5 BB49 ECBd 01

AE6450 Fall 2004
Lecture # 8
Turbomachinery for Liquid Rocket Engines
Copyright © 2003 1
Narayanan Komerath
Demands on Rocket Turbomachinery
•Huge propellant flow rates.
F1 (Apollo Saturn II first stage, LOX-RP1) 2600 kg/s
J2 (Apollo Saturn II 2nd & 3rd stages: LOX-LH2: 250 kg/s
SSME: LOX/LH2 468 kg/s
(Compare to 100 kg/s for typical 20,000 lbf thrust fighter engine)
•Huge pressures: 55MPa for SSME LOX pump; 45 MPa for LH2
•Very high Power per unit mass. SSME LH2 pump: 100HP per lb.
Copyright © 2003 2
Narayanan Komerath
Where we need turbopumps
Payload
Ratio Turbopump System
Gas Pressurized
System
∆u
At high values of ∆u, the turbopump makes a big difference to the

payload ratio of the vehicle
Copyright © 2003 3
Narayanan Komerath
Successful Designs
RocketDyne Mark 3 (2500+ produced) or H-1 pump (below)
Both fuel and LOX pumps on the same shaft. Each has:
- Axial inducer – single centrifugal stage pump on the same
shaft.
Two-stage axial turbine running at 4.9 times the pump speed.
Large gear reduction unit.

This cutaway drawing of the turbopump
for the H-1 engine shows the back-to-
back arrangement of oxidizer pump (at
left end) and fuel pump (at right end)
operating off a common turbine and
gear box (center). The propeller-like
inducer blades can be seen on the left
end of the shaft.
history.nasa.gov/ SP-4206/p94.jpg
Copyright © 2003 4
Narayanan Komerath
A cutaway drawing of
the Mark 10
turbopump for the F-1
engine
http://history.nasa.gov/ SP-4206/ch4.htm
Copyright © 2003 5
Narayanan Komerath
SSME Turbopumps
LOX and LH2 inducers separated from respective pumps and driven by different
turbines at very different speeds. One centrifugal stage for LOX (highest
pressure); Three centrifugal stages for LH2. No gear reduction unit.
http://elifritz.members.atlantic.net/photos/ssme3.gif
Copyright © 2003 6
Narayanan Komerath
Some Preliminary Design Considerations
Engine thrust requirement generates requirements for mass flow rate and
chamber pressure.
This leads to the requirement for the pump system mass flow rate and
exit pressure.
Centrifugal pumps allow much larger pressure rise per stage than axial pumps.
Also, easier to deal with fluid vaporization / multiphase flows in centrifugal
pumps than in axial pumps.
A centrifugal pump stage takes fluid in near the hub and sends it out near
the tip of the “Impeller”.
D1t D2t
Copyright © 2003 7
Narayanan Komerath
Inducer
At the first stage inlet of a centrifugal impeller, there is suction.
An “Inducer” is a pump which pressurizes fluid whose static pressure is
not much higher than its vapor pressure. This allows the propellant tank
pressure to be kept low, minimizing tank weight.
Without an inducer, the suction at the impeller inlet would boil the liquid
and cause “cavitation”. Cavitation has two terrible effects:
•Extended operation under cavitation (bubble form and burst, with very
large pressure fluctuations) erode and eventually destroy blade surfaces.
This is not a big deal for rocket pumps whose entire operation lifetimes are
measured in a few minutes.
•Formation of vapor blocks the flow passages and cuts down the mass
flow rate. Big problem.
An inducer pressure rise of 10%-20% prevents cavitation
Copyright © 2003 8
Narayanan Komerath
Net Positive Suction Head
How far the inlet pressure is above the vapor pressure. About 10 – 20% is
considered adequate to prevent significant cavitation problems.
Pi − Pvapor
NPSH = = net positive suction head (m, ft)
gρ
(Table B.1 – pp 696 Humble)
Copyright © 2003 9
Narayanan Komerath
Pump efficiencies vary with speed, size, propellant types.
Humble recommends (Pg. 212) 80% for LOX,
hp RP and other dense liquids; 75% for LH2
This power comes from the turbine
turbine gas
Specific Speed
 γ −1 
  1  γ 
Pturbine −avail = ηt mtCPTi 1 − 
 
