A Philosophy of Communication PDF

A PHILOSOPHY OF COMMUNICATION
FOR THE MODERN ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR
by
Daniel K. O'Bryant
A Research Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Musical Arts
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
May 2006
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UMI Number: 3210190
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A PHILOSOPHY OF COMMUNICATION
FOR THE MODERN ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR
by
Daniel K. O'Bryant
has been approved
April 2006
Chair
Supervisory Committee
ACCEPTED:
Jean, Division o f Graduate Studies
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research is to address principles of communication that a
modem orchestral conductor needs to understand and apply in order to be effective on the
podium. The scope o f research includes various books, articles, treatises, and interviews
regarding orchestral conductors and the art of conducting. With each source, the passages
specific to principles of communication were extracted, analyzed, and judged as to their
usefulness for the modem orchestral conductor. These principles are divided into four
main categories: (1) What to communicate—the surface and depth of music; (2) How to
communicate—technical and non-technical means; (3) Interaction—group psychology
and people skills; (4) Technical Development—training, practice, and differing schools
of thought. Following the body of the paper is a transcribed interview between the author
and Sir Simon Rattle of the Berlin Philharmonic, the focus of which is a discussion on
conducting technique and various principles of communication.
The intended aim of this research is to provide orchestral conductors with a set of
philosophies upon which the skills of communication can be securely grounded. These
philosophies are: (1) music must be communicated on two levels: musical surface and
musical depth; (2) the entire body, including the eyes, mouth, hands, arms, and feet can
be used to communicate; (3) intentions communicate more powerfully than technique; (4)
human understanding is more important than mechanical precision; (5) a conductor's
individual style is the only effective style; (6) a conductor must adjust to the needs of
each group; (7) some principles of communication can be universally applied; (8)
conducting schools are divided on issues of technical development—conductors should
consider all sides of the arguments; and (9) small gestures are more effective than large.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the members of my committee Dr. Timothy Russell, Dr.
David Schildkret, Dr. William Reber, Dr. Wayne Bailey, and Dr. Rodney Rogers for their
time, guidance and support. Special thanks go to Dr. Russell for his tireless efforts as a
mentor and teacher, Dr. Schildkret for his tremendous contribution in editing this paper,
and Dr. Reber for his wonderful insights on the art of conducting. I would also like to
thank Professor Gary Hill for his mentorship and advise on conducting technique. I
would like to thank Adam Unsworth for his assistance in arranging interviews with
members of the Philadelphia Orchestra and Sir Simon Rattle. I would also like to thank
Sir Simon Rattle for the time taken to interview with and give advice to a young aspiring
conductor such as myself. Lastly, I would like to thank my wife, Allison, for her
kindness, patience, and constant assistance through the entire process.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
1 WHAT TO COMMUNICATE........................................................................ 1
Surface of Music.................................................................................. 1
Depth of M usic....................................................................................4
2 COMMUNICATION BY TECHNIQUE........................................................7
Eyes......................................................................................................9
Mouth.................................................................................................10
Hands, Arms, Baton..........................................................................10
Gestures.............................................................................................11
Preparatory Beat................................................................................14
Vocalizing— Speaking and Lecturing............................................. 15
Vocalizing—Figurative Language...................................................19
Vocalizing—Singing....................................................................... 22
Body Language................................................................................ 22
3 COMMUNICATION BY INTENTION AND W IL L .................................25
Power of Intention........................................................................... 25
Mechanical Precision vs. Human Understanding..........................28
Individual Style................................................................................ 29
CHAPTER Page
4 GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND INTERACTION......................................33
Adjust to the G roup..................................................................... 33
Developing Self-Reliance............................................................39
Universal Laws of Human Communication.............................. 40
5 DEVELOPING A TECHNIQUE................................................................. 44
Divisive Issues Regarding Technical Development................ 44
Academic Training and Individual Practice.............................44
Baton............................................................................................ 47
Conducting from M emory..........................................................51
Agreed Upon Issues Regarding Technical Development 53
6 CONCLUSION................................................................................................57
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................... 59
APPENDIX..............................................................................................................................62
vi
CHAPTER 1
WHAT TO COMMUNICATE
The entire aim o f the conductor's art is to communicate musical ideas effectively
to and through other people. A conductor needs this ability above all others.1 To be
effective, a conductor must learn to communicate in a variety of roles, including leader,
administrator, recruiter, entertainer, educator, producer, artist, and musician, but it is
when standing on the podium in the role of artist, musician, and leader that
communication becomes the most crucial factor in a conductor's success.
Music is communicated on two levels: musical surface and musical depth. Jamake
Highwater said:
There is an inner and an outer music. When we are content with the outer shape of
things and present them repeatedly as profound truth we are likely to be dealing
with superficiality but calling it fiindamentality.2
The surface of music is the quality of sound, the sensuality of the aural experience. The
depth of music is the essence and meaning, the spirituality of the artistic experience. A
conductor communicates both levels of music through a variety of methods, both
technical and non-technical.
Surface of Music
Most of the surface issues, such as tone, articulation, balance, line, rhythm, cut
offs, entrances, etc., are communicated technically through a variety o f manual gestures
and verbal commands. This manual technique has a direct and discernible impact on the
1 Helana Matheopoulos, Maestro: Encounters with Conductors o f Today (New York: Harper and Row,
Publishers, 1982), 33.
2 James Jordan, The Musicians' Soul (Chicago: G.I. A Publications, 1999), 66.
2
quality of sound produced by an ensemble. Nicolai Malko went so far as to say that a
wrong movement by the conductor produces a mistake in the sound, whether obvious to
the listener or not, because conducting gestures affect the way people play their
instruments and therefore the overall sound or surface of the music.3
The conductor must decide, depending on the situation, which surface elements
need the most attention. The conductor should change gestures to suit the needs of the
music and the musicians, whether communicating line, beat, texture, tone, articulation,
etc. It all depends on the needs of the music and the musicians at each given moment.
