COMPUTER NETWORKS (VR 17) UNIT-3 DATALINK LAYER

UNIT-3 (b)
MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL SUBLAYER

SYLLABUS:
 Channel allocation
o Static channel allocation
o Assumptions for Dynamic channel allocation

 Multiple Access protocols

o ALOHA
o CSMA

 MAC Addresses
 IEE 802.X STANDARD ETHERNET
o Classic ETHERNET
 Physical Layer
 MAC Sub layer Protocol
 ETHERNET Performance
o FAST ETHERNET
o GIGABIT ETHERNET

 WIRELESS LANS
o Architecture and Protocol Stack
o 802.11 Physical Layer
o 802.11 MAC Sub layer Protocol
o 802.11 Frame structure
o Services

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MEDIUM ACCESS SUB LAYER

 The DATA LINK LAYER be considered as two sub-layers
o LOGIC LINK CONTROL Sub-layer (LLC)
 This is the upper sub-layer.
 Responsible for providing Flow control and Error control
o MEDIUM ACCESS Sub-layer (MAC)
 This is the lower sub-layer
 Responsible for resolving the access resolution to the shared media.
 If the channel is dedicated, this is not required.
 The taxonomy of Multiple access protocols are categorized as

 In RANDOM-ACCESS methods, no station is superior to another station and none is assigned

the control over another. No station permits or does not permit another station to send. Each
station has the right to access the medium without being controlled by any other station.
 In CONTROLLED ACCESS, the stations consult one another to find which station has the
right to send. A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations.
 In CHANNELIZATION, the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency or
through code between different stations.
 In Random Access protocols, the available are
o ALOHA
 Pure ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA
o CSMA
 1-persistent, Non-persistent and p-persistent CSMA
 CSMA-CD and CSMA-CA

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ALOHA PROTOCOL
 This is the earliest random access method, developed at University of Hawaii in 1970’s.
 It was primarily designed for Wireless LAN, but it can use on any shared medium.
 As the medium is shared between the stations, there are potential collisions will occur.
When a station sends data, another station may attempt to do so at the same time. So the
data from the two stations will collide.

In PURE ALOHA
 This is simple, but elegant method.
 The idea is that each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to send. But as there is only
one channel to share, there is the possibility of collision between the frames that came from
different stations.
 The process can be explained as

o There are four stations and each station sends two frames. So a total of eight frames can
share the channel
o Among these some of the frames collide, because multiple frames are in contention for the
shared channel. Even if one bit of a frame coexist on the channel with one bit from the
another frame, there is a collision.
o So we need to resend the frames that have been destroyed during the transmission. This
method relies on ACK from the Receiver.
o A collision involves two or more stations, if all these stations try to resend their frames
after the Time-out period again all frames will collide.
o To avoid this, each station has to waits a random amount of time before resend its frame.

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 The procedure for Pure ALOHA is represented in flow chart as

 The Time-out period is equal to the maximum possible round-trip propagation delay.
 The Back-off time is a random value that normally depends on K. its formula is implemented
using Binary-exponential Back-off algorithm.
 The Vulnerable time (in which there is a possibility of collision) is an important parameter.
And is calculated from below figure as

 Let G be the average number of frames generated by the system during one frame transmission
time. Then the average number of successful transmissions for PURE ALOHA is

S=G*e-2G
The maximum throughput is S=0.184 when G= (1/2)

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COMPUTER NETWORKS (VR-17) UNIT-4 MAC SUBLAYER
This indicates that if one-half a frame is generated during one frame transmission time,
then 18.4 percent of these frames reach their destination successfully.

In SLOTTED ALOHA
 In this we divide the time into slots of Tp sec and force the station to send only at the beginning
of the time slot.
 So, a station is allowed to transmit only at the beginning of the synchronized timeslot. If a
station misses this moment, it still waits up to the commencement of next timeslot.