P
  t − ratio  
 
=(turbine efficiency) (mass flow through the turbine)(function of turbine
inlet temp. & turbine pressure ratio)
where
 Pin 
  = Pt − ratio
 Pout turbine
Copyright © 2003 10
Narayanan Komerath
ηT ≈ 70 % per Humble (varies)
mass flow rate depends on cycle choice, GG vs SC etc.
For GG or SC engines, Ti = 1100K

which is the highest obtainable for
typical construction materials
(titanium).
For expander cycle, Ti is lower depending on how much heat is

absorbed through nozzle cooling (650K down to 225K).
In balance,
Ppump − req = Pturbine− avail

This is often an iterative solution as speeds, efficiencies, mass flows,
and other parameters change.
Narayanan Komerath
Example:
Fuel side
892lbm/s
H=4790ft
∆ηP = 65.8%
[ 2
32.2 ft / s  ]
 1kg 

 32.2lbm 
[892lbm / s ][4790 ft ]
Ppump − req =
.658
= 6.493 × 106 ft − lb = 11,800 HP
Narayanan Komerath
Turbine
(1BTU/s=1.41455HP )
O 
F = .415forLOX / RP 
  Pi, Ti
γ ≈ 1.124
BTU
CP = .653
lbm − R 0 Pe
Ti = 14000 F = 1860R
ηT = 58.2%
Ptmt = 23.7
. lbm
m = 92
s
Narayanan Komerath
 BTU 
Pturbine − avail = . 582 [92 lbm / s ]. 653 0
[1860 R ]
 lbm − R 
 . 124 
1 −  1  1 . 124 
   
 23 . 7 
 
BTU 1.415HP 
= 19169.2 =
s  1BTU / s 
Pturbine− avail = 27124HP
Narayanan Komerath
Terminology
Stage specific speed
Nr Q m3 / s m.75
Ns = .75
= pump stage specific speed (units =
=
HP  m.75
s1 / 2
 n 
n = number of stages to get head rise required by each stage
In SI units, Humble recommends sizing Ns to be ~ 2 for LH2 and 3 for other liquids
as a reasonable compromise between pumping efficiency and high rad/s.
In the case of centrifugal pumps, stage specific speed indicates the ratio of
inlet diameters.
Low value indicates high friction losses in small passages
– low pump efficiency.
At high values (~ 8), it is better to use axial stages. For values between 3 and 5
for most liquids, centrifugal pumps give efficiencies on the order of 80%,
for centrifugal impellers diameters greater than 10 cm.
Narayanan Komerath
Suction-specific speed Uss
This characterizes suction performance, and indicates the minimum net

positive suction head at which a pump operating at a given rotation speed and
volume flow rate, can operate without cavitation affecting performance. A given
pump inlet geometry gives close to the same suction specific speed no matter
what its absolute values of size, rotation speed or volume flow rate.
Large values indicate ability to operate at low inlet pressure –

- large pump inlet tip diameter and small inlet hub diameter to minimize inlet
axial velocity head (which is a big part of the NPSH) .
- thin, gradually curving blades with sharp leading edges to get minimal static
pressure gradients on blade surfaces.
Narayanan Komerath
(Humble eq. 5.63)
where uss = suction-specific speed depending on type of propellant

being pumped
= 130 LH2
90 cryogenics other than LH2
70 non-cryogenic liquids
Ω=
(
uss NPSH )
.75
Q
(this limits how fast the pump rotates)
Narayanan Komerath
Turbo-machinery design variables
Pumps
Types of pumps
•Radial Î good for higher specific speeds

•Mixed Flow
Î provides higher suction parameter
•Axial
Define
.
m pump volumetric flow rate (m3/s or gpm)
Q= =
ρ
∆P pump head pressure rise (m, ft)
HP = P =
gρ
Pi − Pvapor
NPSH = = net positive suction head (m, ft)
gρ
(Table B.1 – pp 696 Humble)
(amount of excess pressure at pump inlet above vapor pressure to avoid

cavitation)
Narayanan Komerath
Assuming we have a boost pump in the line
Then …
Humble Eq. 5.61