That being said, however, it is important to note that many conductors and
musicians believe line and phrasing to be the most important surface elements a
conductor can show. Wilhelm Furtwangler believed that conducting beats instead of
phrases destroys the feeling of a flowing melody. The premise of this argument is based
on the belief that most music is felt in large, overarching gestures and phrases, and not in
beats and bar-lines. The existence of bar-lines and metric divisions can sometimes lead to
unmusical results if the larger phrases and overall development of the music becomes
broken into small, unrelated, single-bar fragments.4 Richard Strauss complained about
this problem by saying, “second-rate conductors are inclined to pay too much attention to
the elaboration of rhythmic detail, thus overlooking phrasing.”5
Simon Rattle, conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic, observed that good
musicians will generally keep the beats together on their own, without the conductor’s
3 Nicolai Malko, The Conductor and His Baton (Copenhagen: Wilhelm Hansen, 1950), 27.
4 Wilhelm Furtwangler, Aufzeichnungen 1924-1954 (Notebooks 1924-1954) (New York: Quartet Books,
1989), 77.
5 Carl Bamberger, ed., The Conductor's A rt (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965), 120.
3
help, which makes beat patterns controlling, redundant, and unnecessary in many
situations.6 O f course, this all depends on the music and musicians, and how much
control over the beat is needed. Some music does require explicit beat patterns, but in
most cases it is better for the musicians to keep the beat on their own while the conductor
guides the overall line and shape 7
This is especially true in large ensembles where there are many different opinions
about how the phrasing should go. The musicians cannot be left alone to decide the
phrasing because they will likely not be unified in their approach, making the conductor
the only person who can unify the overall treatment of phrasing. Adam Unsworth, section
hom player in the Philadelphia Orchestra, observed that a group of musicians rarely agree
upon the way something should be phrased. He stated that the orchestra approaches a
piece by playing phrases in a generic, non-shaped way, until the conductor tells them how
he or she wants it to be played. He believes that phrasing is the most important musical
aspect that a conductor should take control of because the group cannot do it on their own
in a unified fashion.8 Rattle also believes that phrasing is the one responsibility a
conductor should not relinquish to the orchestra, because doing so creates disunity in
musical expression.9
The main exception to this rule is when there is only one person playing a
particular phrase. In such situations the conductor can decide not to interfere with the
6 Matheopoulos, 391.
7 Simon Rattle, interview by author, 13 February 2006, Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts,
Philadelphia. Notes in possession o f author.
8 Adam Unsworth, interview by author, 15 February 2006, Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts,
9 Rattle interview.
4
preferences o f the soloist because ensemble unity is not an issue. Bernard Haitink seldom
interferes with soloists' interpretations because, as he believes, “if they are not good it
doesn't help, and if they are, it isn't necessary." He believes that a conductor can gain
insight and new ideas from listening to soloists rather than directing them.10
Other exceptions apply when the ensemble is not fully capable of keeping the beat
together on their own. In such situations, according to Adam Unsworth and Chris
Deviney of the Philadelphia Orchestra, showing the phrase can actually produce the
opposite effect,11 because the musicians, who are deprived of—and therefore insecure
with—the beat, will think of nothing but the beat. This leads to a very non-phrased, beat-
oriented, timid style of playing.12 This is analogous to a starving man who cannot focus
on the finer things in life until his basic nutritional needs are met. As Peter Fuchs asserts,
the musicians must first feel anchored and secure with the rhythmic underpinnings of the
music before switching into the finer, more expressive mode of phrasing.13 Sometimes
orchestra members are secure enough on their own, other times they are not. The
conductor must be sensitive to the needs of the players in order to appropriately decide
when to show beats and when to show phrasing.
Depth of Music
The deeper, more spiritual aspects of music are mostly communicated through
non-technical means. Glen Haynes applies the term ‘non-technicaF to methods of
11 Unsworth interview.
12 Christopher Deviney, interview by author, 11 February 2006, Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts,
13 Peter Paul Fuchs, The Psychology o f Conducting (New York: MCA Music, 1969), 61.
5
communication that cannot be systematically analyzed and taught in conducting
textbooks because of the subjective and individual nature of such methods.14
The depth, spirit, character, and general feeling of a piece must always be
communicated or the music risks losing its very soul and meaning. Serge Koussevitsky
taught that the music might also lose the appropriate treatment of sound, for the surface
of music must be linked to and inspired by the depth.15 It is the meaning, general feeling,
spirit, and character of a piece that determines the technical treatment of sound. Because
of this, Herbert von Karajan stated that what is most important for a conductor is “that he
feels what he does—and that he has the ability to transmit it.”16 Fritz Reiner made similar
observations, saying, “Only he who can discover the secret emotional meaning of a
masterpiece, and can then transmit it without static or interference, through the dynamic
microphone of his personality, to the amplifying orchestra, is worthy to be a
conductor.”17
The type of spirit, character, and energy that needs to be communicated depends
entirely upon the music. To just say that music must have energy is not specific enough,
because there are many types and qualities of energy. From observing numerous
conductors at work, Helena Matheopoulos concluded that raw energy alone is not what
needs to be communicated—it must be filtered through the meaning of the music.18 For
example, the energy used for Debussy’s Prelude to an Afternoon with a Faun is very
14 Glen Alan Haynes, Non~Technical Communication in Conducting and its Presentation in Selected
Textbooks, D.M.A. dissertation (The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1994), 21-22.
