Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mathematical model
of piping system built
using Caesar II
software.
BUILDING A MODEL WITH CAESAR II
Engineers nowadays do not have to worry about
solving higher degree, or differential equations to
perform complicated calculations, because they can
create complete models of the system they are trying
to design and analyse and let the software perform
the analysis for them. However as the saying goes,
“garbage in; garbage out” the engineer still has to
possess good engineering judgment to know what to
expect from a computer analysis and how to
interpret the output.
Although there are various softwares available to do
pipe stress analyses, Caesar II is one that is well
known and frequently used for the oil and gas
engineering analyses.
USING CAESAR II FOR PIPE ANALYSIS
CAESAR II is most often used for the mechanical design of new piping systems.
Hot piping systems present a unique problem to the mechanical engineer—these
irregular structures experience great thermal strain that must be absorbed by the
piping, supports, and attached equipment. These “structures” must be stiff enough to
support their own weight and also flexible enough to accept thermal growth. These
loads, displacements, and stresses can be estimated through analysis of the piping
model in CAESAR II. To aid in this design by analysis, CAESAR II incorporates
many of the limitations placed on these systems and their attached equipment.
These limits are typically specified by engineering bodies (such as the ASME B31
committees, ASME Section VIII, and the Welding Research Council) or by
manufacturers of piping-related equipment (API, NEMA, or Expansion Joint
Manufacturers‟ Association - EJMA).
See the next slide for an image of the Computational Control panel.
CAESAR II – COMPUTATIONAL CONTROL
Use Pressure Stiffening on Bends- if used it will be the maximum of all psi
CONTROL CONFIGURATION SETTINGS Missing Mass ZPA- defaults to the last “extracted” mode
Bend Axial Shape- if ignored the bend will be stiffer
Rod Tolerance (degrees)- The default of CAESAR II is 1.0 degree
Rod Increment (Degrees)- for difficult-to-converge problems, use 0.1
Alpha Tolerance- the default value is 0.05
CAESAR II – COMPUTATIONAL
Use WRC 329- this activates the WRC329 guidelines for all intersections
Use Schneider- activates the Schneider reduced intersection assumptions
All Cases Corroded- if enabled, uses the corroded section modulus
Liberal Expansion Stress Allowable- user choice to make it default
Press. Variation in Expansion Case- user controlled
Base Hoop Stress On ( ID/OD/Mean/Lamés )- The default is to use the ID
of the pipe. If enabled, hoop stress value has the following options:
ID—Hoop stress is computed according to Pd/2t where “d” is the internal
diameter of the pipe.
(CONT’D.)
Bends Guides
Mitered Bends Limit Stops
Elbows Windows
Double-Acting
Expansion Joints Restraints
Hinged Joints
Constant Effort Hangers
Slip Joints
Hanger w/ Sliding
Gimbal Joints Miscellaneous Movement Capability
Ball Joints Reducers
Jacketed Pipe
MODELLING PIPE BENDS
Bends are defined by the element entering the bend and the element
leaving the bend. The actual bend curvature is always physically at the “TO”
end of the element entering the bend.
(The element direction is defined from the first node to the second node.)
The input for the element leaving the bend must follow the element entering
the bend. The bend angle is defined by these two elements.
Bend radius defaults to 1 1/2 times the pipe nominal diameter (long radius),
but may be changed to any other value.
Specifying a bend automatically generates two additional intermediate
nodes, at the 0-degree location and at the bend midpoint (M).
For stress and displacement output the TO node of the element entering the
bend is located geometrically at the far-point on the bend. The far-point is at
the weld line of the bend, and adjacent to the straight element leaving the
bend.
Nodes defined in the Angle and Node fields are placed at the given angle on
the bend curvature. The angle starts with zero degrees at the near-point on
the bend and goes to degrees at the far-point of the bend.
MODELLING PIPE BENDS (CONT’D.)
Nodes on the bend curvature cannot be placed closer together than
specified by the Minimum Angle to Adjacent Bend parameter in the
Configure-Setup—Geometry section. This includes the spacing
between the nodes on the bend curvature and the near and far-points of
the bend.
The minimum and maximum total bend angle is specified by the Minimum
Bend Angle and Maximum Bend Angle parameters in the Configure
Setup—Geometry section.