 Even if the timeslots are assigned, but still there exists potential collisions, because of two
stations try to send the frames in same timeslot.
 In this, the vulnerable time period reduced to one-half as compared to Pure ALOHA.
 Let G be the average number of frames generated by the system during one frame transmission
time. Then the average number of successful transmissions for SLOTTED ALOHA is

S=G*e-G
The maximum throughput is S=0.364 when G= 1
This indicates that if one frame is generated during one frame transmission time, then
36.4 percent of these frames reach their destination successfully.

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CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS

 This is designed in order to increase the performance and to minimize the chance of collisions.
 The idea is that,
The chance of collisions can be reduced if a station senses the medium before trying to
access it.
 So, it requires that each station first check the state of the medium before sending. Due to this
we can reduce the possibility of collision. But we cannot eliminate it.
 Even though we sense the channel before the transmission takes place, but still collisions exist
because of the propagation delay.
When a station sends a frame, it takes some time for the first bit to reach every station
and for every station to sense it.
 So, a station may sense the medium and find it idle, only because the first bit sent by another
station has not yet been received.

In above figure,
At time T=t1, station B sense the medium and find it IDLE, so it sends a frame.
At T=t2, station C sense the medium and find it IDLE. Because the first bits from station B not
reached the station C. So station C also sends a frame. The two signals collide and both the frames
are destroyed.
 The vulnerable time period is equal to Propagation Time (Tp), the time needed for a signal to
propagate from one end of the medium to other.
Persistent methods:
This deals with what we do if the channel is busy or found to be idle.
Three methods are (a). 1-persistent (b) Non-persistent (c) p-persistent

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1-PERSISTENT:
 It is simple and straight forward.

 If the station founds to be idle, it sends the frame immediately. If the station is busy, it
continuously senses the channel until it become idle.
 This method has highest chance of collision because two or more stations may find the line be
idle and send their frames immediately.

NON-PERSISTENT:
 A station that has a frame to send senses the line.
o If the line is idle, it sends immediately.
o If the line is not idle, it waits a random amount of time and then senses the line again.
 This approach reduces the chance of collision because it is unlikely that two or more stations
will wait the same amount of time and retry to send simultaneously.
 However, this method reduces the efficiency of the network because the medium remains idle
when there may be stations with frames to send.

p-PERSISTENT:
 It is used if the channel has time slots with slot duration equal to or greater than the maximum
propagation time. It reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency.
 In this method, after the station finds the line idle it follows these steps:
1. With probability p, the station sends its frame.
2. With probability q = 1 - p, the station waits for the beginning of the next time slot and
checks the line again.
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COMPUTER NETWORKS (VR-17) UNIT-4 MAC SUBLAYER
a. If the line is idle, it goes to step 1.
b. If the line is busy, it acts as though a collision has occurred and uses the backoff
procedure.

CSMA-CD:

 This method is designed to solve the problem in CSMA (As the CSMA method doesn’t specify
the procedure following a collision)
 In this, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to check if the transmission was
successful or not. If not there is a collision. So the frame is sent again.
 The analysis of CSMA/CD is given by

 At T=t1, station A has executed its persistent method and start sending the bits of its frame.
 At T=t2, station C not yet sensed the first bit send by A, it executes its persistence method
and starts sending the bits in its frame in both the directions.
 After some time (T=t3), the station C detects the collision when it receives the first bit of
A’s frame.
 Station A detects the collision at T=t4, when it receives the first bit of the frame sent by
Station C.
 Station A transmit for the duration (t4-t1) and C transmit for the duration (t2-t3).
 At T=t3 the transmission of C’s frame is aborted. At T=t4 the transmission of A’s frame is
aborted.
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COMPUTER NETWORKS (VR-17) UNIT-4 MAC SUBLAYER
 So to work CSMA/CD, there is a restriction on frame size.
 Before the station send its last bit of the frame, the sending station must detect the presence the
collision. So the frame transmission time must be at least twice of the maximum propagation
time.
 The process of CSMA/CD is represented in the below flowchart as

