
each node in the model at each time step can be Day-ahead hourly
calculated, with all the historical load and environment load prediction
data taken into account. The short-term emergency rating Fig. 4: Structure of load prediction system
can be determined using this model taking advantage of
using the measurement data instead of worst case The load prediction results are shown as the mean
assumptions. absolute percentage error (MAPE), which is widely used
in judging model performance for load prediction [13]:
LOAD PREDICTION SYSTEM
Most existing dynamic rating systems can only perform
MAPE =
100 n
n i =1
(
∑ ya ( i ) − y p ( i ) ya ( i ) ) [2]
the emergency cable rating at the present time step.
However, there is clear value to transmission operators of where ya are the actual values, yp are the predicted values
being able to generate emergency ratings 24 hours ahead and n is the total number of samples.
to assist in day-ahead planning, as in many
The results for different prediction horizons are shown in
circumstances the environment may be more benign than
Fig. 5. The MAPE increases from about 1.5 for 1hr ahead
assumed by offline rating analysis. If this is the case,
prediction to 4 for 24hr ahead prediction due to more
constraint costs could be minimized. In order to present
uncertainties of load and weather for further ahead
this day-ahead cable rating, an accurate load prediction
prediction.
system needs to be integrated into dynamic rating
method. 4

In this work, the load prediction system in [4] has been 3.5
implemented in the dynamic rating system to provide the
24hr ahead hourly load prediction. The load prediction 3
MAPE

system uses Support Vector Regression (SVR) [10], 2.5

which has been proved to perform well in load prediction
tasks [11-12]. 2

Fig. 4 shows the structure of the load prediction system in 1.5

[4]. The historical load and meteorology data as long as 1

the time series data (seasonal, weekly and daily patterns) 5 10 15 20
number of ahead hour
are used as input to the SVR models. As shown in Fig.4,
48 SVR models have been used for different types of day Fig. 5: MAPE for 24hr-ahead load prediction
(workday or weekend/holiday) and different ahead hour
predictions. At the end, this system is able to predict a
day-ahead hourly load profile, which means that at each
PREDICTED RATING RESULTS
hour, the next 24hr load are forecasted continuously. A FDM dynamic thermal models for buried cable and a
SVR day-ahead load prediction system are detailed in

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F2.21 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.21

previous two sections. Integrating these two systems by For a predicted rating system, an overestimate of the
the structure in Fig. 1, the day-ahead Predicted Cable rating value could place the cable system at risk. In other
Rating can be achieved to provide the time-limited words, we do not need to worry about the situation when
emergency rating calculated forward from any point within the predicted value is lower than the real rating value as
the next 24 hours. the load will not exceed the actual rating and no thermal
damage will occur. As a result, only the left part in the
The real-time profile of load demand for an area have following figures showing the negative errors will really
been used in [4] to generate the day-ahead load place the system at risk. By allowing a 20A errors of
prediction profile for one year, these data are used in the overestimate the cable rating (pink dash line in Fig. 7),
predicted rating test in this work. In order to represent the which is the approximate error of CT measurement during
realistic load level of the buried cable sample in this 2000A loading, the reliability of the predicted rating
paper, the load data are scaled into the range from 0A to system can be obtained from Fig. 8. For 1hr ahead
1500A, resulting in an average conductor temperature of prediction, the reliability of 6hr emergency rating
about 45°C during one year test.
prediction errors is 100%. Then the reliability decreases
The 6hr emergency rating, defined as the maximum step as the time between the prediction being made and the
load of six-hour duration which can be carried by the actual rating being applied increases. For 24hr ahead
cable for the given start point is considered in this paper prediction, the reliability of the predicted rating system is
as it is the most commonly used emergency rating on the still higher than 94%.
UK transmission network. Fig. 6 presents the real-time
conductor temperatures and 6hr emergency ratings for
1
3000 hours calculated from FDM model during the test. It
is clear that the conductor temperature and 6hr 0.9
1hr ahead
emergency rating have a negative relationship between 0.8 4hr ahead
each other, higher conductor temperature giving a lower 24hr ahead
0.7
emergency rating of the cable. Within the 3000 hours
tested, the 6hr emergency ratings range from 2430A to 0.6
2870A.
CDF

0.5
Optimistic when the Conservative when the
0.4 rating error<0 rating error>0
2900 60
0.3

0.2
2800 55
0.1
conductor temperature (°C)
6hr emergency rating (A)

0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
2700 50 6hr emergency rating error (A) (real-predict)

Fig. 7: CDF of 6hr emergency rating error for different

2600 45
hour ahead prediction

2500 40
1

2400 35 0.99
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time (h)

0.98
Fig. 6: Real-time conductor temperature and 6hr
Reliability

emergency rating for buried cable sample

0.97

To consider the accuracy of the predicted cable rating,

some statistical methods are applied in the analysis. The 0.96
rating prediction results are compared with the direct
solution from the dynamic thermal model with the actual 0.95
load (assumed to be the real rating in this work). The
predicted rating errors were calculated as the difference
0.94
between the predicted ratings and real ratings (real 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
values-predicted values). The results are shown in Fig.7 number of ahead hour

as the form of Cumulative Distributive Function (CDF),

which represents the probability of the predicted rating Fig. 8: Reliability for different hour ahead predicted
errors being less than a certain value. It can be seen that rating
most of the 6hr emergency rating prediction errors are
being contained within ±5A, ±30A and ±50A for 1hr ERROR ESTIMATION SYSTEM
ahead, 4hr ahead and 24hr ahead prediction respectively.
The increase of the predicted rating error for further ahead During the predicted rating process, the load prediction
prediction comes from the accumulation of the previous error will result in a cable temperature prediction error,
load prediction errors. hence the rating prediction will deviate from the real rating
value. To quickly detect the possible rating errors, as well

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F2.21 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.21

as building confidence to implement the predicted rating are shown in Table. 2.

algorithm, it is important to investigate the relation among
Table. 2: Smoothing factor test
the load, conductor temperature and rating prediction
errors. The load data and predicted rating data from the look back
24 48 72 96 120 240
buried cable system are used to demonstrate this error time
estimation system for predicted rating. Smoothing
0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.93
factor α
The structure of the predicted rating error estimation correlation 0.948 0.954 0.956 0.956 0.956 0.956
system is presented in Fig. 9. In order to estimate the
predicted rating error quickly without using dynamic
thermal model, this system aims to estimate the predicted The correlation between the conductor temperature and
rating error by only using the real-time and predicted load accumulated load stays in constant when the length of
data. Thus, the relation among load prediction errors, considered historical load is longer than 72 hours. As a
cable temperature errors and predicted rating errors need result, the preceding 72 hours of historical load and the
to be analyzed. smoothing factor 0.92 are chosen in the EWMA equation.
Error of predicted After obtaining the relation between load and conductor
Real-time load of Real-time
previous n hours
load from previous
load temperature, and between predicted load errors and
n hours
conductor temperature errors, a simple Multiple Linear
Regression (MLR) model is used to link the load data after
EWMA equation to calculate EWMA equation to calculate processing and predicted rating errors directly. As shown
assumulated load2 accumulated load2 error in Fig. 9, the result from the EWMA equation for
2 2
accumulated load and accumulated load error are used
as input to the MLR model, as they represent the initial
cable temperature and the error of the initial condition
Multiple Linear Regression Model when calculating the emergency rating respectively. In
addition, the real load at the step before calculating the
emergency rating is also used as an input since it is also a
parameter that affect the initial condition of rating
Estimated predicted rating
error calculation.

Fig. 9: Structure of predicted rating error estimation
system
After the real-time load data have been measured, the
load prediction error can be calculated. It is clear that the
cable temperature is not only affected by the present load,
but also by the preceding load history. For different hour
ahead prediction, the cable temperature error depends on
the accumulated error from all the previous load
predictions. The thermal capacity of the cable installation
will result in an exponential decay of the response of
conductor temperature over time to a given heat input. As
a result, more recent load errors have a stronger influence
on conductor temperature error. To fully consider the
accumulated error of the load prediction, an exponentially
weighted moving average (EWMA) equation is applied:
The error estimation results from the MLR model are
compared with the real predicted rating errors, with the
results shown in Fig. 10 as CDF plot. The x-axis presents
the deviation of predicted rating error estimation given by
the estimated error minus the real error values. The y-axis
shows the probability of the deviation lower than the
corresponding x-axis value. The result shows that the
system for predicted rating error estimation can perform
accurate predicted rating error estimation by only using
the real load and predicted load data. Most of the
deviation of estimated 1hour, 4 hour and 24 hour ahead
predicted rating error are contained within ±1A, ±3A and
±5A respectively.
1
1hr ahead

∑ k =1α k −1ε ( t − ( k − 1) )
t 0.9 4hr ahead

Error (t) =
24hr ahead
[3] 0.8
α k −1
t
∑ k =1 0.7

where Error(t) is the processed load error for t hour ahead 0.6
2
prediction; ε(t) is the prediction error of load for t hour
CDF

0.5
ahead and α is the smoothing factor (α<1). By using this
0.4
EWMA equation, the summation of all the previous
2
temperature response functions from each load 0.3

prediction error can be considered, at the same time, the 0.2

weighting for each older error decreases exponentially
0.1
over time.
0
The EWMA equation is also applied to calculate the -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
deviation of predicted rating error estimation (estimated-real)(A)
relation between conductor temperature and historical
2
load data. In this case, ε(t) is the load for t hour ahead. A
Fig. 10: CDF for the deviation of predicted rating error
test has been done to find the best value of α and the
estimation
length of historical load data to be considered. The
correlation between the conductor temperature and
accumulated load calculated by the EWMA equation is
used as the criteria to choose the best parameters, results