MODELLING PIPE BENDS (CONT’D.)
MODELLING PIPE SINGLE AND DOUBLE-FLANGED
BENDS
Single and double flanged bend specifications only affect the stress
intensification and flexibility of the bend. There is no automatic rigid
element (or change in weight) generated for the end of the bend.
Single and double-flanged bends are indicated by entering 1 or 2
(respectively) for the Type in the bend auxiliary input.
Rigid elements defined before or after the bend will not alter the bend's
stiffness or stress intensification factors.
When specifying single flanged bends it does not matter which end of the
bend the flange is on.
If the user wishes to include the weight of the rigid flange(s) at the bend
ends, then he/she should put rigid elements (whose total length is the
length of a flange pair) at the bend ends where the flange pairs exist.
As a guideline, British Standard 806 recommends stiffening the bends
whenever a component that significantly stiffens the pipe cross section is
found within two diameters of either bend end.
MODELLING PIPE
SINGLE AND
DOUBLE-
FLANGED BENDS
MODELLING PIPE 180º RETURN BENDS
Two 90-degree bends
should be separated by
twice the bend radius.
The far-point of the first
bend is the same as the
near-point of the second
(following) the bend.
Where:
Req - equivalent miter bend radius
S - spacing of the miter cuts along the centerline
Ɵ - code defined half-angle between adjacent miter cuts: Ɵ = α / 2N
And where:
α - total bend angle
N - number of cuts
MODELLING PIPE CLOSELY-SPACED MITER BENDS
An additional parameter „B‟ (length of miter segment at crotch) is checked
for closely spaced miters when using B31.1. „B‟ may be found for evenly
spaced miters from equation:
B = S [ 1 - ro / Req ]
Where:
ro - outside radius of pipe cross-section
Miter bends are closely spaced if:
S < r [ 1 + tan (Ɵ) ]
Where:
S - miter spacing
r - average pipe cross section radius: (ri+ro)/2
Ɵ - one-half the angle between adjacent miter cuts.
ASME B31.1 has the additional requirements that:
B > 6 tn
Ɵ ≤ 22.5 deg.
B - length of the miter segment at the crotch.
tn - nominal wall thickness of pipe.
MODELLING PIPE CLOSELY-SPACED MITER BENDS
Closely spaced miters regardless of the number of miter cuts may be
entered as a single bend. CAESAR II will always calculate the spacing
from the bend radius. If the user has the miter spacing and not the bend
radius, the radius must be calculated as shown below.
The mitered bend shown 2 slides above has 4 cuts through 90 degrees and
a spacing of 15.913 inches.
Ɵ ≤ 22.5 deg.
Note: The straight pipe section coming into and going out of the bend
must be ≥ Req sin (Ɵ).
MODELLING ELBOWS WITH DIFFERENT WALL
THICKNESSES
When the fitting thickness in the bend auxiliary field is entered, CAESAR II
changes the thickness of the curved portion of the bend element only.
The thickness of any preceding or following straight pipe is unaffected.
The specified fitting thickness applies for the current elbow only and is not
carried on to any subsequent elbows in the job.
Stresses at the elbow are calculated based on the section modulus of the
matching pipe as specified in the B31 codes.
However, stress intensification factors and flexibility factors for the bend are
based on the elbow wall thickness.
The elbow at node 10 (in the next slide) has a thickness larger than the
matching pipe wall. The matching pipe has a thickness of 0.5
MODELLING ELBOWS WITH DIFFERENT WALL
THICKNESSES (CONT’D.)
RESTRAINTS
Anchors; Connecting nodes can be used with anchors to rigidly fix one
point in the piping system to any other point in the piping system.
Double-acting restraints; Double-acting restraints are those that act in
both directions along the line of action. Most commonly used restraints are
double-acting. A CNode is the connecting node.
Single-directional restraints; Friction and gaps may be specified with
single-directional restraints. A CNode is the connecting node.
Guides; Guides are double-acting restraints with or without a specified gap.
Connecting Nodes (CNodes) can be used with guides.
Limit Stop; Limit stops are single- or double-acting restraint whose line of
action is along the axis of the pipe. These can have gaps too. A gap is a
length, and is always positive.
Windows; Equal leg windows are modeled using two double-acting
restraints with gaps orthogonal to the pipe axis. Unequal leg windows are
modeled using four single-acting restraints with gaps orthogonal to the pipe
axis.