The differences between this method and ALOHA are

 In this method, in order to sense the channel we are including persistent scenarios. This can
be used to reduce the number of collisions occurring by analyzing the channel status (Idle
or Busy).
 In this, the transmission and reception is a continuous process, where as in ALOHA we are
sending one frame and then wait for ACK. The station transmits and receives continuously
and constantly monitor in order to detect one of the following two conditions
o Either transmission is completed or
o Collision is detected
 In case if collision occurred, we send a jamming signal that enforces the collision in case
other stations have not yet sense the collision.
 The throughput value is greater than ALOHA system, and is depends on value of G and
persistent method used
o For 1-persistent method, the maximum throughput is around 50% when G=1
o For Non-persistent method, the maximum throughput is around 90% when G is
between 3 to 8

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IEEE 802.X Standards
Name Description
IEEE 802.1 Bridging (networking) and Network Management
IEEE 802.2 LLC
IEEE 802.3 ETHERNET
IEEE 802.4 Token bus
IEEE 802.5 Defines the MAC layer for a Token Ring
IEEE 802.6 MANs (DQDB)
IEEE 802.7 Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable
IEEE 802.8 Fiber Optic TAG
IEEE 802.9 Integrated Services LAN (ISLAN or ISO Ethernet)
IEEE 802.10 Interoperable LAN Security
WIRELESS LAN (WLAN) & MESH (WI-FI
IEEE 802.11 A/B/G/N
CERTIFICATION)
IEEE 802.12 100BaseVG
IEEE 802.13 Unused
IEEE 802.14 Cable modems
IEEE 802.15 Wireless PAN
IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth certification
IEEE 802.15.2 IEEE 802.15 and IEEE 802.11 coexistence
IEEE 802.15.3 High-Rate wireless PAN
IEEE 802.15.4 Low-Rate wireless PAN (e.g., ZigBee, WirelessHART, MiWi)
IEEE 802.15.5 Mesh networking for WPAN
IEEE 802.15.6 Body area network
IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (WiMAX certification)
IEEE 802.16.1 Local Multipoint Distribution Service
IEEE 802.17 Resilient packet ring
IEEE 802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG
IEEE 802.19 Coexistence TAG
IEEE 802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
IEEE 802.21 Media Independent Handoff
IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Network

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IEEE 802.23 Emergency Services Working Group
IEEE 802.24 Smart Grid TAG
IEEE 802.25 Omni-Range Area Network

Specification Description
802.1 Sets Internetworking standards related to network management.

802.2 Defines the general standard for the DLL. The IEEE divides this layer into 2 sublayers:
LLC and MAC layers. The MAC layer varies with different network types and is defined
by standard IEEE 802.3.

802.3 Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use Carrier-Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). This is the Ethernet Standard.
802.4 Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a token-passing mechanism (Token Bus
LAN).
802.5 Defines the MAC layer for token ring networks (Token Ring LAN).

802.6 Sets standards for metropolitan area networks (MANs), which are data networks
designed for towns or cities. In terms of geographic breadth, MANs are larger than
LANs, but smaller than WANs. MANs are usually characterized by very-high-speed
connections using fiber-optic cables or other digital media.
802.7 Used by the Broadband Technical Advisory Group.
802.8 Used by the Fiber-Optic Technical Advisory Group.
802.9 Defines integrated voice/data networks.
802.10 Defines network security.
802.11 Defines wireless network standards.
802.12 Defines Demand Priority Access LAN, 100BaseVG-AnyLAN.

802.13 Unused.
802.14 Defines cable modem standards.
802.15 Defines wireless personal area networks (WPAN).
802.16 Defines broadband wireless standards

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IEEE 802.3
STANDARD ETHERNET

 Local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network that is designed for a limited geographic
area such as a building or a campus.
 Although a LAN can be used as an isolated network to connect computers in an organization
for the sole purpose of sharing resources, most LANs today are also linked to a wide area
network (WAN) or the Internet.
 The LAN market has several technologies such as Ethernet, Token Ring, Token Bus, FDDI,
and ATM LAN. Ethernet is by far the dominant technology among these.
 In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project 802, to set
standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a variety of manufacturers.
 Project 802 is a way of specifying functions of the physical layer and the data link layer of
major LAN protocols.
 The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers: logical link control (LLC) and
media access control (MAC). IEEE has also created several physical layer standards for
different LAN protocols.