15 Bamberger, 144.
17 Fritz Reiner, "The Secrets o f the Conductor," The Etude Music Magazine, July 1936, 4.
18 Matheopoulos, xix.
6
different from that of Tchaikovsky’s Marche Slave because the character and meaning is
different. A funeral march differs from a parade march for the same reason. Some
formulaic and programmatic music might require no emotional energy at all if the
music’s goal is not to express human emotion, but some other object, program, or idea
instead. There are literally hundreds of options to choose from when determining the type
of spirit, character, and energy that needs to be communicated.
Tempo affects the character and meaning of music more than anything else.
Richard Wagner commented on this principle by saying:
The whole duty of a conductor is comprised in his ability always to indicate the
right tempo. His choice of tempo will show whether he understands the piece or
not. With good players, the true tempo induces correct phrasing and expression,
and conversely, with a conductor, the idea of appropriate phrasing and expression
will induce the conception of the true tempo.19
If the tempo is either too fast or too slow, the true meaning of the music will be distorted.
Therefore, a conductor’s most important responsibility, with regard to musical depth, is
to find the right tempo. From this comes the right character and spirit, which determines
every other aspect of the music
19 Richard Wagner, Ueber das Dirigiren (On Conducting) (New York: Dover Publications, 1989), 20.
CHAPTER 2
COMMUNICATION BY TECHNIQUE
Like music, effective communication takes place on two levels: external and
internal. The external, or surface, level of communication is the technical ability to
express something. The internal, or deeper, level of communication is the reason,
intention, and desire to express something.
Having the technical ability to express all aspects of music is of the utmost
importance to the conductor. There must be no question in the minds of the players what
the conductor’s intentions are, and a highly developed technique will allow the players to
see those intentions more clearly. Malko said, “tecnic(sic) has the same importance for
the conductor as it has for any other musician-performer.”20 The purpose of all musical
technique is to make the intentions of the musician, conductor, and performer as clear as
possible by removing all distractions and obstructions that cover or distort the intended
musical meaning. Higher levels of technical refinement will lead to purer and more direct
levels of expression.
The importance of technique can be emphasized with the following analogy:
Toddlers often struggle with the ability to communicate because they lack the skills
necessary to express themselves clearly. This is especially problematic when they speak
to those unfamiliar with their form o f baby talk. For example, shortly after the babysitter
arrives, the toddler begins asking for things, but the inability to communicate leads to a
frustrating time for both the baby and the sitter. As the child matures, so will its technical
ability to communicate, and such frustrations will become less frequent.
20 Malko, 13.
8
The same principle applies to conductors. They might know what they want to
say, but if their technical skills are lacking, their inability to express themselves will be
frustrating for them and the players. Elizabeth Green taught this principle by saying,
“When the impulse o f will is strong and the technique is weak, the conductor is eternally
confronted with feelings of frustration. His muscles tend to tense up and he tends to
substitute mental and emotional drive for physical technique.”21
The conductor has many technical tools to choose from, all of which are useful
and effective, depending on the situation. Most conducting books concentrate on the
arms, hands, and baton only. However, more recent studies in communication prove that
the whole person can, and should, be used to connect with instrumentalists22 Many
conductors, including Mstislav Rostropovich, have taught that the baton is not enough,
and that a conductor must use the face, eyes, and whole personality to connect with
musicians23 Haynes asserts that every part of the body can be useful in communication,
including the head, face, eyes, mouth, arms, hands, torso, legs, and feet.24 The head is
used for directing attention to where it is needed. The face is used to express character,
mood, intensity, etc. The eyes are used to give cues, connect with the players, show
encouragement and awareness, and most importantly, to show the inner vision of the
conductor. The mouth is used to sing, breathe, and give verbal instructions. The arms and
hands show many aspects of the music’s surface, the torso shows character, and the feet
and legs form appropriate stances and postures.
17 Elizabeth A H. Green, The Modern Conductor (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961), 60.
22 Haynes, 22.
24 Haynes, 22-42.
9
Eyes
Many musicians consider the conductor’s eyes to be the most important means of
communication. Giulini was famous for conducting with his eyes, and musicians who
played under him have attested to the immense power that the eyes can wield.25 It has
been said that the eyes are the windows to the soul. It is therefore logical to deduce that
the musicians can best read the conductor’s soul by looking into the conductor’s eyes.
Some conductors, most notably von Karajan, kept their eyes shut while conducting. If the
eyes are such an important means of communication, then one must wonder why von
Karajan did not use them as often as he could have. In his own words, he explained it as
follows:
I don’t want to see the trombone making his entry! Or any other thing that would
distract me. I want to see the music stretched out before me. And I am much more
with the musicians if I have my eyes shut. I feel it if someone is nervous about
their entry or someone is short of breath in a long passage, and I can help them.26
The idea that closing the eyes makes it easier for a conductor to connect with the
music, without distractions, might be a valid point. The conductor must always stay
connected to his or her inner musical conscience, and visual distractions can cause a
break with this conscience. Von Karajan wanted to see the music at all times in his
mind’s eye, without the potential for visual distractions.
The idea that a conductor will be better connected to the players with his or her
eyes shut is a debatable point. Von Karajan believed that he could feel what they needed
without seeing them. It would be interesting to know how the players felt about it. Even
though closing the eyes may help the conductor connect with his or her own inner music,
25 Ibid, 172-73.
26 Ibid, 242.
10
it likely hurts the connection that the players could otherwise feel toward the conductor
by cutting them off from the most vital source of inspiration, the eyes.
Mouth
The mouth is another part of the face that a conductor uses to communicate. It
demonstrates to singers how to shape the vowels and consonants and how to breathe. It is
also used to show instrumentalists how to achieve certain articulations and textures. The
conductor shows character with the mouth by smiling, frowning, setting the jaw, opening
the mouth, baring the teeth, etc. Using the mouth to whisper can represent hushed
dynamics or textures.