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 5/6

F2.21 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has presented a novel method for predicting
the short-term cable rating forward from any point within
the next 24 hours. It has been applied to a buried cable
system based on a FDM dynamic thermal model and a
reliable 24hr-ahead load prediction system using an SVR
model. In addition, an error estimation system is
implemented in the predicted rating algorithm to detect the
risk of rating prediction quickly. The load predictions have
been demonstrated by actual data, and the predicted
rating results have been compared with the rating results
obtained from the direct solution from the thermal model.
All the 1hr-ahead, 4hr-ahead and 24hr ahead predicted
6hr emergency rating errors are contained within ±5A,
±30A and ±50A respectively. In order to best install such
systems on transmission cable networks, a method for
predicting load as a function of adjacent circuit and local
generation behavior must be implemented into the
predicted rating algorithm. The use of this predicted rating
system permits transmission system operators to
maximize the utilization of their existing network while
minimizing constraint costs.
REFERENCES
[1] E. Jacobsen, J. F. Nielsen, S. B. Nielsen, W. Nolden,
K. Cohnen, A. Mohrs, and S. Seier, 2010, “Dynamic
Rating of Transmission Cables”, B1_101_2010
CIGRE.
[2] S. H. Nam, J. M. Lee, K. Y. Kim, S. K. Lee, S. I. Jeon,
H. L. Kim, Y. S. Kim, and H. E. Lim, 2007,
“Application Results of Real-time Ampacity
Estimation System and Intellgent Power Cable
System,” 7th International Conference on Insulated
Power Cables, p. C5.2.2.
[3] G. J. Anders, A. Napieralski, S. M. Zubert, and M.
Orlikowski, 2002, “Advanced modeling techniques for
dynamic feeder rating systems”, Industry Applications
Conference 37th IAS Annual Meeting. vol. 2, 1012–
1019.
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.21
[4] R. Huang, J. A. Pilgrim, P. L. Lewin, D. Scott, and D.
Morrice, 2014, “Use of day-ahead load forecasting for
predicted cable rating”, IEEE PES Innovative Smart
Grid Technologies, Europe, 1–6.
[5] “IEC 60287. Electric cables. Calculation of the current
rating - part 1-1: Current rating equations (100% load
factor) and calculation of losses - general,” 2006.
[6] “IEC 60853. Electric cables. Calculation of the cyclic
and emergency current rating of cables. part 2: Cyclic
rating of cables greater than 18/30 (36)kV and
emergency ratings for cables of all voltages,” 1989.
[7] R. Huang, J. A. Pilgrim, P. L. Lewin, and D. Payne,
2013, “Dynamic cable ratings for smarter grids”, IEEE
PES ISGT Europe, 1–5.
[8] “Electra 87 - Computer method for the calculation of
the response of single-core cables to a step function
thermal transient,” 1983.
[9] A. E. Kennelly, 1893, “The current carrying capacity
of electric cable submerged buried or suspended in
air,” Electr. World, 22–183.
[10] V. Vapnik, 2000, The Nature of Statistical Learning
Theory. Springer Science & Business Media, 314.
[11] B.-J. Chen, M.-W. Chang, and C.-J. Lin, 2004, “Load
Forecasting Using Support Vector Machines: A Study
on EUNITE Competition 2001”, IEEE Trans. Power
Syst., vol. 19, no. 4, 1821–1830.
[12] S. Fan and L. Chen, 2006, “Short-Term Load
Forecasting Based on an Adaptive Hybrid Method”,
IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 21, no. 1, 392–401.
[13] T. Hong, P. Pinson, and S. Fan, 2014, “Global
Energy Forecasting Competition 2012,” Int. J.
Forecast., vol. 30, no. 2, 357–363.
6/6
F2.22 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Space charge behaviours of PP/PER/ZnO nanocomposites for recyclable
HVDC cable
Bin DANG, Jinliang HE, Jun HU, Yao ZHOU; State Key Lab of Power Systems, Dept. of Electr. Eng., Tsinghua Univ.,
Beijing, China, db13@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn, hejl@tsinghua.edu.cn, hjun@tsinghua.edu.cn, zhouyao6811@163.com
ABSTRACT
This paper intends to reveal the mechanism of space
charge suppression mechanism in PP/PER/ZnO ternary
nanocomposites. Space charge distribution and crystalline
form analysis were carried out by pulsed electro-acoustic
(PEA) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), respectively. The
PER doping can lead to the accumulation of the hetero-
space charge, but the introduction of ZnO nanoparticles
can suppress the accumulation of hetero-space charge
effectivity. The reduction of space charge in
nanocoposites can be explained as the result of the
dissipation of charges through boundary regions of
smaller spherulites due to the transformation of α-β crystal
structure.
KEYWORDS
Polypropylene, propylene ethylene rubber, ZnO, HVDC
cable, recyclable, morphology, space charge, spherulite.
INTRODUCTION
EXTRUDED cable with cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)
insulation for high voltage direct current (HVDC)
transmission has been successfully applied in power
systems, due to its favorable combination of superior
mechanical, mechanical-thermal and electrical properties.
Nevertheless, XLPE is not easy to be recycled because of
the thermosetting properties when the cable reaches the
end of their life. Therefore, they have to be burnt, which
results in great damage to environment. Minimizing the
environmental destruction of the XLPE is significant
important. The difficulty for the recyclable insulation of
power cable is combining the mechanical properties at
ambient temperature and thermal-mechanical properties
at the operating temperature.
Recently, some works have been done on novel
thermoplastic alternatives as electrical insulation of
extruded cable. The replacements for XLPE for next
generation of extruded cable can be divided into ethylene
and propylene system. For the ethylene system, high
density polyethylene (LDPE) and its blends [1], high
density polyethylene (HDPE) and its blends [2], and
LDPE/HDPE blends [3] were investigated. It was found
that LDPE and HDPE have lower operating temperature
than that of polypropylene and meanwhile HDPE is rigid
for cable to install and have to be blended with elastomer.
Another potential material system for cable is
polypropylene (PP) due to the fact that PP has higher
melting temperature point resulting in high mechanical
performance. However, a series of experiments on
isotactic polypropylene (iPP) described that iPP was a stiff
material and lack suitable flexibility at room temperature
for incorporation into the cable. To solve this, researchers
studied propylene-based co-polymers [4] and alloys [5].
The addition of the elastomer into PP is an effective way
to toughen PP. Vistamaxx is a novel Propylene ethylene
rubber (PER), in which propylene content is over 70%. It
has excellent elastomeric properties, is easy to process
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.22
and is more compatible with PP than other ethylene-
based elastomers.
On the other hand, the accumulation of space charge in
HVDC cables is the most tough problem bringing an
insulation to failure [6]. Many researchers reported that
the addition of nanometer oxides can improve the space
charge distribution. Considering the fact that ZnO is a
significant ultraviolet absorption and an important
semiconductor material. Great interest is to be attributed
to study the suppression effect and mechanism of space
charge in PP/PER/ZnO nanocomposites.
In this study, PP/PER/ZnO ternary nanocomposites were
prepared by mechanical blending. First, the dispersion
and morphology of PP/PER/ZnO nanocomposites were
observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Furthermore, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and
dynamic mechanical thermal analyzer (DMA) were
adopted to determine whether the nanocomposites were
suitable for recyclable power cables. In addition, pulsed
electro-acoustic (PEA) experiments were carried out to
evaluate space charge distributions. Finally, X-ray
diffraction (XRD) patterns were applied to reveal the
microscopic mechanism of space charge suppression of
PP/PER/ZnO nanocomposites.
EXPERIMENTS
MATERIALS
Commercial isotactic polypropylene T30s was a product
of Maoming Petrochemical Company. It has a melt flow
3
index of 3 g per 10 min and density of 0.9 g/cm . PER
VISTAMAXX 6102 (Exxon Mobil Chemical Company) was
used to toughen PP. ZnO nanoparticles with an average
diameter of about 50 nm was supplied by Aladdin.
PREPARATION OF NANOCOMPOSITES
PP/PER/ZnO ternary composites were prepared by melt-
blending in a Hapro mixer. The cavity temperatures were
set at 453 K for 30 min and a rotor speed of 60 r/min was
used. The concentration of the PER in all the
PP/PER/ZnO blends was 40 wt% and the ZnO
concentration was 0.5, 1, 3 and 5 phr, respectively. As
references, PP/PER binary blends with the same POE
mass fraction as those in ternary composites were
prepared using the same mixer. Their compositions are
listed in Table 1.
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F2.22 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.22

Table 1: Compositions of the composites. PP/PER/ZnO (60/40/5) blends. The dark holes represent
PER phase, which was etched by n-heptane. It suggests
Composition (weight ratio) that good compatibility between PP and PER. Dispersion
Abbreviation
PP PER ZnO of the ZnO nanoparticles in PP/PER/ZnO (60/40/5) is
PP 100 0 0 presented in Fig 1b. As showed by the image, the ZnO
PER 0 100 0 nanoparticles are uniformly distributed in ternary
composite and a few large agglomerates can be
PP/PER 60 40 0
observed.
0.5phr 60 40 0.5
1phr 60 40 1 THERMAL ANALYSIS
3phr 60 40 3
Firstly, the thermal history was estimated by heating
5phr 60 40 5 process. It can be seen from Fig. 2a that the addition of
PER would decrease the melting point of PP slightly. The
incorporation of nano-ZnO into PER-toughened PP
The obtained nanocomposites were manufactured by hot showed the increasing melting point with the increasing
pressing. Preparation of 300 µm films were pre-melted by nano particles content. In addition, a weak peak at around
using curing press at 200 °C for 10 min, pressed under a 145 °C attributed the melting temperature of β crystal form
pressure of ~ 20 MPa for 10 min, and then they were of PP phase was observed in 1phr and 3phr although the
pressed at 25°C under a pressure of ~ 5 MPa for a further thermal history of samples has been eliminated.
10 min.
All samples were sandwiched between two pieces of
cover steel plate under short circuit state and annealed at
135 °C for 2 h in the vacuum chamber in order to estimate
the residual stress.