 In IEEE Project 802,

o Flow control, error control, and part of the framing duties are collected into one
sublayer called the logical link control.
o Framing is handled in both the LLC sublayer and the MAC sublayer.
o The LLC provides one single data link control protocol for all IEEE LANs.
o In this way, the LLC is different from the media access control sublayer MAC, which
provides different protocols for different LANs

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 The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).
Since then, it has gone through four generations.
o Standard ETHERNET (10 Mbps)
o Fast ETHERNET (100 Mbps)
o Giga bit ETHERNET (1 Gbps)
o Ten Gigabit ETHERNET (10 Gbps)

 Standard Ethernet uses 1-persistent CSMA/CD at LLC layer to resolve multiple access conflicts.
 In Standard Ethernet, the MAC sublayer governs the operation of the access method. It also
frames data received from the upper layer and passes them to the physical layer.
The frame format is given by

 Preamble: It contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating Os and 1s that alerts the receiving
system to the coming frame and enables it to synchronize its input timing. The
preamble is actually added at the physical layer and is not (formally) part of the frame.
 Start frame delimiter (SFD): The second field (l byte: 10101011) indicates the
beginning of the frame. The SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance
for synchronization. The last 2 bits is 11 and alerts the receiver that the next field is the
destination address.
 Destination address (DA): The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address
of the destination station or stations to receive the packet.
 Source address (SA): The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of
the sender of the packet.
 Length or type: The original Ethernet used this field as the type field to define the
upper-layer protocol using the MAC frame. The IEEE standard used it as the length
field to define the number of bytes in the data field. Both uses are common today.
 Data: This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols. It is a
minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes.
 CRC: The last field contains error detection information, in this case a CRC-32

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COMPUTER NETWORKS (VR-17) UNIT-4 MAC SUBLAYER
 The minimum and maximum size of the ETHERNET frame is given by

o The ETHERNET frame needs to have a minimum length of 64 Bytes. By excluding the
header and trailer parts, the minimum length of data from upper layer is 46 Bytes. If the
data is less than 46 bytes, zero padding is done.
o This defines the maximum length of a frame as 1518 Bytes. By excluding the header
and trailer parts, the maximum length of data from upper layer is 1500 Bytes.
 The ADDRESSING is done as follows
o Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC, workstation, or printer) has its own
network interface card (NIC).
o The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6-byte physical address.

o A source address is always a unicast address. But the destination address can be
unicast, multicast, or broadcast.
o If the least significant bit of the first byte in a destination address is 0, the address is
unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.

o The broadcast destination address is a special case of the multicast address in which all
bits are 1s. (FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF)

 The Standard ETHERNET uses various PHYSICAL LAYER strategies. They are
o Co-axial cable (10 Base-5, 10-Base-2)
o Twisted Pair cable (10 Base-T)
o Fiber optic cable (10 Base-F)
The encoding technique used here is MANCHESTER ENCODING/DECODING.

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The PHYSICAL LAYER strategies are

 10 BASE-5:
o Derives from the size of the cable.
o This was the first Ethernet specification to use a BUS topology with an external
transceiver (transmitter/receiver) connected via a tap to a thick coaxial cable.

 10 BASE-2:
o It also uses a BUS topology, but the cable is much thinner and more flexible.
o The cable can be bent to pass very close to the stations.
o In this case, the transceiver is normally part of the network interface card (NIC), which
is installed inside the station.
o This implementation is more cost effective than 10Base5 because of
 Thin coaxial cable is less expensive than thick coaxial
 The TEE connections are much cheaper than taps.
 Installation is simpler because the thin coaxial cable is very flexible.
o However, the length of each segment cannot exceed 185 m (close to 200 m) due to the
high level of thin coaxial cable.