Hands, Arms, Baton
The hands, arms, and baton are the conductor’s most versatile means of technical
expression. Hands, arms, and baton can affect the sound in more precise and specific
ways than the face, eyes, and mouth. Regarding this concept, Reiner remarked that
“Facial play is, obviously, a very limited field, and words are useful only at rehearsal.
Therefore gestures are the only adequate and invariably useful means remaining.”27 Not
only can the hands show intensity, feeling, and character, but also articulation, contour,
meter, beat, tempo, cut-offs, and implications of instrumental technique. While such
aspects of the music can be shown to some extent with the face, eyes, and mouth, it is
easier and more precise when done with the hands, arms, and baton.
27 Reiner, 5.
11
Gestures
According to Haynes, the types of gestures used by the hands, arms, and baton
can be divided into four main categories: expressive, directive, affective, and emulative.
Haynes considers some of these gestures to be non-directive and some to be non-musical,
though all are used to elicit musical responses. Other conductors would argue that there is
no such thing as a non-musical or a non-directive gestures since all gestures cause
musical reactions, and all represent the directive wishes of the conductor.
Expressive gestures are those representing how the conductor feels about the
music, and how he or she wants the music to go. For example, the conductor shows
heaviness, lightness, shape, size, and character in a way that personally expresses how he
or she wants the music to sound. These are musical expressions used to cause musical
reactions.
Directive gestures are non-musical expressions that cause technical and/or
musical reactions in the group. They are non-musical because they do not represent any
particular sound quality. The conductor uses these gestures to indicate when to stop, go,
wait, slow down, speed up, change notes, etc. These are the ‘traffic-cop’ gestures that
cause musical reactions but are in themselves non-musical. Opera conductors use
directive gestures constantly, to guide the musicians through tricky recitative and aria
passages.
Affective gestures are used to modify, change, or treat something that is already
occurring in the sound. The conductor uses affective gestures to treat the texture, tone,
color, balance, etc., as the music is being played. Affective gestures are used when the
28 Haynes, 38-42.
12
conductor is standing outside o f the music— like a sound engineer at a mixing board who
is tweaking and adjusting what he or she hears.
Emulative gestures are used for mimicry. The conductor’s attitude is “do what I
do”—literally. Emulative gestures are less directive and controlling than the other three
types because they aim to influence by example rather than force. Rather than trying to
shape, push, or guide the sound, the conductor simply does something that he or she
expects the group to imitate exactly. Gary Hill, Director of Bands at Arizona State
University, made the following remarks about the power of emulative gestures and
mimicry:
Humans have a pervasive tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize

expressions, postures, and movements with those of another person. The observer
automatically imitates the other person with slight movements and expressions,
showing that he understands what the other says. Emotional experiences are
affected moment to moment by the activation and feedback of such mimicry.29
Emulative gestures can be used effectively on both instrumentalists and singers,
but they are much more practical for singers. The emulative gestures that are most useful
for instrumentalists are those that indicate breath, bow strokes, striking a percussion
instrument, posture, and tension. But, for the most part, these gestures are not a practical
means of achieving technical results with instrumentalists. Pretending to actually play the
violin or the clarinet is not something that the players will find very helpful if they no
longer have a beat or phrase to follow. For this reason, some conductors, including
Charles Munch, have warned against using emulative gestures at all. He said “An allusive
gesture may sometimes be necessary but systematic mimicry complicates the musicians’
29 Gary Hill, The Qi o f Conducting, paper presented as part o f a conducting course at Arizona State
University, Tempe, AZ, Spring 2004, TD, 8-9.
13
task. The signs they need are at once precise and evocative.”30 However, with singers,
emulative gestures can be used for almost everything, because the conductor can literally
model what the singers should do— how to stand, breath, mouth the words, etc. If used
appropriately, emulative gestures can be an effective means of achieving results with
both singers and instrumentalists.
Whatever gesture a conductor uses, whether expressive, directive, affective, or
emulative, all the really matters is that it works, for as Fuchs remarked, “there can be
only one justification for a gesture: the musical reaction that it elicits from the
orchestra.”31 The gesture does not necessarily need to be pretty or polished. Klaus
Tennstedt taught that whether or not a gesture is visually pleasing to the audience is of
secondary importance to whether it is effective to the orchestra.32 Rattle remarked that he
was unable to achieve the sounds he was after by using standard beat patterns.
Eventually, he gave up using the standard patterns in favor of a less orthodox, yet more
effective, technique—one that produces the sounds he likes. He believes that there are no
universal gestures for all types of music because different gestures produce different
sounds. He advises conductors to pursue the sound they are after in whatever way they
can, regardless of the conducting rules that might be broken.33
30 Charles Munch, I am a Conductor (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955), 29.
31 Fuchs, 7.
33 Rattle interview.
14
Preparatory Beat
The most important gesture (that happens to be found in all four categories of
gestures) is the preparatory beat. Wilhelm Furtwangler, who believed that the best
conducting technique was simply a series of preparatory beats with no emphasis given to
the actual beats, said:
It is not the moment of the downbeat itself, nor the accuracy and sharpness with
which this down-beat is given, which determines the precision achieved by the
orchestra, but the preparation which the conductor gives to this down-beat... It
cannot be sufficiently emphasized that the possibility of influencing a tone lies
entirely in the preparation of the beat, not in the beat itself... If, as I stated before,
the preparation (the beat itself and not its final point) is that which most strongly
influences the sound of the instrument, could not one imagine a style of
conducting which would renounce the final points of every beat, the knots, the
pointing signals... and make use only of the beat, of the preparation as such?34
Leonard Bernstein said:
The chief element in the conductor’s technique of communication is preparation.