Ω Q
Ns = .75
= pump stage specific speed (units = m3 / s m.75
 HP  .75
=
 n  m s1/ 2
n = number of stages to get head rise required by each stage
In SI units, Humble recommends sizing Ns to be ~ 2 for LH2 and 3 for other liquids
as a reasonable compromise between pumping efficiency and high rad/s.
Narayanan Komerath
30Ω
Alternatively, N= RPM (revolutions per minute)
π
Note 1: in English units, Q is often gallons/minuts and H is in ft. As a

result, Ns in English units is typically 500-3000 meets higher numbers.
Note 2: At higher Ns values, axial pumps are more competitive (often

used for LH2) where ρ is low.
If we don’t have a boost pump, then we need to worry about cavitation

(i.e., NPSH)
Narayanan Komerath
Pump Size
Humble recommends taking the lower allowable Ω from the two expressions
(based on uss or Ns) if there is no boost pump, else just use the first formula (5.61).
Once we have Ω, we can estimate the pump size ( for a typical centrifugal pump
with an inducer) (empirical)
gHP
ut = = impeller tip speed (m/s)
nΨ
pump head coefficient
Ψ=
Use .60 for LH2 D1t D2t
.55 for others
2ut
D2t =
Nr
4
 π Q
D1t = 3  
(
φ Nr 1 − L2 )
Narayanan Komerath
φ = inducer flow coefficient; Use 0.10
L = inducer Dhub ; Use 0.3
Dtip −inducer
.
Recall, required shaft power g mP H (numerator is fluid power)
Preq =
ηP
(pump efficiency ~ 80% - changes with Ns)
Narayanan Komerath
Thinking ahead to system weight (empirical relationship)
Mass of turbo-pump assembly

B
 Preq  in kg (Humble 5.70)
mtp = A 
N
 r 
A = 1.3- 2.6 (say 1.5)
B = 0.6- 0.667 (say 0.6)
Nr in rad/s, Preq in watts or Nm/s
As Preq ↑ mtp ↓ as N r ↑ mtp ↑
Narayanan Komerath
Compressor Basics
Objective: To increase the pressure of a propellant/working fluid before heat

addition. The thermodynamic cycle efficiency of a gas turbine engine is
strongly dependent on the ratio of the highest to the lowest pressure in the
engine.
Compressors usually operate in two steps (though in some designs

it may not be possible to distinguish between these steps):
1. Increase the momentum of the fluid by doing work on it (using

rotor blades, for example)
2. Decelerate the air to increase static pressure (using stator stages).
Often, the compression takes place through several compressor

stages, with each stage increasing the pressure by a factor of, say,
1.8 or 2. Modern jet engines may have as many as 15 compressor
stages, rotating on as many as three independent concentric shafts.
Both "Centrifugal" and "Axial" compressors are used.
Narayanan Komerath
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
The tuboprop engine shown above uses
two stages of centrifugal compression.
Here the air enters the compressor close
to the hub, and is then impelled outwards
by the blades. It is then passed through an
expanding duct at the periphery before
being led back towards the hub for the
next compression stage. The blades that
push the air towards the periphery and
increase its momentum are the rotor
blades, while the expanding duct is the
stator or diffuser passage.
Narayanan Komerath
Features of centrifugal compressors
1. Large pressure ratio per

stage: stage pressure ratios
can be as high as 3 or 4.
2. Few moving parts.
Such compressor stages are