 10 BASE-T:
o Uses a physical star topology. The stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of
twisted cable.
o Note that two pairs of twisted cable create two paths (one for sending and one for
receiving) between the station and the hub. Any collision here happens in the hub.
o The maximum length of the twisted cable here is defined as 100 m, to minimize the
effect of attenuation in the twisted cable.

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 10 BASE-F:
o This is most commonly used
o It uses a star topology to connect stations to a hub. The stations are connected to the
hub using two fiber-optic cables

 The summary of all these strategies are tabulated as

Characteristics 10 Base 5 10 Base 2 10 Base T 10 Base F
Media Thick Coaxial Thin Coaxial 2 UTP 2 Fiber
Cable Cable
Maximum 500m 185m 100m 2000m
Length
Encoding Manchester Manchester Manchester Manchester

 There is a relation between the slot time and maximum length of the network. It is depends on
the propagation speed of the signal in the particular domain.

Maximum length=propagation speed*(slot time/2)

 The propagation speed is given by 2*108 meters/sec in most of the transmission media.
 The slot time is defined as “The round-trip time required for a frame to travel from one end of
a maximum length network to the other end plus the time needed to send the JAM sequence”.
o For Standard ETHERNET, it is the time required to send the 512 bite i.e. 51.2micro
seconds.
 So the maximum length of the network is given by 5120meters. (Theoretical value)
 But in practical scenarios, we need to consider the delay times in repeaters and interfaces. So
the maximum length of the network is 48% of the theoretical value (2500 meters)

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FAST ETHERNET
IEEE 802.3u

 The design goals of the FAST ETHERNET are

o Upgrade the data rate to 10Mbps
o Make it compatible with Standard ETHERNET
o Keep the same 48-bit address
o Keep the same frame format
o Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths
 The main consideration in this evolution is to raise the data rate from 10Mbps to 100Mbps, so
that the MAC sub-layer to be maintained as same as standard one (i.e.) no changes are
entertained.
 But we consider only the STAR topology and exclude the BUS topology in the physical layer
implementation.
o In Half-Duplex, the stations are connected via a HUB
o In Full-Duplex, the connection is made via a SWITCH with buffers at each port.
 The multiple access method is
o For Half-Duplex----CSMA/CD
o For Full-Duplex -----No access method is needed
But we keep CSMA/CD for backward compatibility with Standard ETHERNET
 A new feature is added to FAST ETHERNET is called AUTO NEGOTIATION.
o It allows a station or a hub a range of capabilities.
o It allows two devices to negotiate the mode or data rate of operation.
o It was designed particularly for following purposes…
 To allow incompatible devices to connect to one another.
 To allow one device to have multiple capabilities
 To allow a station to check a hub’s capabilities
 The PHYSICAL LAYER in this is more compatible
o This is designed to connect two or more stations together
o If there are only two stations, they can be connected via Point-to-Point link
o If there are more devices, they are connected in STAR topology with a HUB or
SWITCH at the center.

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 The FAST ETHERNET implementation at Physical Layer can be categorized as

o Two wire
 Category-5 UTP (100 Base-TX)
 Optical fiber (100 Base-FX)
o Four wire
 Category-3 UTP (100 Base-T4)

 The line coding adopted here is MANCHESTER CODING

o It needs a 200Mbaud bandwidth for a data rate of 100Mbps, which is not possible with
Twisted-pair cable.
o So the encoding schemes can be given as

 In 100 Base-TX
o It uses 2 pairs of Twisted pair cable.
o It adopts MLT-3 encoding because of its good bandwidth performance
o To provide self-synchronization, 4B/5B Block coding is adopted
o With 4B/5B Block coding, it creates a data rate of 125 Mbps, which is fed to MLT-3
for encoding.