Once the player is playing the note, it is too late. So the conductor always has to
be at least a beat or two ahead of the orchestra. And he must hear two things at the
same time: what the players are doing at any moment, and what they are about to
do a moment later. Therefore, the basic trick is in the preparatory upbeat.35
Because of the size and nature of an orchestra, the conductor must show all gestures in
advance of the actual sound. It is purely a matter of physics and biology that the response
will come later than the gesture. The musicians need time to breath in, prepare their
instruments, coordinate their efforts by listening and watching each other, etc., and the
sound needs time to travel throughout the ensemble and toward the audience.
34 Bamberger, 211-213.
35 Ibid, 272.
15
Vocalizing—Speaking and Lecturing
Speaking, singing, and vocalizing to a group can be a very effective means of
communication. When giving verbal instructions, it is important to remember that “less is
more”—that is, more effective. Bernard Haitink said “The gist of the art of conducting is
don’t use five words when two will do. A wide vocabulary isn’t necessary.”36 Short,
concise statements that are to the point make it easier for players to understand what is
being said.
Too much talking conditions a group to not watch the conductor, because instead
of watching, the players will listen for verbal commands, which they know will
eventually come. This creates problems in performances when verbal commands are
impossible to give, and the orchestra, not having developed sensitive watching skills, still
depends upon them. Abbado believes that an orchestra should learn to understand the
conductor’s intentions through the eyes and hands alone—the only channels of
•7*7
communication available at the concert itself.
Too much talking also conditions the conductor to indicate less through physical
gestures. It is a vicious cycle, because as the conductor provides more and more verbal
commands, the players give less and less visual attention, causing the conductor to feel
that physical gestures fail to elicit positive reactions from the group. The lack of response
to physical gestures can cause the conductor to depend more and more on verbal
instructions, and thus the cycle continues.
37 Ibid, 74.
16
Fortunately, most groups can be conditioned to watch the conductor sensitively in
a relatively short period o f time, if the conductor will simply learn to discipline his or her
tongue. Chris Deviney, principal percussionist of the Philadelphia Orchestra, believes
that it takes no longer than ten minutes for an orchestra to decide how much to watch the
conductor and how to adapt to the conductor’s individual style.38
Too much talking also wastes time and slows down the pace of a rehearsal. The
players lose focus and energy when stopped too often and too long for verbal
instructions. This brings up an important issue: the ineffectiveness of lecturing. Gerry
Spence, the famous trial attorney, asserts that preaching and lecturing to a captive
audience is often an outright assault that is rarely effective as a means of influence.39 It is
important to consider when lecturing is both permissible and effective. For the most part,
according to Munch, lecturing to an orchestra should be avoided.40 The tendency to
lecture is caused by the assumptions that a particular principle needs to be taught, and
that the best way to teach it is through verbal explanation. The following scenario, based
on my own observations o f college orchestra rehearsals, best illustrates the pitfalls
inherent in lecturing: an orchestra playing the first movement of Beethoven’s seventh
symphony does not play the dotted rhythms with integrity and accuracy. As the conductor
stops to address the problem, he reasons with himself, “If I don’t explain to them the
principles of rhythmic integrity, and how dotted-eighth-to-sixteenth-notes must never
sound like triplets, and how their lazy, unarticulated rhythms are destroying the
momentum of the most important climax, and if they don’t understand the musical reason
38 Deviney interview.
39 Gerry Spence, How to Argue and Win Every Time (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1995), 249.
40 Munch, 61.
17
for playing better rhythms, they might not ever learn one of the most important things a
musician should know.” The educator side o f the conductor reminds him that his job is
both to get immediate technical results and to educate the players on musical principles
that will, over the long run, improve technique and musicianship in the group. He reasons
that although it is inefficient to stop and talk, the importance of rhythm is a lesson that
must be given. So rather than saying “make the dotted rhythms more precise,” he sets
down the baton, takes a deep breath, and begins a lengthy sermon on why rhythms should
be precise, and what the great musical authorities have said on the subject, and how all
things have rhythmic cycles, the ocean, the planets, our bodies, etc. He thinks, “If only
they could grasp how important rhythm is, they wouldn’t treat it so lightly!” But shortly
after starting he is shocked to find that something even more appalling has happened:
most of the players are not listening. It is not that they do not respect him or his ideas— it
is simply that what he is saying is not necessarily relevant to the issues that they are
struggling with. So, instead of listening to his comments, the musicians begin doing other
things that they feel are more important at the moment. The concertmaster checks a
particular bowing, the oboist carves a new reed, the percussionist tunes his timpani, the
basses finger through some difficult passages with what they think is an inaudible
pizzicato, and the starving cellist who came straight to class with no break decides that
this is the perfect time to finish eating his burrito. Outraged, the teacher abruptly changes
his remarks to the subjects of rehearsal etiquette, professionalism, common courtesy, and
paying attention. At this point the players finally do listen, and the conductor decides to
18
start the music again, with nobody remembering what it was they stopped for in the first
place.
The problem with lecturing in this type of situation is that it is based on the
assumption that the players are not executing correct rhythms because they do not
understand a certain musical principle. This may actually be the case in some situations,
but more often than not, the cause for incorrect playing lies elsewhere. Dr. Timothy
Russell, Director of Orchestras at Arizona State University, has conducted studies among
orchestral musicians on the principle of “mindfulness” in music making. His research
shows that most incorrect and sloppy playing occurs when the players are not fully
engaged in what they are doing, or they are simply not able to play the music yet. Their
focus can be distracted by a whole host of things, such as personal problems, school
problems, health problems, general burnout, laziness, and most commonly some other
technical issue, such as bowings, fingerings, intonation, page turns, etc. This is why the
conductor’s lecture falls on deaf ears, and why it is inappropriate to preach about the
value of rhythmic fidelity in such situations. It would be more appropriate to say “Pay
attention,” “Focus!,” “Watch,” or “Practice this at home.” Engaged minds and individual
practice will do more to improve playing levels than any amount of well-intended, yet
misguided, lecturing.