used on the low-pressure
shaft of helicopter engines
and turboprop engines. One
famous application is in the
Space Shuttle Main Engine
turbopumps.
142.26.194.131/systems1/Engines/ gas_turbine_engines.htm
Narayanan Komerath
AXIAL COMPRESSOR
The compressor of the turbofan engine
shown above is axial: the air moves
primarily in a direction parallel to the axis
of the engine.
Each stage of the axial compressor consists of a rotor and a stator. Both
rotor and stator are made up of a large number of individual blades, which
are twisted airfoils, usually with a high degree of camber.
The rotor blades add work to the air, so that the stagnation enthalpy rises,
along with the stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure. This is
usually accompanied by an increase in the velocity.
The stator blade passages straighten out the flow and act as diffusers,
slowing down the flow and thus increasing the static pressure and static
temperature.
Narayanan Komerath
The flow through an axial compressor can be considered to
consist of three types of flows:
1. Axisymmetric flow with work addition through an annular duct:
Cz
2
A2
Cz
1
ρ1 A1cz1 = ρ2 A2cz 2
A1
Narayanan Komerath
2. Flow over blade rows (cascades)
ROTOR STATOR
Streamline
Narayanan Komerath
3. Secondary flows (recirculating flows, tip vortices, hub vortices,
rotor/stator interactions, etc.)
Stator
Interaction Inboard
Wake
Root Vortex Shock/Boundary layer Centrifugal
Interaction Effects
Blade Wake Leakage Flow Boundary layer

Separation
Wall Boundary Layer

Secondary-flow features in the
outboard region of an axial compressor
Horseshoe Vortex
stage
Secondary-flow features in the

inboard region of an axial compressor
stage
Narayanan Komerath
FLOW THROUGH A SINGLE STAGE
Objectives:
Obtain expressions for
1. Torque and work per stage
2. Stagnation temperature rise
3. Stagnation pressure rise
4. Stage efficiency
5. Limiting pressure ratio per stage,
and relate these to the stage velocity diagrams.
Reference Frames:
The velocity of air at any station,
K measured with respect to the engine
c
walls, is called the "absolute velocity", denoted by G
w
The velocity of air Gmeasured relative to a rotor blade is
K G
Thus, c =U + w
G K
where the blade speed at that radius is U = Ωr ,
2π N
and | Ω |=
60
with N being the shaft speed in revolutions per minute (RPM).
Narayanan Komerath
Velocity Diagrams for a Single Axial Stage
Note: Values in
diagram, such as U, change
from section to section
along same blade.
U
If a given streamline stays near
a given radial location, U
remains almost the same going
from rotor inlet through stator exit
- true in axial compressor. c1
c2
Ua
w1
w2
Narayanan Komerath
Relation Between Work and Turning Angles
Conservation of Angular Momentum gives:
τ
= ( rcθ )2 − ( rcθ )1
m
Torque per unit mass flow rate = rate of change of angular momentum
Assuming that radial movement of the air is negligible within each stage.
Thus, air entering the stage at radius r will leave at the same radius r.
r1 = r2
U1 = U 2
Work done on the fluid per unit time per unit mass flow rate by the rotor is:
c1
Uτ
= U (cθ 2 − cθ 1 ) c2
r
Ua
w1
w2
Narayanan Komerath
Relation Between Stagnation Temperature and
Flow Turning Angle
Torque on the stator = m ( rcθ )3 − ( rcθ )2 
Work done by the stator is zero, because the stator blades do not move
with respect to the engine walls. Thus, there is no rise in stagnation
enthalpy in the stator.
Assuming
a) uniform stagnation enthalpy per unit mass along the radius of
the blades, and
b) Adiabatic conditions (heat transfer effects are negligible),
h02 − h01 = U (∆cθ ) ∆T0 U ( ∆cθ )
=
from which we get: T01 c pT01
For the stator, since no work is done, T03 = T02