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 In 100 Base-FX
o It uses two pairs of Optical fiber cables
o As it can handle high bandwidth requirements, we use simple line coding schemes (in
this, we adopt NRZ-I encoding
o Here also, in order to provide self-synchronization, 4B/5B Block coding is adopted

 In 100 Base-TX
o To provide a data rate of 100Mbps, it requires the use of Category-3 UTP or STP
cables.
o It uses 4-pairs of UTP for transmitting 100Mbps

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GIGABIT ETHERNET
IEEE 802.3z

 The design goals of Gigabit ETHERNET are

o Upgrade the data rate to 1Gbps
o Make it compatible with Standard and Fast ETHERNET
o Use the same 48-bit address
o Use same frame format
o Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths
o To support Auto-negotiation
 In this design also, the MAC sub-layer be keep as same and no changes are entertained
 The implementation of Gigabit ETHERNET is happed in
o Half-Duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode
 In Full-duplex mode
o There is a central switch connected to all computers and other switches
o Each switch has buffers for each input port
o There is no collision is going to be occur. So CSMA/CD is not used
o So the maximum length of the cable is determined by the signal attenuation in the cable
 In Half-Duplex mode
o It is rarely used
o In this, the SWITCH is replaced by HUB, where collision might be occurred
o This uses CSMA/CD
o The maximum length of the cable is depends on minimum frame size
o In this three methods are defined
 Traditional
 Carrier Extension
 Frame Bursting
 The PHYSICAL LAYER is more complicated than in STANDARD ETHERNET and FAST
ETHERNET
o The topologies used are
 If there are only two stations, they can be connected by POINT-TO-POINT
 Three or more stations can be connected in STAR topology with HUB or
SWITCH at the center.
 Another possibility is to connect several STAR topologies in STAR topology.

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 Its implementation can be categorized as

o Two-wire
 Optical fiber (1000 Base-SX, 1000 Base-LX)
 STP (1000 Base-CX)
o Four –wire
 CAT-5 Twisted Pair cable (1000 Base-T)

 GIGABIT ETHERNET can’t use Manchester encoding scheme because it involves very high
bandwidth
o Two –Wire implementations use NRZ schemes, and to provide self-synchronizations
we adopt 8B/10B block encoding
o In four-wire implementation, 4D-PAM5 encoding be used in order to reduce the
Bandwidth

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Summary of Gigabit Ethernet implementations is given by…..

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TEN GIGABIT ETHERNET

IEEE 802.3ae

 The design goals can be given as

o Upgrade the data rate to 10Gbps
o Make it compatible with Standard and Fast and Gigabit ETHERNET
o Use the same 48-bit address
o Use same frame format
o Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths
o Allow the interconnection of existing LAN’s into Man or WAN
o Make ETHERNET compatible with technologies such as FRAME RELAY and ATM
 It operates only in Full-Duplex mode which means there is no need for contention. So
CSMA/CD is not used
 The physical layer is designed using Optical Fiber cable over long distances.
 The physical layer implementations are
o 10G Base-S
o 10G Base-L
o 10G Base-E
 The summary of physical layer implementations are given by---

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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss about the problems in Static channel allocation and what are the assumptions of
Dynamic channel allocation?
2. Explain how the Slotted ALOHA solved the problem of channel allocation?
3. Write about CSMA and CSMA/CD in detail?
4. Write short notes on collision free protocols?
5. Discuss about limited contention protocols?
6. Explain about Wireless LAN protocols?
7. What are the different cable topologies for ETHERNET?
8. Explain about CSMA with CD with a neat diagram?
9. Compare the throughput of Pure ALOHA with Slotted ALOHA?
10. What is CSMA and what are different approaches?
11. Explain various classes of IEEE 802.X standard ETHERNET?
12. Discuss about Fast ETHERNET and explain about its physical layer implementations?
13. Discuss about Gigabit ETHERNET and explain about its physical layer implementations?
14. Explain about 10Gigabit ETHERNET?
15. Explain the advantages of Wireless LANs?
16. Explain Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA protocols?

DEPT. OF ECE, VIIT