CHARACTERISATION
To observe the dispersibility of elastomers and ZnO
nanoparticles in PP matrix, SEM images of the etched
cross section for morphological investigation were
examined at 10 kV in an ultra-high resolution HITACHI
8010 instrument. The etched cross sections were coated
with platinum. DSC of ~ 5 mg samples was undertaken
under nitrogen atmosphere at a heating/cooling rate of 10
°C/min between 20 and 200 °C by using a TA Q2000
instrument. DMTA was conducted by a TA Q800
instrument. The investigated samples of 20mm×10mm
area were cooled to -100°C and heated to 150°C with a
heating rate of 3°C /min in a flow of nitrogen under a
strain-controlled sinusoidal tensile, and loaded at a
frequency of 1Hz and a strain of 0.01 %.
The space charge measurement was carried out with PEA
system with Lecroy WaveRunner 610Zi (1 GHz, 10 GS/s
digital oscilloscope). The dc electrical field of 60 kV/mm,
electric pulse with an amplitude of 800 V and duration of 7
ns is applied to the plate samples for 30min. The
piezoelectric transducer of polyvinylidene fluoride PVDF
film with thickness of 40 µm, is used to detect the acoustic
signal and to change it into an electric signal. Calibration
for overshoot [7] due to the non-linear phase distortion is
completed by signal processing.
A D8 advance diffract meter (Rigaku, Japan) equipped Fig. 1: (a) Low and (b) high magnification SEM images
with a CuKα tube was employed to investigate the of PP/PER/ZnO(60/40/5) nanocomposite.
crystalline form of the samples over a range of diffraction
angle 2θ = 10 ∼ 30°. The effect of the ZnO content on the crystallization
behavior of PP/PER blend is shown in Fig. 2b. The
presence of small amounts of nano-ZnO in the PP/PER
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
blend increased the crystallization temperature. In
DISPERSION AND MORPHOLOGY particular, the crystallization temperature of PP/PER was
significantly increased from 115.1 to 126.1 °C in the
Prior to the study of the nanocomposites, the information PP/PER/ZnO with a relatively high loading of ZnO at 5
about the phase structure and dispersibility of phr. It suggests that the introduction of nano-ZnO filler into
nanoparticles should be investigated first. As shown in the PP/PER matrix has a strong heterogeneous
Fig. 1a, two-phase morphology is clearly visible in nucleation effect.

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F2.22 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.22

Table 2: DSC characteristics of composites. temperature. The HVDC cable is generally installed in the
ambient temperature and operates in high temperature.
Sample Tm(°C) Tc(°C) Therefore, it is necessary to focus on the mechanical
properties at room and high temperature. As shown in Fig.
PP 160.5 115.1 3a, blending PP with novel elastomer PER results in a
remarkable decrease in the storage modulus both at room
PP/PER 159.5 115.1
temperature, providing a way to improve the impact
0.5phr 159.6 115.1 resistance of PP. The effects of the nano-ZnO content on
1phr 160.2 116.5 the storage modulus of the PP/PER matrix are also
illustrated in Fig. 3a. Conversely, the addition of nano ZnO
3phr 161.7 123.3 has led to increasing storage modulus of matrix at the
5phr 162.6 126.1 investigated temperature. It is due to the fact that the
chain mobility of PP molecules was reduced by the nano
ZnO.
The melting temperature (Tm), crystallization temperature The glass transition temperature (Tg) was estimated by
(Tc) of components are summarized in Table 2. The Tm taking the maximum value of the loss modulus versus
and Tc of nanocomposites increase with the content of temperature. Fig. 3b shows that the loss modulus as a
ZnO. Therefore, PP/PER/ZnO nanocomposites appear to function of temperature for the samples. As shown in Fig.
be candidates of HVDC cable, at least from the point of 3b, one clearly resolved peak was evident for PP itself in
view of their melting and crystallization behaviors. the temperature range examined, centered at about 5°C
and derived from the glass transition of the PP amorphous
phase. In addition, it can be seen that the addition of PER
into PP remarkably decreased its Tg due to the low Tg of
PER. Furthermore, it is clear that the incorporation of
nano-ZnO into PP/PER blend cannot basically change the
glass transition temperature of PP/PER.

(a) The melting curves of the composites.

a) Effect of PER and nano ZnO content on the storage

modulus of composites.

(b) The crystallization curves of the composites.

Fig. 2: DSC spectrum of composites.

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL AND THERMAL

CHARACTERISTICS
b) Effect of PER and nano ZnO content on the loss
One of the major weakness of both PP and PP modulus of composites.
nanocomposites is brittleness at room temperatures,
because of the relatively high glass transition Fig. 3: DMA characteristic of composites.

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F2.22 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.22

Fig. 5: Space charge distribution during polarization in (a) PP, (b) PP/PER, (c) 0.5phr, (d) 1phr, (e) 3phr, (f) 5phr
subjected to a dc electric field of 60 kV/mm for 30 min.

SPACE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

Fig. 6: Electrical field distribution during polarization
in (a) PP, (b) PP/PER.
Fig. 5 show the space charge distribution at the poling
temperature of 20 °C as a function of poling time. In neat
PP, larger amounts of electrons are injected into bulk
forming homo-space charge near cathode. In PP/PER
blend, homo-charge accumulates near the cathode soon
after the electric field is applied while large amounts of
hetero-charge around the cathode with a maximum
3
density of about 10 C/m are formed after 1800 s. It is
believed that hetero-charge come from the ionization of
impurities in PER. Fig.6 shows that the distortion of
electric field in the bulk of PP and PP/PER due to the
factors such as hetero-charge formed in the materials and
homo-charge injected from electrodes.
For nanocomposites, no obvious space charge is
observed near cathode in 0.5phr. However, in 1phr, 3phr
and 5phr, observable homo-space charge accumulation
has been largely mitigated by nanofillers. Meanwhile, no
evidence homo-space charge accumulation around anode
in both PP/PER and the nanocomposites.

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 4/6

F2.22 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPACE CHARGE
AND CRYSTALLINE FORM
Table 3: Characteristic XRD peaks and corresponding
crystallographic planes of PP.
2θ α-Form β-Form
14.1 (110)
16.0 （300）
16.8 (040)
18.4 (130)
21.0 (131)
21.8 (111)
25.0 (060)
In the case of isotactic PP there are four well-known
crystal structures: monoclinic (α), trigonal (β), triclinic (γ),
and smectic (δ) form depending on the melting history,
crystallization temperature, pressure and cooling rate as
well as presence of a doping material. The most common
is the a-form. The known values for the characteristic
XRD pattern of isotactic polypropylene and the
corresponding crystallographic planes are summarized in
Table 3.
XRD patterns of PP/PER and its nanocomposites at
various ZnO loadings are showed in Fig. 7, respectively.
Six peaks are present in the XRD pattern of neat PP/PER
that correspond to the a-form crystals. This result
indicates that the addition of PER did not influence the
structure of the PP crystals form. The presence of nano-
ZnO into PP/PER induced the formation of β form crystal
of PP phase (at 2θ = 16°shown by the arrows in Fig. 7)
which is absent from PP/PER pattern, corresponding to
the DSC results. It improves the mechanical property
considering that in the case of PP the β form has higher
impact strength and toughness than α-form. Nevertheless,
there are no obvious rise of β form crystal with the
increasing ZnO content indicating saturation of the β form
crystal nucleating ability of ZnO.
Fig. 7: XRD spectra of the matrix and PP/PER/ZnO
nanocomposites.
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.22
Considering the results of space charge in all
nanocomposites, it can be concluded that β form crystal
can suppress the ionization of impurities in PP/PER/ZnO
nanocomposites. It implies that ZnO doping results in the
decrease of the average size of spherule size due to
transformation of α-β crystal structure. The improvement
of space charge distribution in PP/PER/ZnO can be
explained as the result of the dissipation of charges
through boundary regions of smaller spherulites due to
the transformation of α-β crystal structure [8].
CONCLUSIONS
The effects of nano-ZnO loadings on the morphology,
mechanical, thermal properties, space charge behaviors
and crystal structure of PP/PER blends have been
investigated. It is believed that this nanocomposite has
the potential as the candidate insulation for future eco-
friendly extruded HVDC cable. The results of DSC and
XRD measurements indicate that β crystal structure have
been formed. The reduction of space charges in the
nanocoposites can be explained as the result of the
dissipation of charges through boundary regions of
smaller spherulites due to the transformation of α-β crystal
structure. However, when the content of ZnO increases,
the amount of the accumulated homo-space charge in the
ternary nanocomposites increases slightly. It will be
discussed in more detail in following research.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the National Basic
Research Program of China (973 Project) under grant
2014CB239504.
REFERENCES
[1] I. L. Hosier, A. S. Vaughan and S. G. Swingler, 2010,
"An investigation of the potential of ethylene vinyl
acetate/polyethylene blends for use in recyclable high
voltage cable insulation systems", Journal of
Materials Science, vol. 45, 2747-2759.
[2] Jung-Hun Kwon, Min-Hye Park, Kee-Joe Lim, Hyung-
Kyu Lee, 2012, "Investigation on electrical
characteristics of HDPE mixed with EVA applied for
recycleable power cable insulation", Condition
Monitoring and Diagnosis, CMD, 1039-1042.
[3] C. D. Green, A. S. Vaughan, G. C. Stevens, S. J.
Sutton, T. Geussens, and M. J. Fairhurst, 2013,
"Recyclable power cable comprising a blend of slow-
crystallized polyethylenes", IEEE Transactions on
Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, vol. 20, 1-9.
[4] I. L. Hosier, L. Cozzarini, A. S. Vaughan, and S. G.
Swingler, 2009, "Propylene based systems for high
voltage cable insulation applications", Journal of
Physics: Conference Series, vol. 183, 012015.
[5] I. L. Hosier, A. S. Vaughan and S. G. Swingler, 2011,
"An investigation of the potential of polypropylene and
its blends for use in recyclable high voltage cable
insulation systems", Journal of Materials Science, vol.
46, 4058-4070.
[6] Montanari, Gian Carlo, 2011, "Bringing an insulation
to failure: the role of space charge", Dielectrics and
5/6
F2.22 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.22

Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 18,

339-364.
[7] IEC Technical Specification, 2012, “Calibration of
space charge measuring equipment based on pulsed
electro-acoustic measurement principle”, IEC TS
62758.
[8] Lin, Yijian, Weichuan Du, Demin Tu, Wei Zhong and
Qiangguo Du, 2005, "Space charge distribution and
crystalline structure in low density polyethylene
(LDPE) blended with high density polyethylene
(HDPE)", Polymer international, vol. 54, 465-470.