Thus, the changes in air properties through a compressor stage are related
to the velocity vectors through the rotor and stator.
Narayanan Komerath
Stage Efficiency
Stage efficiency is defined as the ratio of the ideal work to the actual work.
h03 s − h01
η st ≡
h03 − h01
Thus, the pressure stage pressure ratio is related to the stage
temperature rise using the isentropic relations:
γ
P03  ∆T0  γ −1
= 1 + ηst 
P01  T01 
Narayanan Komerath
Limits on Stage Pressure Ratio
1. Compressibility:
As the relative Mach number becomes supersonic, shock losses can
become substantial. In earlier compressors, the blade tip Mach number was
kept below 1.0 to avoid the transonic drag rise. This imposed a severe limit on
compressor shaft rpm, blade radius, and stage pressure ratio. In modern
compressors, the rotor operates in the transonic regime, with shocks present in
the rotor. While this causes some loss in stagnation pressure, much more work
can be done by each rotor stage, and the shock provides a convenient way of
increasing static pressure. As a result, stage pressure ratio is higher, and the
overall weight of the compressor is reduced.
Narayanan Komerath
2. Flow Separation:
Usually, this is what limits the stage pressure ratio. Note that
the flow in the compressor stage is moving against an adverse pressure
gradient. Boundary layers thicken, and may separate if the pressure
gradient becomes too large. This can be expressed using the pressure
coefficient
2
 w2  The limiting value of the
Cp ≡ 1−   for the rotor
pressure coefficient is
 w1  usually around 0.6 to avoid
flow separation.
2
 c3  for the stator
Cp ≡ 1−  
 c2 
Narayanan Komerath
p2
= 1 + 0.5γ C p M 12 rel
p1
This shows why the stage pressure ratio is usually limited to about 1.4
for subsonic rotors. Under extreme conditions, transonic stages can
reach stage pressure ratios as high as 2.2.
The effect of limiting stage pressure ratio on the number of stages in a

compressor can be seen from the following:
Given a compressor pressure ratio of π c , and a stage pressure ratio of π st,

the number of stages is:
log10 (π c )
n≥
log10 (π st )
Narayanan Komerath
Efficiency of Multistage Compressors
Usually, axial compressors have several stages. The efficiency of a
compressor depends not only on the design of each stage, but also on the
overall pressure ratio. In other words, given the same level of technology, a
compressor with a higher pressure ratio will have a lower efficiency. This
can be seen by relating the stage efficiency to the overall compressor
efficiency.
Polytropic efficiency:
This is a useful concept to define the level of technology of the
compressor. It is defined as the ratio of the ideal work required for a given
differential pressure change to the actual work required.
dh0 s
ec ≡
dh0
Narayanan Komerath
Using this definition, simple thermodynamics can be used to show that the
compressor efficiency and stage efficiency become
γ −1
ηc =
( )
πc γ −1 and ( π st )
γ −1
γ −1
γ −1 ηst = γ −1
( )
π c γ ec −1 (π st ) γ ec −1
The stagnation temperature ratio across a compressor with 'n' stages

can be calculated as
n   γ −1
  where 2 and 3 refer to stations
T03 
T02 j =1 
( )
= ∏ 1 + η st  π cj γ − 1  upstream and downstream of the
   compressor
Narayanan Komerath
Illustration
An axial compressor has 16 stages, with an overall pressure ratio of 25.

The stage efficiency is 0.93, and the pressure ratio is the same across
each of the stages. Calculate the compressor efficiency.
Using the above expressions, the stage pressure ratio is 1.22284. The
polytropic efficiency is 0.932, slightly higher than the stage pressure
ratio as expected, and the compressor efficiency is obtained as 0.8965.
Narayanan Komerath
Degree of Reaction
The Degree of Reaction of a turbomachine stage is defined as the ratio of

the static pressure change in the rotor to the static pressure change
through the whole stage. Thus, for example, a compressor stage with a
degree of reaction of 0.5 would share the pressure rise about equally
between the rotor and stator. This is desirable in the case of a
compressor, where the pressure gradient is the major concern. However,
turbine stages can be designed with extreme degrees of reaction
Narayanan Komerath
Solidity
The solidity of a stage is defined as the ratio of the blade chord to the
blade spacing. If the solidity is low, there is less friction in the flow,
but the blades have to work harder, and thus the pressure gradient is
worse. If the solidity is high, the frictional losses are greater, but the
machine can operate over a wider range of inlet conditions.
Generally, the solidity is around 1.
Narayanan Komerath
AXIAL TURBINES
Differences between flow field characteristics of turbines and compressors
Compressor Turbine
Adverse pressure gradient Favorable pressure gradient
Low stage pressure ratio (1.2 to 2) High stage pressure ratio (> 4)
Limited by stall Limited by choking and blade stress
Moderate temperature High temperature, requiring cooling
The engine shown has 10 fan and compressor