Another assumption made by the lecturing conductor is that a lecture is the best
way to teach musical principles, which is also not necessarily true. Principles, such as
rhythmic fidelity, are most powerfully taught when the musicians experience, rather than
talk, about its benefits. Hill explained it as follows:
19
Promoting comprehensive musicianship within an ensemble framework first

requires the cultivation of optimal experiences. Evidence from the neural and
social sciences demonstrates that learning (i.e., conceptualization, retention, etc.)
is enhanced when such experiences occur during the learning process. Regular
optimal experiences—advanced through judicious musical choice, thoughtful
teaching, and effective communication—help turn our daily rehearsals into
musical and educational “mountains.”41
The conductor should save his comments until after they have tasted the magic of
perfectly synchronized rhythms. At this point the conductor can say, "Rhythm is an
amazing thing isn't it!" But most likely that won’t be necessary—they will already know
it by experience.
Vocalizing—Figurative Language
Because lecturing should be minimized, it becomes very important to choose the
most potent and appropriate words available, remembering that figurative language
carries more force than abstract explanations. Figurative language uses metaphor, simile,
and symbolism to generate images and feelings in the minds and hearts of the listeners.
Haynes observed:
Figurative language is particularly important in describing concepts in non-lingual

arts. A picture is “worth a thousand words” because a viewer may be able to relate
it to vast experiences of colors, textures, shapes, objects, and people. Ordinary
words are weak in comparison to the memory (mental record) of an image or
experience. However, by carefully selecting provocative words or word groups,
one can invoke appropriate sub-images in the listener42
A conductor should use words that create pictures and generate feelings. For example,
instead of saying “more sustained please,” the conductor can use figurative language to
specify the type o f sustain he or she is after, whether that be “floating,” “singing,”
41 Hill, 4.
42 Haynes, 35.
20
“swelling,” “piercing,” etc. One conductor who uses countless metaphors and figurative
expressions to great effect is Rattle. Some examples of his expressions are:
The words “pale and consumptive” to ask for a transparent sound,
“Like you just went to the gym” to ask for a strong sound,
“Like you got stung by a wasp” to ask for a wild sound,
“Like Schumann’s nervousness” to ask for an insecure sound,
“Like there’s fat hanging over the belt” to ask for lingering cut-offs,
“Like it’s in the coat pocket” to ask for a muted sound, and
“Like it’s off in the woods” to ask for a distant sound.43
Many of the musicians who play under Rattle have commented on how helpful
and interesting his comments can be in comparison to the typical “louder, softer, faster,
slower” instructions given by other conductors.44 Figurative language is more specific
than purely technical terms because it describes the types of loud, soft, slow, and fast that
the conductor wants to hear.
Although figurative language is powerful and leaves a lasting impression, it is
sometimes necessary to support or substitute it with technical instructions. Fuchs teaches
that “impressionistic statements should be translated into technical language.”45 For
example, if a conductor asks for a “spooky” sound, his word choice will evoke all kinds
o f images and feelings in the players’ minds, which might not translate into the desired
technical response. Instead, the conductor could say something like, “This needs to sound
43 Daniel O ’Bryant, Philadelphia Orchestra rehearsal observations, 13-16 February 2006, Kimmel Center
for the Performing Arts, Philadelphia, note in possession o f author.
44 Unsworth interview.
45 Fuchs, 54.
21
spooky, so use short, crisp articulations to create more suspense and tension,” or “This is
spooky—add glissandos and ponticello.” Leaving it up to the players to guess what a
“spooky” sound is can create uncertainty in the group and varied reactions.
Fuchs also believes that the more vivid and specific the figurative expressions are,
the less the conductor will need to use technical explanations 46 For example, a conductor
who says, “This needs to sound spooky, like a creaking door in a haunted house” is more
likely to get the desired response, without having to explain it in technical terms. Saying,
“This needs to sound like a horse running free” does evoke a certain feeling, but not
necessarily the right technique. Is the horse stomping down a mountainside, gliding
across a pasture, or running up a flight of stairs? Is it the idea of running or the idea of
freedom that needs to be emphasized? Or is it the size and weight of the horse that’s
being referred to? In order to be truly effective, this expression must either be supported
by technical instructions, such as “This needs to sound like a horse running free, so use a
lot of bow but not a lot of tension—be free!” or made more specific by itself, such as “Be
fast and furious, like a horse bounding down the mountainside at full speed.”
It is important to use metaphors and figurative language that musicians will
understand. Comparing a certain section of the music to the fire scene in Gone with the
Wind will not be an effective way to inspire young players because many in the group
will never have seen the movie. Telling the orchestra to make a crescendo like a giant
clam opening its mouth will also be unhelpful to those who have never witnessed such an
46 Ibid.
22
occurrence. According to Haynes, the conductor should choose simple expressions that
can be universally understood by all players in the group 47
V ocalizing—Singing
Singing is one o f the best ways to communicate because it is modeling, which is
one of the most effective tools of music education.48 It is much easier for the players to
imitate something that is sung to them than to interpret something that is explained to
them. For example, explaining that the dotted rhythms need to have shorter sixteenth-
notes is less effective than singing or modeling the rhythms, because modeling eliminates
any question as to how short the sixteenth-notes should be.
Body Language
The body, legs, and feet are also essential to the conductor’s technique. Many
conducting textbooks focus on the hands and arms only, but the feet, legs, and body are
also useful for many things, especially in creating appropriate stances and postures. For
example, Fuchs advises to lean back slightly when indicating subito piano and to lean
forward when indicating drive, determination, and loudness 49 Hill teaches that standing
higher on the balls o f the feet might be used to communicate lightness of sound, while a
soft, relaxed posture can be used to communicate a connected, legato sound.50 Posture is
47 Haynes, 36.
48 J. M.A. Corredor, Conversations with Casals (London: Hutchinson, ND), 82.
49 Fuchs, 63-65.
50 Gary Hill, Connecting our Intelligences, paper presented as part o f a conducting course at Arizona State
University, Tempe, AZ, Fall 2003, TD, 4.