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F2.23 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.23

Estimating the losses in three-core submarine power cables using 2D and

3D FEA simulations

Sebastian STURM, Johannes PAULUS; University of applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt, Germany,

Sebastian.Sturm@fhws.de, Johannes.Paulus@fhws.de
Karl-Ludwig ABKEN; Norddeutsche Seekabelwerke GmbH /General Cable, Nordenham, Germany;
Karl-Ludwig.Abken@nsw.com
Frank BERGER; Ilmenau University of Technology, Ilmenau, Germany; Frank.Berger@tu-ilmenau.de

ABSTRACT
2D and 3D FEA (Finite Element Analysis) simulation
models are described and the solutions are discussed in
comparison with the losses calculated according to IEC
60287. 2D FEA results have already shown significantly
lower armour losses than IEC ones although the
compensation of circulating currents in armour wires due
to opposed stranding is not considered that way. Armour
wire losses calculated by means of 3D FEA are even
lower but through interaction of occurring losses shield
losses increase. The influence of different magnetic
permeability of steel wires and material temperatures is
estimated to get an overview of developing losses. Finally,
all calculated losses are compared and assessed.

KEYWORDS
IEC 60287-1-1; armour losses; three-core submarine Fig. 1: 3D FEA Simulation model of submarine power
power cable; FEM/FEA cable
As a necessary simplification the copper wires of the
conductors have to be summarized to reduce the
INTRODUCTION complexity of the simulation model and thus the number
of mesh elements. The complex stranding of single
Several recent publications have described and discussed copper wires in Milliken conductors and additionally the
the losses in armour wires of three-core submarine power unknown contacts are easier manageable by
cables [1] – [4]. Especially in case of larger cables they measurements than by FEA calculations. Undeniably,
seem to be much lower than calculated using the IEC there is small difference because of the changed current
60287 standard. Different approaches with measurements distribution due to stranding of copper wires but here it is
and simulations were made to investigate the losses in assumed that the effects due to electric and magnetic
submarine power cables and the results clearly outline a fields are similar for both massive and Milliken
too high loss factor λ2. Thanks to large computation conductors. Stranding of conductors and armour wires is
resources 3D FEA calculations with a huge amount of opposed and for both the pitch is in the range of a few
mesh elements can be performed and evaluated. The metres. Sufficient simulation model length is chosen so
simulations are done for a three-core submarine power that each armour wire crosses every conductor one time.
cable with copper conductors and a cross section of In Table 1 the used material properties are listed.
2
1200 mm , screen is made of lead while armour consists
of wires of ferritic steel. Consequently several Conductivity Magnetic
Cross section
at 20°C permeability
investigations were performed to estimate occurring (mm2)
(S/m) µr
losses in consideration of magnetic permeability of armour
wires and cable temperatures. Conductor 5.8 107 1200 1
Screen 4.67 106 820 1
6
Armour 7.25 10 3350 50, 300, f(B)
SIMULATION MODEL Semiconductor 2 - 1
The 3D FEA model consisting of conductors (A), screens Other
0 - 1
(B) and armour wires (C) is shown in Fig. 1. It is evident components
that all metallic components interacting with magnetic Table 1: Material and geometrical properties used in
fields have to be considered. Other parts, namely FEA simulations
semiconducting sheets, optical fibres with surrounding The material properties are according to IEC 60287-1-1.
metal wires and XLPE fillers are neglected here. Investigations with higher temperatures are performed
with conductivities determined by temperature coefficients

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F2.23 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.23

as recommended in IEC, too. Different material LOSSES ACCORDING TO IEC STANDARD

parameters for magnetic permeability µr are considered.
In cable applications a wide range of different steels with In loss calculations according to the IEC standard, skin
changing properties is conceivable. As the following and proximity effect dependent conductor losses are
results show, magnetic permeability has a significant calculated and using equations (1) and (2), the amount of
influence on losses in armour wires and other screen and armour losses is determined.
components. As a matter of fact the magnetic permeability
is not constant but changes with magnetic flux density. In (1)
separate FEA models the flux density dependent
magnetic permeability is investigated. A curve is
determined from measured hysteresis values of steel (2)
wires. Fig. 2 shows the magnetic permeability as a
function of flux density. PS and PA are screen and armour losses while P is the
sum of losses in conductors. The equations used for λ1
Flux density dependent magnetic permeability µr
and λ2 are given in [6]. The sum of the losses per meter
350 with a load of 1000 A per conductor for the investigated
300
submarine cable is plotted in Fig. 4. At first the losses for
a constant cable temperature of 20 °C are shown in the
Magnetic permeability (-)

250 left respectively for a conductor temperature of 90 °C in

200
the right bar. Here the screen temperature is 80 °C while
the armour temperature is set to 60 °C. Temperatures in
150 cable components are dependent on thermal
100
conductivities of the cable, ambient conditions and power
losses. The temperatures in screen and armour are
50 estimated according to [7]. However, a precise calculation
of temperatures is only possible if all thermal conditions
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 and losses are exactly known. Therefore the used
Magnetic flux density (T)
temperatures are in a realistic order but not exact.

Fig. 2: Permeability as a function of magnetic flux Losses according to IEC Standard

160
density
140
Therefore the term f(B) means a flux density dependent 37.9
120 32.9
and thus indirectly conductor current dependent magnetic
permeability of steel wires. The additional two-
Losses (W/m)

100

dimensional simulations were performed with the model 80 43.1

34.9 Armour
Screens
seen in Fig. 3. Conductors
60

40
70.4
60.1
20

0
IEC ϑConductor = 20°C IEC ϑConductor = 90 °C
λ1 = 0.72 λ1 = 0.5
λ2 = 0.55 λ2 = 0.54

1
Fig. 4: Losses in a three-core submarine power cable
As it can be seen, screen and armour losses play a
significant role as they are in the same order of magnitude
as the losses in the conductors. Conductor losses
increase with higher temperatures due to lower
conductivity whereas screen losses decrease. Armour
losses increase as well, but in fact there is no
considerable difference in loss factor because conductor
losses increase at the same time. In accordance with the

Fig. 3: Two-dimensional simulation model 1

Estimated losses are for round conductors with kp and
Two-dimensional analyses can be performed much faster ks = 1. To estimate losses of Milliken conductors, smaller
in comparison to the three-dimensional ones but the factors are used so conductor losses are lower. However,
results do not completely reflect reality. A simplified screen and armour losses remain the same due to
approach to consider the mutual compensation of induced correspondingly higher estimated loss factors. Purely
circulating currents is presented in [1]. In the case at physical consideration confirms that fact. Armour and
hand, three dimensional simulations were used to screen losses are caused by the current flowing through a
evaluate the simplified two-dimensional results. conductor so, consequentially, these losses are not
affected by the amount of losses which occur in the
conductor.

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F2.23 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.23

results presented in [4] and [5], a maximum of armour and Losses for 2D, 3D FEA and according to IEC
screen losses can be expected considering a temperature ϑconductor = 20 °C

dependent material resistivity. 160

Conductor
140 Screen
Armour
2D AND 3D FEA RESULTS 120 32.9
9.3

Losses (W/m)
100
In Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 the FEA results are pictured and 24.2 4.9 14.1
80 40.3 43.1
further the 2D and 3D simulations are discussed. Losses 24.5
33.4
26.8
with regard to volume are plotted as a graphical surface 60

where only parts with losses have been visualized. 40

58.5 59.5 58.7 61.3 60.1
20

0
2D FEA 3D FEA 2D FEA 3D FEA IEC
λ1 = 0.42 λ1 = 0.56 λ1 = 0.46 λ1 = 0.66 λ1 = 0.72
λ2 = 0.41 λ2 = 0.08 λ2 = 0.24 λ2 = 0.15 λ2 = 0.55
µr = 50 µr = 300 -

Fig. 7: Comparison of simulated and estimated losses

for an overall temperature of 20 °C
The overall temperature is 20 °C. The losses that occur
for higher temperatures are more interesting and therefore
further calculations were executed.
Losses for 2D, 3D FEA and according to IEC
ϑconductor = 90 °C
160
Conductor
140 Screen
Armour 37.9
120
9.2
Fig. 5: Calculated distribution of two-dimensional loss
Losses (W/m)