stages, but only four turbine stages (2 on each
spool) to provide enough work to run them. A
turbine stage consists of a "nozzle", which is
static with respect to the engine walls, and a
"rotor". The nozzle is in fact a series of
passages between aerodynamically-shaped
surfaces (essentially airfoils). The rotor blades
may be highly cambered, since flow separation
is not as big a concern as in compressors.
Narayanan Komerath
Axial Turbine
Rotor Blade
Nozzle Exhaust
Rotor Disc
Nozzle Rotor
Streamline
1 2 3
Direction
of Blade Motion Copyright © 2003 45
Narayanan Komerath
Using the same nomenclature as for the axial compressor stage
velocity diagram,
Work Output per unit mass flow rate W = h01 − h03

∆T0 U ( ∆cθ )
Also, =
T01 c pT01
thus,
W = U (cθ 2 − cθ 3 )
Note that here, T01 = T02 (no work in the nozzle).

Again, the work done per unit mass flow rate is proportional to the blade
speed achieved, and the turning of the flow.
Narayanan Komerath
Impulse Stage
In an impulse turbine stage, the entire pressure drop occurs in the
nozzle. The velocity diagram is shown below:
Note that for a turbine stage to operate, the C vector must be

considerably longer than the U vector. In the case of an impulse stage,
the flow gets turned by the impulse rotor, so that the static
termperatures and the relative flow angles are:
T2 = T3
β 2 = − β3
Narayanan Komerath
50% Reaction Stage
In a 50% Reaction Stage, the static pressure drop is split between the
rotor and the nozzle. Here, the velocity diagram is as shown below:
Nozzle Rotor
c2
Streamline
U
c3
w3
1 2 3
Direction
G G of Blade Motion
| w2 |=| c3 |
G K
| c2 |=| w3 | The velocity triangles become symmetric
Narayanan Komerath

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AE6450 Fall 2004

At high values of ∆u, the turbopump makes a big difference to the

Two-stage axial turbine running at 4.9 times the pump speed.

Large gear reduction unit.

For GG or SC engines, Ti = 1100K

For expander cycle, Ti is lower depending on how much heat is

Ppump − req = Pturbine− avail

= 6.493 × 106 ft − lb = 11,800 HP

Pturbine− avail = 27124HP

n = number of stages to get head rise required by each stage

This characterizes suction performance, and indicates the minimum net

Large values indicate ability to operate at low inlet pressure –

where uss = suction-specific speed depending on type of propellant

•Radial Î good for higher specific speeds

(amount of excess pressure at pump inlet above vapor pressure to avoid

Humble Eq. 5.61

n = number of stages to get head rise required by each stage

Note 1: in English units, Q is often gallons/minuts and H is in ft. As a

Note 2: At higher Ns values, axial pumps are more competitive (often

If we don’t have a boost pump, then we need to worry about cavitation

Mass of turbo-pump assembly

Objective: To increase the pressure of a propellant/working fluid before heat

Compressors usually operate in two steps (though in some designs

1. Increase the momentum of the fluid by doing work on it (using

Often, the compression takes place through several compressor

Both "Centrifugal" and "Axial" compressors are used.

1. Large pressure ratio per

Such compressor stages are

1. Axisymmetric flow with work addition through an annular duct:

Blade Wake Leakage Flow Boundary layer

Wall Boundary Layer

Secondary-flow features in the

Torque on the stator = m ( rcθ )3 − ( rcθ )2 

For the stator, since no work is done, T03 = T02

The effect of limiting stage pressure ratio on the number of stages in a

Given a compressor pressure ratio of π c , and a stage pressure ratio of π st,

The stagnation temperature ratio across a compressor with 'n' stages

An axial compressor has 16 stages, with an overall pressure ratio of 25.

The Degree of Reaction of a turbomachine stage is defined as the ratio of

Moderate temperature High temperature, requiring cooling

The engine shown has 10 fan and compressor

Work Output per unit mass flow rate W = h01 − h03

Note that here, T01 = T02 (no work in the nozzle).

Note that for a turbine stage to operate, the C vector must be

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Torque on the stator = m ( rcθ )3 − ( rcθ )2 