23
also an excellent way to communicate the character of the music, the authority of the
conductor, and posture that the musicians need to have.
Many conductors, including Max Rudolf, Lorin Maazel, and Harold Farberman,
feel that using the body is a bad idea because of its negative effect on baton placement.
They argue that swaying, stooping, stepping, and turning the body results in erratic and
random baton placements, making it harder for the musicians to follow. Harold
Farberman said:
The immediate conductor’s space has a fixed place. It is the orchestra’s point of
reference for “reading” baton motions. When the feet move and carry the body
beyond the players’ reference point, the fixed place is violated and the baton’s
movements are compromised. Body-generated movements result in secondary
rhythmic pulses, which often conflict with the hand (right or left) responsible for
indicating the primary pulse.51
Maazel said, “My hands and fingers alone must do the work and communicate what is on
my mind. Acting [body movement] is not necessary.”52
It is not body language, but rather extraneous body motion that these conductors
are against. They believe that a conductor who shows less with the body will learn to
show more with the baton, which is more precise than the body. For example, it is more
precise to show prep-beats with the baton than with the knees, because the baton can be
seen by all members of the orchestra, while the knees cannot. Some conductors bend and
extend the knees with each beat in an effort to influence the rhythm, tempo, and style of
51 Harold Farberman, The Art o f Conducting Technique: A New Perspective (Los Angeles: Warner Bros,
Publications, 1997), 4.
24
the music. Phrasing is also better communicated with the baton than by leaning to one
side or the other with the body, as some conductors do.53
It has been observed that some conductors tend to dance while on the podium. It
should be said, however, that dancing is considered by most prominent conductors to be
an ineffective style o f body language, because dancing is an end to itself, while
conducting is a means to an end. Fuchs said, “ Dancing is an activity that is an end in
itself, not designed to inspire and control another activity.”54 It is my opinion that some
dancing can be used effectively if it shows the character of certain dance music. For
example, swaying side-to-side during a waltz might be helpful in communicating the
character of the waltz, as long as it doesn’t distract too much from the baton. Felix
Weingartner taught that, in general, it is best to eliminate as many extraneous body
movements as possible, but when in doubt, too much motion is better than too little
because it reveals a degree of passion and feeling that all music-making must have.55
53 Farberman, 1-6.
54 Fuchs, 63.
55 Bamberger, 115.
CHAPTER 3
COMMUNICATION BY INTENTION AND WILL
All conductors agree that a good technique is a valuable asset, but there has been
considerable disagreement about the type of technique that a conductor should have, and
how much the ability to communicate depends on technique, if at all. This issue arose
because of the number of top-level conductors who have been able to communicate
effectively despite having completely different styles and various levels of technical
ability. There seems to be no universal style o f communication, and no standard level of
technical development required to communicate effectively. This phenomenon occurs
because of three basic principles: (1) intentions communicate more powerfully than
technique; (2) the style of technique must be suited to the individual conductor’s
expressive needs in order to be authentic, understandable, and effective; and (3) the style
of technique must also be suited to the needs of the particular ensemble in order to be
authentic, understandable, and effective.
Power of Intention
Numerous studies have shown that when people interact in everyday situations, it
is more often what they mean to say that is communicated, and not necessarily what they
actually say.56
The main exception to this rule is with written text, where words must exactly
match the intentions of the author in order to be understood correctly by the reader. The
reader does not have the advantage of hearing the author’s tone of voice or feeling the
56 Stewart L. Tubbs and Sylvia Moss, "The Nonverbal Message," in Human Communication, 3rd ed. (New
York: Random House, 1980), 166f.
26
type of emotion that accompanies the words, and therefore cannot discern the underlying
intention with as much confidence. For example, sarcasm, in written form, is much more
difficult to use because it requires the reader to interpret the text opposite from how it
was actually written. Someone reading a sarcastic text might struggle to discern the
author’s intentions because there is no access to the emotional and spiritual manner in
which the message was delivered. To illustrate: A man arranges a blind date for his
friend, and later sends an email to find out how things went. The friend sarcastically
writes back, “Things went perfectly!” To the reader, this return message could be either
sarcastic or sincere. Not being there to witness his friend’s tone of voice and demeanor
makes it impossible for the man to judge whether the date went well or not.
With face-to-face human interaction, the intentions of the communicator can
almost always be discerned, regardless of the choice of words or the technical inability to
express those intentions, because most of what we understand through face-to-face
interaction is through emotional and spiritual channels, not through words and
technique.57
For the conductor, gestures are equivalent to words. Conductors use a collection
o f physical expressions that can be likened to grammar and vocabulary. Hill describes the
conductor’s technique as a “context-specific somatic vocabulary that will have both
persuasive representational significance and strong pragmatic value for the performing
musicians being conducted.”58 The conductor’s manual technique or vocabulary, like
57 Ibid.
58 Gary Hill, The Teacher-Conductor's Olympics, paper presented as part o f a conducting course at Arizona
State University, Tempe, AZ, Spring 2004, TD, 2.
27
words, is the surface, but not the substance, of communication. The more refined the
technique is, the easier it will be, on the surface, to express oneself clearly.