100 24.2 4.7 14.6

3
density (W/m ) T = 20 °C; µr = 50 80 21.7
28 22.8
34.4 34.9

All material properties are used as listed in Table 1 and 60

the current per conductor is set to 1000 A (corresponding 40

69 69.7 69 71.9 70.4
to the calculation of IEC losses). The influence of skin and 20
proximity effect can clearly be seen. Screen losses in the
0
inner regions are lower than in the outer ones and the 2D FEA 3D FEA 2D FEA 3D FEA IEC

characteristic distribution in conductors occurs as λ1 = 0.31 λ1 = 0.4 λ1 = 0.33 λ1 = 0.48 λ1 = 0.49

expected. λ2 = 0.35 λ2 = 0.07 λ2 = 0.21 λ2 = 0.13 λ2 = 0.54

µr = 50 µr = 300 -

Fig. 8: Comparison of simulated and estimated losses

Fig. 6: Calculated distribution of three-dimensional
3
loss density (W/m ) µr = 50
The same graphical range is used for 2D and 3D FEA
solution. As it can be interpreted by the pictures, in
general loss distributions are similar - as they should be -
but the amount of losses, especially in conductors and
armour wires differs. The evaluated losses for all
components are compared to IEC estimated losses in Fig.
7 and Fig. 8.
for temperatures of 90 °C, (conductor) 80 °C (screen)
and 60 °C (armour)
Obviously temperature increase results in higher
conductor losses while screen losses decrease as
expected. Contrary to IEC standard, armour losses
decrease respectively the losses are not considerably
affected. In this context it is interesting that each sum of
all 3D FEA losses is nearly the same as calculated with
constant temperatures of 20 °C. Nevertheless inner
losses are more critical than outer ones due to low
thermal conductivity of insulating materials. Comparing
the figures of screen losses, considerably lower FEA
results can be seen than calculated by IEC, except for a
magnetic permeability of 300 (see Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 3D
FEA µr = 300) where values are nearly identical. 3D FEA
armour losses are low compared to losses according to
the standard and even 2D FEA armour losses are
noticeably smaller. The difference of 2D and 3D FEA
armour losses gives an impression about the amount of
circulating currents compared to eddy currents. Due to the
compensation of circulating currents in 3D FEA models,
armour losses must be caused by eddy currents. As a
further interesting fact, screen losses increase due to the
interaction of induced currents in the components. Missing
circulating currents in amour wires, as in reality, result in
larger circulating screen currents. Increasing screen

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F2.23 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.23

losses through higher magnetic permeability (compare 3D

FEA µr = 50 and 3D FEA µr = 300) can be determined 3D FEA Loss factors λ1 at 20 °C
confirming results of other authors [1]. The losses in 0.8
armour and screen calculated with IEC standard and FEA
are plotted as a function of conductor current in Fig. 9 and
Fig. 10. In both diagrams all losses are for an overall 0.6
temperature of 20 °C.

Comparison of 2D, 3D FEA and IEC results - µr = 50 - IEC

50 0.4
µr = 50
3D FEA Armour
µr = 300
3D FEA Screen
40 µr = f(B)
2D FEA Armour
0.2
2D FEA Screen
Losses (W/m)

IEC Armour
30 IEC Screen

0.0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
20
Conductor current (A)

10
Fig. 11: Loss factor λ1 calculated wit 3D FEA

3D FEA Loss factors λ2 at 20 °C

0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0.6
Conductor Current (A)

Fig. 9: Comparison of screen and armour losses.

Magnetic permeability µr = 50
0.4 IEC
Comparison of 2D, 3D FEA and IEC results - µr = 300 -
50 µr = 50

µr = 300
3D FEA Armour
3D FEA Screen µr = f(B)
40
2D FEA Armour 0.2
2D FEA Screen
Losses (W/m)

IEC Armour
30 IEC Screen

20 0.0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Conductor current (A)

10
Fig. 12: Loss factor λ2 calculated wit 3D FEA

0
400 500 600 700
Conductor Current (A)
Fig. 10: Comparison of screen and armour losses.
Magnetic permeability µr = 300
Results are shown for a magnetic permeability µr of steel
wires of 50 respectively 300. In case of armour wire
permeability of 50 the 2D FEA armour and screen losses
are nearly of the same magnitude. The marks show the
3D FEA losses which are calculated for three different
conductor currents. The 3D FEA losses are approximately
15 % (µr = 50) and 25 % (µr = 300) of the IEC losses
whereas the screen losses are about 60 to ~ 100 % of the
IEC ones. Another interesting point is the comparison of
the estimated loss factors λ1 and λ2. The following figures
(Fig. 11 and Fig. 12) show the loss factors for different
magnetic permeability at 20 °C.
When applying an overall equal temperature and a
800 900 1000 constant magnetic permeability, loss factors are the same
for the whole current range as well as they are in the IEC
standard. Implementing a magnetic field dependent
permeability according to Fig. 2 results in a slightly
changing loss factor λ2 with increasing conductor current,
but the magnitude of loss factor is nearly identical to the
values of µr = 50. In case of lower conductor currents, the
calculated loss factor λ1 is noticeably lower than for higher
ones. Curves of loss factors for higher temperatures have
the same shape, only the amount of these loss factors
differs according to calculated losses. However, for higher
currents (i.e. for a cable operating in the range it is
designed for) there is no meaningful difference in loss
factors λ2 and λ1 when applying a flux dependent
permeability. Fig. 13 gives an overview of the estimated
loss factors for different conditions.

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F2.23 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.23

Loss factors λ1 and λ2

REFERENCES
0.8
[1] J: J. Bremnes, G. Evenset, R. Stolan, 2010, "Power
0.7
λ1 λ2 loss and inductance of steel armoured multi-core
0.6 cables: comparison of IEC vaues with “2,5D” FEA
0.5
results and measurements", paper B1 116 2010,
Cigre Session 2010 Paris
0.4
[2] D. Palmgreen, J. Karlstrand, G. Henning, 2011,
0.3 "Armour loss in three-core submarine XLPE cables",
0.2 Jicable´11 2011 Versailles
0.1 [3] M.M. Hatlo, J.J. Bremnes, 2014, “Current dependent
armour loss in three-core cables: comparison of FEA
0.0
µr = 50 µr = 300 µr = 50 µr = 300 results and measurements”, paper B1-306, Cigre
3D FEA IEC 3D FEA IEC Session 2014 Paris
(20°C) (90 °C)
[4] E. Kuffel, J. Poltz, 1981, “AC LOSSES IN
Fig. 13: Overview of loss factors CROSSBONDED AND BONDED AT BOTH ENDS
HIGH VOLTAGE CABLES” IEEE Transactions on
The summarized calculated values clearly show the Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No. 1
overestimated armour loss factor λ2 in IEC. Additionally, [5] O. E. Gouda, A. A. Farag, “Factors Affecting the
the screen loss factor λ1 is slightly overestimated for some Sheath Losses in Single-Core Underground Power
parameters. Magnetic permeability affects loss factors in Cables with Two-Points Bonding Method”
similar orders as temperature gradients do. International Journal of Electrical and Computer
Engineering (IJECE) Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2012,
pp. 7~16, ISSN: 2088-8708
CONCLUSIONS [6] IEC 60287 “Electric cables - Calculation of the current
rating Part 1-1”
FEA simulations confirm former assumptions and [7] IEC 60287-2-1 “Electric cables – Calculation of the
measurements regarding too high loss factors λ2 of three- current rating – Part 2”
core submarine power cables when calculated according
to IEC. 2D FEA simulations results already show
noticeable lower armour losses, while more realistic 3D
FEA values clearly underline the overestimated loss factor
λ2. Additionally, screen losses are lower than calculated,
but the difference is smaller and dependent on armour
wire parameters. Calculated 2D FEA screen losses are
lower than expected because of compensation of induced
currents in screens due to, in the model, circulating
currents in armour wires which do not occur in reality. Of
course losses in cables are temperature dependent. An
approximately proportional reduction of losses in screens
with a temperature increase can be found in FEA
calculations as well as in values according to IEC. When
comparing FED and IEC armour losses at a temperature
change deviating results can be observed. On one hand,
calculated armour losses due to FEA are much less
affected by temperature changes than according to IEC.
On the other hand, with exception of one value, armour
losses decrease (slightly) with temperature rise, contrary
to IEC. Magnetic flux density dependent magnetic
permeability results in conductor dependent armour and
screen losses but the values for an implemented function
determined by measurement were similar to a constant
permeability of 50.

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F2.24 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.24

Thermal impedance of insulated overhead power cables heated by joule

losses and solar radiation

Alexandros Saverio TOSCANO, Panagiotis CHATZIPANAGIOTOU, Ioannis PAPAGIANNOPOULOS; Department of

Electrical and Computer Engineering Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece, alexandros.toscano@gmail.com,
chatzipa@auth.gr, ipapagia@auth.gr
Gilbert DE MEY; Department of Electronics and Information Systems Ghent University, Belgium,
Gilbert.DeMey@elis.UGent.be
Boguslaw WIECEK; Institute of Electronics Technical University of Lodz, Poland, boguslaw.wiecek@p.lodz.pl,
Witold MARANDA, Andrzej NAPIERALSKI; Department of Microelectronics and Computer Science Technical University of
Lodz, Poland, maranda@dmcs.p.lodz.pl, napier@dmcs.pl

ABSTRACT
In this paper a dynamic thermal analysis of overhead
power cables will be presented. The thermal properties
are represented by thermal impedances rather than
thermal resistances so that dynamic phenomena can be
taken into account. Two kinds of heat sources will be
taken into account: first of the all the Joule losses in the
cable and secondly the additional heating due to sun
radiation on the electric insulation of the cable.
Joule losses in the cable and secondly the incident solar
radiation falling on the cable. It may be surprising that
both powers can be of the same order of magnitude. For a
typical cable joule losses of 50 W/m have been reported.
On the other hand if the cable with insulation has a
diameter of 25 mm the incident solar power will be 25
2
W/m under full sunshine conditions (1000 W/m ). Hence,
the heat from joule losses and incident solar radiation can
be comparable.