RESTRAINTS (CONT’D.)
Vertical / Horizontal Dummy Legs; Dummy legs and/or any other elements
attached to the bend curvature should be coded to the bend tangent
intersection point. For each dummy leg/bend model a warning message is
generated during error checking in CAESAR II.
Large Rotation rods; Large rotation rods are used to model relatively short
rods, where large orthogonal movement of the pipe causes shortening of the
restraint along the original line of action. These can be entered in any
direction. Large rotation is generally considered to become significant when
the angle of swing becomes greater than 5 degrees.
Static Snubbers; Translational restraints that provide resistance to
displacement in static analysis of occasional loads only. Static snubbers may
be directional, (i.e. may be preceded by a plus or minus sign).
Plastic Hinges; Two bi-linear supports are used to model rigid resistance to
bending until a breakaway force (yield force) is exceeded at which point
bending is essentially free.
Sway Brace assemblies; The sway brace is composed of a single
compression spring enclosed between two movable plates. Manufacturers
typically recommend a specific size sway brace for a given pipe nominal
diameter.
SPRING HANGERS
The hanger design algorithm will not design hangers that are completely
predefined. Any other data can exist for the spring location but this data
is not used. Entered spring rates and theoretical cold loads will be
multiplied by the number of hangers at this location. CAESAR II
requires the Theoretical Cold (Installation) Load to pre-define the
spring.
Based on the recommendations of API RP2A and DNV (Det Norske Veritas),
values for Cd range from 0.6 to 1.2, values for Cm range from 1.5 to 2.0. Values
for Cl show a wide range of scatter, but the approximate mean value is 0.7. The
inertia coefficient Cm is equal to one plus the added mass coefficient Ca. This
added mass value accounts for the mass of the fluid assumed to be entrained
with the piping element.
In actuality, these coefficients are a function of the fluid particle velocity, which
varies over the water column. In general practice, two dimensionless
parameters are computed which are used to obtain the Cd, Cm, and Cl values
from published charts.
NOTES ON BOLT TIGHTENING STRESS
This is a critical item for leakage determination and for computing
stresses in the flange.
The ASME code bases its stress calculations on a pre-specified, fixed equation
for the bolt stress. The resulting value is however often not related to the actual
tightening stress that appears in the flange when the bolts are tightened. For
this reason, the initial bolt stress input field that appears in the first section of
data input, Bolt Initial Tightening Stress, is used only for the flexibility/leakage
determination. The value for the bolt tightening stress used in the ASME flange
stress calculations is as defined by the ASME code:
Bolt Load = Hydrostatic End Force + Force for Leak-tight Joint
If the Bolt Initial Tightening Stress field is left blank, CAESAR II uses the value:
45000 / √(dbolt)
where 45,000 psi is a constant and d is the nominal diameter of the bolt
(correction is made for metric units).
NOTES ON BOLT TIGHTENING STRESS (CONT’D.)
This is a rule of thumb tightening stress, that will typically be applied by field
personnel tightening the bolts. This computed value is printed in the output from
the flange program.
It is interesting to compare this value to the bolt stress printed in the ASME
stress report (also in the output). It is not unusual for the “rule-of-thumb”
tightening stress to be larger than the ASME required stress. When the ASME
required stress is entered into the Bolt Initial Tightening Stress data field, a
comparison of the leakage safety factors can be made and the sensitivity of the
joint to the tightening torque can be ascertained. Users are strongly encouraged
to “play” with these numbers to get a feel for the relationship
between all of the factors involved.
MODELLING EXPANSION JOINTS
To define an expansion joint, activate the Expansion Joint check box (see
"Expansion Joints" on page 3-21 of the Caesar II manual) on the pipe
element spreadsheet.
The expansion joint will have a non-zero length if at least one of the
element‟s spreadsheet Delta fields is non-blank and non-zero. This will
usually result in a more accurate stiffness model in what is typically a very
sensitive area of the piping system.
Four stiffnesses define the expansion joint:
Axial Stiffness
Transverse Stiffness
Bending Stiffness
Torsional Stiffness
These stiffnesses are defined as shown in the figure shown in the next slide:
MODELLING EXPANSION JOINTS (CONT’D.)