KEYWORDS Also a dynamic analysis will be performed as well. Hence,

Insulated overhead power cable, thermal impedance,
Nyquist plots, joule losses, solar radiation
INTRODUCTION
Several papers have been devoted to the study of thermal
fields in overhead power cables. In [1] Makhkamova et al
present results from an application of a CFD technique for
determination of the thermal state of a Lynx overhead
conductor. The thermal state of the Lynx conductor is
mainly defined by the magnitude of the transmitted
electrical current, ambient temperature, wind velocity and
its direction and also by solar radiation. Cimini and
Fonseca evaluate in [2] the effect of progressive
Aluminum wire rupture on the temperature profile of an
ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced) overhead
electrical conductor, not only on the section of the
damage but also along the length of the conductor. In [3],
a probabilistic static thermal rating method based on
typical weather conditions along a transmission line is
described and analyzed. In [4], Schläpfer and Mancarella
present a probabilistic modeling and simulation
methodology for estimating the occurrence of critical line
temperatures in the presence of fluctuating power flows.
Cecchi et al [5] are deal with a transmission-line modeling
approach that incorporates available ambient temperature
information and propose a model with multiple nonuniform
segments in order to capture the nonuniformity of line
parameters caused by temperature gradients. In [6],
Koufakis et al present a fire model that allows the
estimation of the temperature rise of the conductors
during a wildfire. Liu [7] proposes an analytical method –
concerning that the cables in a bundle can be loaded with
different currents and the heat-source density does not
have to be uniform in all conductors - of calculating the
steady-state and transient temperature rises.
In this paper a dynamic thermal analysis of electrically
insulated overhead power cables will be given. Two kinds
of heat sources are taken into account. First of all, the
thermal impedances instead of thermal resistances will be
calculated.
In this contribution two temperatures will be taken into
account. First of all, the temperature in the centre of the
cable is monitored. This is the maximum temperature
which is the most important from reliability point of view.
Secondly, the temperature at the outer side of the
electrical insulation facing the incident sun radiation is
calculated as well. This temperature is normally measured
when thermographic inspections of overhead cables are
carried out. Hence it is essential to know how much the
surface temperature of the electric insulation as measured
by the thermographic camera can give us information
about the core temperature of the cable.
THE USE OF THERMAL IMPEDANCES
Generally thermal problems related to power overhead
cables are described under steady state conditions. The
same statement holds for underground cables as well.
This approach implies that the generated power losses
are assumed to be constant in time and hence a constant
or slowly varying temperature is obtained. The thermal
problem can then be fully described by a thermal
resistance Rth.
Fig. 1: Solar energy with a lot of fluctuations during
one day

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F2.24 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.24

Fig. 2: Solar energy without any fluctuation during

one day
It has been proved that often a thermal impedance Zth is
more convenient or even necessary to describe the
temperature variations [8][9][10][11]. Although the thermal
time constant of an overhead cable can be relatively high,
the load variation and so the joule losses can vary rapidly.
As a consequence the cable temperature shows rapid
variations as well.
In this paper a related problem will be attacked. In many
countries the sunshine fluctuates a lot even when the
amount of solar energy is high. For such a typical day,
experimental measurements are shown in Fig.1. These
measurements were obtained in Lodz, Poland located at
o
51.7 latitude. A sensor was used to detect the amount of
incident solar energy. The sensor was put at an inclination
of 45 degrees oriented to the south. The incident solar
energy was measured every 200 ms, which makes these
results quite unique. As one can see in Fig.1, the solar
energy fluctuates a lot but the peak values are around
2 carried out using a power step for the Joule losses giving
1000 W/m which proves that it was rather nice weather.
The rapid variations were due to clouds at high altitude
passing in front of the sun. Several times a variation of
2
even 500 W/m /s was measured. If an overhead cable is
illuminated by such kind of solar irradiation, one may
expect that the temperature of the insulation and also of
the centre point will vary a lot. Thermal characterization
can then only be done using thermal impedance.
For the sake of comparison, similar results are shown in
Fig.2 but for another day with bright sunshine and almost
no variations. Remark that the peak value in Fig.2 (800
2
W/m ) is less than the peak value observed in Fig.1.
A cross section of the simulated cable is shown in Fig.3.
The material properties are listed in Table 1. Two kinds of
heat sources are taken into account:
• the Joule losses in the core of the cable (PJ W/m) and
• the power on the surface RSP due to solar irradiance
(PS W/m).
Fig. 3: Cross sectional view of the cable
BASIC ANALYSIS
The Joule losses are assumed to be homogeneously
distributed over the core. For the solar power heating, a
cosθ law along RSP has been used to represent the heat
production per unit area (Fig.3). Obviously, for the shadow
region PQR this kind of heat generation was set equal to
zero. Furthermore, the incident solar irradiance was set to
2
1000 W/m so that a worst case situation is investigated
here. For the Joule losses a total power of 50 W/m was
used. Two temperatures have been evaluated: TC in the
centre of the core and TS on the surface of the isolation
facing the incident solar radiation (Fig.3).
The COMSOL multiphysics software was used to carry
out the simulations. A time dependent simulation was
rise to a core temperature TC (t). From this step response
the thermal impedance is calculated by [12]
(1)
Obviously, a similar evaluation can be carried out by using
the temperature TS(t) for a given solar power step PS. The
numerical evaluation of the integral (1) is done with the
Filon integration method [13].
The thermal impedance is a complex quantity involving a
real and an imaginary part, both being frequency
dependent. Software packages like COMSOL do not allow
complex calculations for thermal problems. Only for
electromagnetic problems complex calculations were
made possible. Therefore we have first to calculate the
step response which is a classical time dependent thermal
problem followed by the numerical evaluation of the
integral (1).

K ρ Cp Cv R
Material/properties 3 3
W/m K Kg/m J/Kg K MJ/m K mm
Al core 200 2707 905 2.449 4
Half conducting layer 0.5 905 1900 1.719 4.15
XLPE 0.2857 905 1900 1.719 9.65
Half conducting layer 0.5 905 1900 1.719 10.76
Cu sheet 400 8960 385 3.440 11
PVC 0.166 900 1760 1.584 13.6
Table 1: Data of the medium voltage cable

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F2.24 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.24

NUMERICAL RESULTS
Thermal impedances have been calculated and the
results are represented in the so called Nyquist plots. The
imaginary part of Zth is then represented as a function of
the real part using the angular frequency ω as a
parameter.
Several Nyquist plots of thermal impedances have been
drawn in Fig.4. Let us first concentrate on the plots ZCC
and ZSS. ZCC has been evaluated from the core
temperature TC if only Joule losses are involved. As a
matter of fact ZCC represents the true thermal impedance
of the Al core. Similarly ZSS was obtained from the
temperature TS in the point S (Fig.3), due to solar
irradiation without any Joule losses in the cable. ZSS can
then be considered as the impedance of the point S,
although the heat production in this case is spread over a
half cylindrical surface RSP. The Nyquist plot of ZCC is Fig. 4: Impedance plots
almost semicircle. Similar results have been found,
From Fig.4 it is clear that there are major differences
theoretically and experimentally, on cooling fins where
between the impedances ZCC, ZSC and ZSS. In other
both thermal conduction and convection are present as
words, any conclusion concerning the core temperature
well. The plot of ZSS looks quite different. One clearly
made from surface temperature measurements require a
observes two distinct circular arcs, which is due to the fact
precise knowledge of the thermal impedances. This job
that two different paths of heat transfer are available in
can only be performed by simulations as it has been
this case. First of all the heat generated in RSP can be
outlined in this paper.
transferred directly by convection. But another part of the
heat can also flow firstly by conduction through the cable
and then by convection along PQR. The plot of ZCC is also CONCLUSION
much wider than the ZSS curve. This can be easily It has been shown that the incident solar energy radiation
explained because all the Joule losses have to be on a power overhead cable can show a lot of fluctuation in
conducted through the PVC insulation before any time. At the same time, the joule losses in a cable also
convective cooling is possible. The thermal resistance of fluctuate due to variations in the power demand. These
this path is obviously higher, giving rise to a wider plot. observations prove that a dynamic analysis of the thermal
The impedances ZCS and ZSC are so called transfer behaviour is necessary. In our approach thermal
impedances. ZCS uses the core temperature TC (t) in (1) impedances instead of thermal resistances have been
due to solar radiation only (no joule losses). Similarly ZSC evaluated numerically.
is calculated from the temperature TS due to Joule losses It was observed that thermal impedances measured at the
only (no solar radiation). Due to the reciprocity theorem cable surface can be quite different from the impedance of
the two curves ZCS and ZSC are perfectly coinciding. Also the core of the cable. Hence a precise knowledge of these
remark that these curves make a turn around the origin. impedances is required to derive any conclusion about the
Even at the higher frequencies the real part of ZCS (or ZSC) dynamic core temperature if only temperature
can be negative. This would be physically impossible for a measurements at the surface are available.
true impedance. For a transfer impedance, the sensing
point and the heat source are not coinciding. Hence a Acknowledgments
o
larger phase shift of more than 90 is then physically
possible. A. Toscano acknowledges the financial support from EU
for his stay at the University of Ghent within the
For the sake of completeness, two more plots have been framework of the Erasmus student exchange programme.
added to Fig.4: ZC,CS and ZS,CS. They represent the
impedances calculated in the centre C (or the surface REFERENCES
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Depending on the relative amount of both heat sources, a thermal modelling of Lynx overhead conductors in
wide variety of impedance plots have been obtained. distribution networks with integrated renewable
Practically, temperature variations of an overhead power energy driven generators", ATE vol. 58, 522-535.
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The major advantage is that it concerns a non-contact [2] Jr C.A. Cimini, B.Q.A. Fonseca, 2013, "Temperature
measurement done with a camera standing on the profile of progressive damaged overhead electrical
ground. conductors", IJEPES vol. 49, 280-286.
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temperature of the cable or impedances like ZSC or ZSS. 2013, "Quantification of gains and risks of static
From reliability point of view, one is interested in the core thermal rating based on typical meteorological year",
temperature because the highest temperature is expected IJEPES vol. 44, 227-235.
there or equivalently in the impedances ZCC or ZCS.

Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015 3/4

F2.24 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
[4] M. Schlapfer, P. Mancarella, 2011, "Probabilistic
modeling and simulation of transmission line
temperatures under fluctuating power flows",
IEEE PWD vol. 26, 2235-2243.
[5] V. Cecchi, A. St Leger, K. Miu, C.O. Nwankpa, 2011,
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IEEE PWD vol. 26, 2189-2196.
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C.G. Karagiannopoulos, C.G. Bourkas, 2010,
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rise of an overhead line conductor ",
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[7] S.B. Liu, 2010, "Calculation of the steady state and
transient temperature rises of round cable bundles ",
IEEE PWD vol. 25, 1229-1235.
[8] B. Wiecek, G. De Mey, V. Chatziathanasiou,
A. Papagiannakis, I. Theodosoglou, 2014, "Harmonic
analysis of dynamic thermal problems in high voltage
overhead transmission lines and buried cables",
IJEPES vol. 58, 199-205.
[9] I. Papagiannopoulos, V. Chatziathanasiou,
L. Exizidis, G. Andreou, G. De Mey, B. Wiecek, 2013,
" Behavior of the thermal impedance of buried power
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[10] V. Chatziathanasiou, P. Chatzipanagiotou, I.
Papagiannopoulos, G. De Mey, B. Wiecek, 2013,
"Dynamic Thermal Analysis of Underground Medium
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Constant Distribution And Structure Function”, ATE
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F2.25 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.25

Measurement and modeling of surface charge accumulation on insulators

in HVDC gas insulated line (GIL)

Boya ZHANG, Qiang WANG, Guixin ZHANG; Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
zhangby13@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn, wqtsinghua@163.com, guixin@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn

ABSTRACT the surface charge phenomenon on the insulators in GIL

Gas insulated lines are a means of buck electric power
transmission at high or extra high voltage. They have
been used for linking GIS to overhead lines or to power
transformers in AC power systems for over four decades.
However, nowadays, the design of a HVDC GIL with the
same reliability as HVAC remains a challenge. It is mainly
due to the charge accumulation on the insulator surface
under DC field, as a result of a substantial distortion of the
initial field and an unexpected decrease of flashover
voltage.
The paper introduces a surface charge measurement
system based on a 220 kV GIL unit. The surface potential
distribution on the insulator is obtained. A model is also
provided to help to understand the surface charge
accumulation process. The results in this paper may be
useful for the design and optimization of HVDC GIL.
KEYWORDS
Gas insulated line; GIL; surface charge accumulation;
insulator; HVDC
INTRODUCTION
has to be revisited for future HVDC applications.
For this purpose, a surface charge measurement system
is established using the electrostatic probe method based
on a 220 kV GIL unit. The surface charge distributions on
a cone-type insulator made of Al2O3-filled epoxy resin are
obtained in air and SF6 under different voltage amplitudes
and polarity reversal conditions. Some phenomena are
studied and the possible sources of surface charges are
discussed.
Meanwhile, a simulation model is used to calculate the
surface charge accumulation on the gas-solid interface of
HVDC gas insulated system. The model takes into
account both the dielectric properties of the insulator
material and physical processes in the insulation gas,
including the charge carriers’ generation, drifting,
recombination and diffusion.
With this paper, the authors would like to contribute a
better understanding of surface charge accumulation
phenomenon and its mechanism in HVDC GIL. The
results in this paper may be useful for the design and
optimization of HVDC gas insulated system.

The development of electrical transmission systems all EXPERIMENTAL

over the world will involve the installation of HVDC
systems to bridge the growing geographical distance Experiment setup
between energy generation and consumption. Further, the
connection of the renewables such as offshore wind farms The surface potential is measured on a cone-type
to the grid has to be done with DC technology as long as insulator with the outer diameter D1=440 mm and
AC sea cables are not possible [1]. Alternative to thickness d1=40 mm. The insulator is made of Al2O3-filled
overhead lines, gas insulated line (GIL) is an optimum epoxy resin and is installed into a 220 kV GIL test unit.
technology for bulk electric power transmission at high or The layout of the setup is diagrammed in Fig.1.
extra high voltage. It can be installed underground or in
tunnels with low environmental impact and thus the public
acceptance is expected to be higher than for overhead
lines, which makes this technology interesting for the
future [2].
Operating experience with GIS and GIL under AC voltage
has existed since the 1960s. By now, these systems are
state of the art in all voltage levels from 72.5 kV up to
1200 kV [3]. However, the design and operation of a
HVDC GIL with the same reliability as the HVAC GIL
remains a challenge. Unlike the quasi-static displacement
field under AC voltage which is determined by the
permittivity of the insulating materials and the given
electrode arrangement, the stationary resistive field under
DC voltage is dominated by the volume and surface
conductivity of the insulating materials [4]. The surface
charges will accumulate particularly at the interfaces
between different materials and thus influence the
dielectric stress of the insulation system significantly. Fig. 1: Layout of the experiment setup.
Especially in situations of polarity reversal, the flashover
An electrostatic voltmeter applying the Kelvin probe
voltage can be reduced considerably in the presence of
principle with a range of 0 to ±3 kV is used to measure the
accumulated charges. The mechanism of surface charge
surface potential on the insulator. In order to scan the
accumulation has not yet been fully understood. Therefore,
entire surface of the insulator, a lab-made robotic arm

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F2.25 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
based on four stepper motors is used to control the
movement of the probe and ensure the probe is vertical to
the surface (Fig.2). The probe is mounted 2 mm in front of
the measured surface during the measurement. More
information about the setup can be found in ref. [5].
Fig. 2: Structure of the measurement device.
Experiment procedures
The experiments are performed under 0.4 MPa air or 0.5
MPa SF6 at a constant temperature T=21°C and a relative
humidity RH≤10%. Before each measurement, the
insulator is dried in a vacuum oven for 12 hours. After
installing the insulator in the electrode arrangement, its
surface is cleaned with absolute ethyl alcohol to make
sure the surface is free of charges. The probe is away
from the electrode when high voltage is applied and then
approaches to the surface after the HV power is cut off.
SIMULATION
For calculation of the electric field of gas-solid insulation
system under DC voltage, a gas model is developed,
taking into account both the dielectric properties of the
insulator material and physical processes in the insulating
gas. This kind of model was first introduced and used in
DC gas insulated systems by TUM and ETH [4, 6]. It is
developed and implemented in the FEM program
COMSOL Multiphysics.
Solid Domain
The electric current field in the insulator is calculated
using the continuity equation:
∂D
JI = +γ VI ⋅ E
∂t
JI
current density in the insulator
D electric flux density
E electric field
γ VI volume conductivity of the solid insulation material
Gas Domain
In order to study the current flow through the insulating
gas, the generation, recombination and motion of the
charge carriers should be taken into account. The
dynamic change for the positive and negative ion density
(n+ and n-) is described by the drift-diffusion equation:
∂n+ ∂IP
= − k r n + n − − div ( n + ⋅ b + ⋅ E ) + D+ ∇2 n +
∂t ∂t
−
∂n ∂IP
− k r n + n − + div ( n − ⋅ b − ⋅ E ) + D− ∇ 2 n−
= (3)
∂t ∂t
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∂t IP ion pair generation rate due to nature radiation
D + , D − diffusion coefficient for positive/negative ions
b+ , b− mobility of positive/negative ions
kr recombination coefficient of positive/negative ions
The density of positive and negative charges is connected
to the potential ϕ by the Poisson equation:
E = −∇ϕ (4)
ρ e(n − n + −
)
∇2ϕ = − =− (5)
ε ε
As for the current flow through the gas domain, the ion
drift due to the applied electric field and diffusion due to
the difference of charge carrier density should be taken
into account.
∂D
JG = +e ( n + b + +n - b − ) ⋅ E- e ∇ ( D + n + -D − n − ) (6)
∂t
The equation (2)-(5) are combined in the model and the
PDEs can be solved by the program. As a consequence,
current flow in the gas and solid domain can be calculated
according to equation (1) and (6).
Gas-Solid Interface
Fig. 3: The schematic representation of the charging
process along the gas-solid interface.
Charging of the gas-solid interface results in the surface
charge density ρS, for which, current flow into and out of
the interface as well as current flow along the surface
(1) must be considered (see Fig. 3).
∂ρ S
= J In − J Gn − div ( γ S ⋅ E τ ) (7)
∂t
where, JIn and JGn refer to the normal component of the
current density on the gas-solid interface; γS is the surface
conductivity of the insulator material; Eτ is the tangential
component of the electric field on the interface. By solving
this equation, the surface charge accumulation can be
obtained.
Boundaries and Starting Conditions
The boundary condition for the ion density on all outflow
boundaries of the gas domain is non-reflecting condition.
The potentials on the boundaries to the conductor and
enclosure are, respectively, the corresponding applied
(2)
voltage and zero. The staring condition for electrical
potential on every point at t0=0 is set to 0. The starting
condition for the charge carrier density in the gas can be
obtained by its equilibrium state:
n + (t0 ) = n− (t0 ) = ∂ t IP kr (8)
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F2.25 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Parameters
The simulation is performed under atmospheric air
condition. The mobility of positive and negative ions are
2 2
1.36 cm /(Vs) and 1.87 cm /(Vs), respectively [7]. A
-6 3
recombination coefficient of 1.4×10 cm /s is chosen [7].
The diffusion coefficient can be obtained by the Einstein
Equation:
kT
D+ / − = b + / − ⋅ (9)
e
where, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is temperature.
For atmospheric air condition, an average value of ion pair
3
generation rate is assumed to be 10 IP/(cm /s). For the
filled epoxy resin material, a relative permittivity εr=4.5,
-18
volume conductivity γVI=1.8×10 S/m, and surface
-23
conductivity γS=1×10 S are used in the model.
Geometry
Simulation is carried out on a
rotationally symmetrical electrode
arrangement (shown in Fig. 4). It
uses the same size as the
experiment setup shown in Fig.1,
which is similar to the realistic gas-
solid insulation system. The radius of
the inner electrode on the insulator’s
two sides is different. The upper one
is rconvex=60 mm, and the lower one is
rconcave=20 mm. The enclosure has an
inner radius of 175 mm and the
thickness of the cone-type insulator is
40 mm.
Fig. 4: Geometry of the studied GIL simulation model.
SIMULATION RESULTS
Ion density in the gas domain
Fig. 5 shows the positive and negative ion densities in the
gas domain under the applied voltage U=100 kV when
7
t=1×10 s (about 115 days). (The figure for the negative
ion density has been mirror imaged.)
Fig. 5: Negative (left)and positive (right) ion densities
at a voltage of +100 kV and t=1×10 s.
7 surface conductivity have a marked influence on the
One can see that the densities of ions near the equally
charged electrode are zero and increase continuously
while drifting to the opposite electrode. The longer the drift
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F2.25
line and the smaller the field gradient, the larger the
density becomes. Special attention should be paid to the
different ion density distributions between the convex side
(upper side in the figure) and the concave side (lower side)
of the cone-type insulator. Under positive DC voltage, the
maximum positive ion density appears at the outer edge
of the convex surface. Yet the maximum negative ion
density is near the central electrode at the concave
surface. This may lead to totally different surface charge
distributions along the insulator’s convex and concave
surfaces, which will be shown in the following sections.
Surface charge accumulation along the gas-
solid interface
In Fig.6, the surface charge density distributions along the
gas-solid interface are depicted for the corresponding
times. Under the simulation condition, the surface charges
on the convex side of the insulator are heterocharges and
the density near the inner electrode is much higher than
the density near the outer enclosure. However, as for the
surface charges on the concave side, the result seems
quite different. Under positive DC voltage, there are
heterocharges very near to the inner conductor. And as
the radial length increases, homocharges appear and
accumulate along the insulator surface to the outer
enclosure. But the density of the homocharges is much
lower than the density of the inner heterocharges.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6: Surface charge density on the gas-solid
interface at +100 kV. (a) convex side; (b) concave side.
Volume and surface conductivity
Since the stationary resistive state under DC voltage is
dominated by the insulating material, the volume and
surface density distribution (Fig. 7) and the corresponding
electric field. One can see that the surface charge density
increases as the volume conductivity increases, but the
distribution trend does not change. As for different surface
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F2.25 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.25