Where,
π = 3.14159
Re = Expansion joint effective radius
t = Bellows thickness
E = Elastic Modulus
ν = Poisson’s Ratio
L = Flexible bellows length
CAESAR II will calculate pressure thrust on the expansion joint if the
bellows effective I.D. is given in the expansion joint auxiliary screen.
The mathematical model for pressure thrust applies a force equal to
the pressure times the effective area of the bellows at either end of
the expansion joint. The force will tend to open the bellows if the
pressure is positive, and close the bellows if the pressure is negative.
MODELLING EXPANSION JOINTS (CONT’D.)
According to EJMA (Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association), the
maximum permitted amount of axial movement per corrugation is
defined as erated where,
ex + ey + eq < erated
After the hanger algorithm has run the load cases it needs to size the
hangers. The newly selected springs are inserted into the piping system
and included in the analysis of all remaining load cases.
The spring rate becomes part of the global stiffness matrix, and is
therefore added into all subsequent load cases.
MODELLING PIPE BRANCH FLEXIBILITIES
TRANSLATIONAL: ROTATIONAL:
“The significance of “k” depends upon the specifics of the piping system.
Qualitatively, if “k” is small compared to the length of the piping system,
including the effect of elbows and their k-factors, then the inclusion of “k” for
branch connections will have only minor effects on the calculated moments.
Conversely, if “k” is large compared to the piping system length, then the
inclusion of “k” for branch connections will have major effects. The largest
effect will be to greatly reduce the magnitude of the calculated moments
acting on the branch connection. To illustrate the potential significance of
“k’s” for branch connections, we use the equation [above] to calculate “k”
for a branch connection with D=30 in., d=12.75 in. T=t=0.375 in.:
This compares to the more typical rigid-joint interpretation that k=1, rather
than k=46.6 !”
MODELLING PIPE FLANGES
The following input parameters are required to get a leakage report. These
parameters include:
Flange Inside Diameter
Flange Thickness
Bolt Circle Diameter
Number Of Bolts
Bolt Diameter
Effective Gasket Diameter
Uncompressed Gasket Thickness
Effective Gasket Width
Leak Pressure Ratio
Effective Gasket Modulus
Externally Applied Moment
Externally Applied Force
Pressure
MODELLING PIPE FLANGES (CONT’D.)
Leak Pressure Ratio
This value is taken directly from Table 2-5.1 in the ASME Section VIII code.
This table is reproduced in the help screens of the software. This value is
more commonly recognized as “m”, and is termed the “Gasket Factor” in the
ASME code. This is a very important number for leakage determination, as it
represents the ratio of the pressure required to prevent leakage over the line
pressure.
Young’s Modulus
The slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram. For structural steel
this value is
usually 29,000,000 psi (199,948 MPa).
Report Options:
Displacements
Restraints
Restraint summary
Global element forces
Local element forces
Stresses
Stress summary
Code compliance report
Cumulative usage report
To enter the dynamics input, the proper job name must be current prior
to selecting the Analysis-Dynamics file options of the Main Menu.
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS
below are the “code stress” equations for the actual and allowable stresses used
by CAESAR II. For the listed codes, the left hand side of the equation defines the
actual stress and the right hand side defines the allowable stress. The CAESAR
II load case label is also listed after the equation.
US Code Stresses Stress Cat.
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
International Code Stresses Stress Cat.
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
BS 7159 (cont‟d.)
CODE – STRESS
EQUATIONS
(CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
CODE – STRESS EQUATIONS (CONT’D.)
AVAILABLE MATERIALS (CAESAR II)
ELASTIC
MATERIAL NAME MODULUS POISSON’S DENSITY TEMPERATURE RANGE (F)
(lb/in2) RATIO (lb/in3)
Low Carbon Steel 29.5 E6 0.2920 0.28993 -325 1400
ANSI B31.5
2002
2001
4-Oct-02
2003
6-Feb-04
6-Feb-04 STANDARDS
ANSI B31.11
2004
30-May-03
1-Jul-05 AVAILABLE IN
ASME SECT III CLASS 3
1984
1-Jul-05
CANADIAN Z662
(9/95)
Ch 11 (9/95)
N/A
N/A CODE-CHECKING A
BS 806, ISSUE 1
STOCKHOLM, 1979
N/A