conductivity, the surface charge distribution pattern

-22
changes. For values γS≤1×10 S, negative charges
accumulated very near to the inner electrode. For values
-19
γS≥1×10 S, the accumulated charges near the inner
electrode become positive and the density increases
-20
when γS further increases. When γS is around 1×10 S,
the density of the accumulated charges is the lowest,
especially in the region near the electrode. Therefore, we
can infer that an appropriate increase in surface
conductivity of the insulator without influencing its main
insulation would allow the charges transfer along the
surface and suppress the surface charge accumulation.

(a) Fig. 8: Surface potential along the insulator surface at

+100 kV for different voltage application durations.

(b)

Fig. 9: Normal component of the electric field strength

on the gas domain along the insulator surface at
+100kV for different voltage application durations.

MEASUREMENT RESULTS

A DC voltage was applied to the central electrode for 30

Fig. 7: Surface charge density on the gas-solid
interface at +100 kV. (a) for different volume
conductivities; (b) for different surface conductivities.
Electric Field
minutes and then the surface potential was measured.
The measured surface potential distribution can be used
to approximatively represent surface charge distribution.
For inverse calculation of surface charge density from
potential distribution, ref. [5] gives the algorithm detail.

Fig. 8 shows the surface potential distributions along the
insulator’s concave side for different voltage application
durations. Obviously, due to the accumulated charges, the
DC electric filed differs from the initial capacitive
distribution (t=0s). Besides, these accumulated charges
enhance the local electric field strength (Fig. 9). This may
lead to potential threat of surface flashover, especially
when the insulator is under long-term operation or under
polarity reversal conditions.
Surface charge distribution
Fig. 10 and Fig.11 show the surface potential distributions
on the gas-solid interface (concave side) under positive
DC voltage applied for 30 minutes in air and SF6,
respectively. The unit for the color scale bar is V. The axis
x-y represents the coordinate of the insulator surface.

(a) +40 kV (b) +50 kV (c) +60 kV

Fig. 10: Surface potential distributions under positive DC voltage application in 0.4 Mpa Air.

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F2.25 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables F2.25

(a) +50 kV (b) +60 kV (c) +70 kV

(d) +80 kV (e) +90 kV (f) +100 kV

Fig. 11: Surface potential distribution under positive DC voltage application in 0.5 Mpa SF6.
According to our measurement results, the following
phenomena can be summarized:
• There seems to be a threshold voltage effect of surface
charging. The charges seldom accumulate unless the
applied dc voltage reaches a certain magnitude.
• Under positive DC voltage, most accumulated charges
are negative. As for experiments performed in air, the
negative charges with higher density are very near to
the inner electrode and positive charges with lower
density exist away from the electrode, which is similar
to the simulation results shown in Fig. 6 (b). As for
experiments performed in SF6, however, it seems no
positive charges exist under positive applied voltage.
• The charge density has a nonuniform distribution on
the insulator surface although it is expected to be
rotationally symmetric. And the locations of the charge
density peaks seem random. We guess that it may be Fig. 12: Surface morphology of the Al2O3-filled epoxy
related with the nonuniformity in the material resin insulator using AFM
properties. In fact, this factory manufactured GIL
insulators are “highly imperfect”. For example, since Surface charge distribution under polarity
the mould is not rotated during curing, some degree of reversal operation
sedimentation of the filler is inevitable. Worse, the skin
Polarity reversal is a common operation in HVDC
of the insulator is epoxy with Al2O3 particles of
transmission system. In order to investigate the surface
different size, which brings about considerable micro
charge behaviour under this condition, surface potential is
cracks, protrusions and pores (Fig. 12). These surface
measured after +100 kV applied DC voltage is changed
imperfections may trap the surface charges in some
into -100 kV. The positive voltage is applied for 30
certain areas. On the other hand, existence of some
minutes and then the negative voltage is applied for
micro protrusions on the electrode surface will lead to
another 30 minutes before the measurement is performed.
partial discharges in the gas, which forms random
Fig. 13 shows the result.
sources of ions.
• To sum up, three mechanisms are responsible for the The surface potential distribution after the application of
surface charge accumulation according to the previous +100kV voltage for 30 minutes has been given in Fig.11(f).
literatures, i.e. volume conduction, surface conduction Compared with Fig. 13, we can see that the original
and gas conduction, and from our simulation and accumulated negative charges near the inner electrode
measurement results, we infer that two possible gradually decay and positive charges start to accumulate
reasons are dominate: partial discharges in gas which on the insulator surface. The two peaks for positive and
provide random sources of ions and the nonuniform negative charge density get close, which will further
surface conductivity and morphology which may “trap” enhance the local electric strength significantly and may
the charges drifting to the insulator surface. bring about flashover along the surface.

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F2.25 9th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables
Fig. 13: Surface potential distribution under polarity
reversal operation(from +100kV to -100kV, 0.5Mpa SF6)
Flashover test
Flashover test is conducted in a 1000 kV UHVDC GIL test
unit (Fig.14). The rated AC withstand voltage of the tested
cone-type insulator is 1200 kV in 0.5 MPa SF6. But under
negative applied DC voltage, flashover happens at -800kV
after 60 minutes application. According to repeated tests,
the DC withstand voltage of the insulator is just 65% of
the AC withstand voltage. Due to our previous assumption,
this unexpected decrease of flashover voltage most
possibly results from electric field distortion by the surface
charge accumulation.
Fig. 14 A 1000 kV UHVDC GIL test unit and the tested
cone-type insulator after flashover
CONCLUSION
A surface charge measurement system based on a 220kV
GIL unit is introduced in this paper. The surface potential
distribution on the insulator is obtained and studied. A
simulation model is also provided to help to understand
surface charge accumulation phenomenon. Attempt has
Jicable'15 - Versailles 21-25 June, 2015
F2.25
been made in terms of material related improvements to
restrain the surface charge accumulation, which will be
reported in the near future. The results in this paper may
be useful for the design and optimization of HVDC GIL.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the China Electric Power
Research Institute for their technical assistance. And this
work is supported by the National Basic Research
Program of China under Grant no. 2014CB239502.
REFERENCES
[1] T.J. Hammons, V.F. Lescale, K. Uecker, et. al., 2012,
"State of the art in ultrahigh-voltage transmission", Proc.
IEEE. vol. 100, no. 2, 360-390.
[2] H. Koch, 2012, Gas-Insulated Transmission Lines
(GIL), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK, 1-5.
[3] GIGRE Working Group D1.28, 2014, "Optimized gas-
insulated systems by advanced insulation techniques",
Technical Brochure. No. 517.
[4] A. Winter, J. Kindersberger, 2012, “Stationary resistive
field distribution along epoxy resin insulators in air under
DC voltage”, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical
Insulation. vol. 19, no. 5, 1732-1739.
[5] Q. Wang, G.X. Zhang and X.X. Wang, 2012,
“Characteristics and mechanisms of surface charge
accumulation on a cone-type insulator under dc voltage”,
IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation. vol.
19, no. 1, 150-155.
[6] U. Straumann, M. Schüller and C.M. Franck, 2012,
“Theoretical investigation of HVDC disc spacer charging
in SF6 gas insulated systems”, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics
and Electrical Insulation. vol. 19, no. 6, 2196-2204.
[7] A. Winter, J. Kindersberger, 2014, “Transient field
distribution in gas-solid insulation systems under DC
voltages”, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical
Insulation. vol. 21, no. 1, 116-128.
GLOSSARY
HV: High Voltage
UHVDC: Ultra High Voltage Direct Current
GIL: Gas Insulated Transmission Line
TUM: Technische Universität München
ETH: Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich
FEM: Finite Element Method
PDE: Partial Differential Equation
AFM: Atomic Force Microscope
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