But even with a less-refined technique, conductors can still communicate much of
their intentions through deeper, non-technical channels, just as in face-to-face human
interaction. The best results are obtained not by beat pattern and technique, but by an
unbendable inner conviction as to how the music should sound.59 Many conductors have
spoken about this principle. Claudio Abaddo said:
Acquiring a good technique is important, but not that important. I know some
great conductors, great musicians, whose technique is not very good. Kubelik and
Szell were both very great musicians with a less-than-perfect technique. And so
was Furtwangler who, for me, was the greatest conductor ever, the greatest!60
Vladimir Ashkenazy began conducting with no technique at all, and though completely
unaware of many basic principles, such as how to conduct downbeats, he was still able to
get exceptional results. He believes that “if you have something in your soul and mind,
you can make music without a great technique.”61 Rostropovich also believes that manual
technique is not so important, and that what matters most is projection of personality. He
said, “if your musical mind is strong they will understand immediately.”62 Wagner stated
that “the vulgar journeymen discuss the merits or faults of a conductor based on technical
issues, but from the point o f view of truly artistic work, this sort of conducting cannot be
taken into account at all.”63
59 Fuchs, 57.
60 Matheopoulos, 81-82.
61 Ibid, 470-71.
62 Ibid, 484.
63 Wagner, 91.
28
Mechanical Precision versus Human Understanding
Some conductors, including Rudolf, argue that physical technique must be as
precise as a surgeon’s or an instrumentalist’s.64 But this is not really true, because the
conductor’s instrument, the orchestra, is not a collection of inanimate objects to be acted
upon with precision, but a group of living human beings who are capable of seeing past
the conductor’s technique to find his or her true intentions. And even when they cannot
see past the technique, they are still able to play well on their own, in spite of the
conductor’s shortcomings. Schuller observed that musicians often save the conductor
from serious embarrassment and disastrous results by not playing what the maestro
conducts.65 Farberman also observed that when the conductor’s skills are lacking the
orchestra “willingly supplies the missing ingredients for the conductor and shapes a
performance well beyond the conductor’s capabilities.66 Certainly this is not the ideal, but
it does happen to a greater or lesser degree with all conductors. For example, musicians
who have played under Zubin Mehta have commented that if they actually played how he
conducts, they would produce a sound that is “rough, louder than anyone could possibly
play, [and] forced.”67 Arguing that a conductor’s technique is analogous to a surgeon’s is
simply not true. A surgeon works with an inanimate knife, cutting through tissues that,
for the most part, respond the same way each time. The tissues do not help the surgeon
along, do not have mood swings, and do not see past a faulty technique in order to find
out what they need to do. Precision is essential to a surgeon because certain laws of
64 Max Rudolf, The Grammar o f Conducting: A Practical Study o f M odem Baton Technique, with a
foreword by George Szell (New York: G Schirmer, Inc., 1950), vii, ix.
65 Schuller, 19.
66 Farberman, xiii.
29
physics and biology are always at play, and a lack o f technical control will lead to
predictable and disastrous results.
A conductor who compares the orchestra to a piano or some other musical
instrument is also not telling the truth. Arthur Nikisch asserted that an orchestra should be
treated with rigid authority, just as one approaches the keys of a piano.68 But a piano is a
mechanical instrument, while an orchestra is a community. Therefore, most of the
conductor’s technique must be a human technique, designed to affect the psychology and
spirituality o f the musicians. It is the musicians who act upon inanimate objects and must
have the surgeon’s skill, but the conductor must have the skills of a leader, educator,
psychologist, and communicator. Rostropovich said, “To play the cello I produce sound
through an instrument, while as a conductor I have to connect with people, and for this,
waving the baton is not enough.”69 Munch stated, “The orchestra is not a docile or
mechanical instrument. It is a social body, a collection of human beings. It has a
psychology and reflexes. It can be guided but it must not be offended.70
Individual Style
The style of communication must be suited to the individuality o f the conductor in
order to be effective. Karl Krueger observed:
Every conductor must fashion his own technique, no one can teach him the skills
needed to control the orchestra, because it is the complete personality of the
conductor that commands the orchestra. Every element of that technique must
68 Fuchs, 38.
70 Munch, 59.
30
stem from the conductor’s individual idiosyncrasy to have validity, it must be as

characteristic o f his being as the inflections of his voice or the color of his eyes.71
Pierre Boulez also believes that a “conductor must develop his own voice, that is
unique and different from anyone else’s.”72 There are several reasons for this. One factor
is that all conductors have unique artistic inclinations. Each conductor has an individual
response and approach to music, and artistic uniqueness requires that each technique also
be unique. The technique cannot be the same as another’s because the artistic ideals are
different—it must match the expressive needs of the individual73
Rehearsal and perform ance philosophies also have a unique influence on
conducting technique. A conductor who believes it is necessary to first align the rhythms
before addressing other issues will use a technique that emphasizes rhythm, while a
conductor who believes that the overall shape should come first will use a technique
emphasizing line instead of rhythm.
Another factor to be considered is the individual conductor’s unique physical
makeup. No two human bodies are alike, and all have particular limitations. Some
conductors are more coordinated and graceful than others simply because of their
physical structure. Schuller said, “Our physical attributes profoundly affect our
conducting abilities, positively or negatively as the case may be...for most conductors
71 Karl Krueger, The Way o f the Conductor: His Origins, Purpose, and Procedures (New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1958), 26.
72 Boulez, interview by the author, 7 Februaryl999, Orchestra Hall, Chicago, notes in possession o f author.
73 Matheopoulos, 386. and see also
Bamberger, 207.
31
there are ultimately some physical limitations or idiosyncrasies which, no matter how one
tries to overcome them, cannot be entirely outgrown.74
A conductor’s instrum ental background will often affect his or her conducting
style. Fuchs believes that, in general, string players tend to emphasize melody while wind
players and percussionists tend to emphasize rhythm.75 The technique used on one’s
primary instrument often appears in one’s conducting style. Toscanini, a cellist, often
used horizontal bowing gestures that resembled cello technique. Von Karajan and Solti,
both pianists, often used vertical, keyboard gestures while conducting.
Personality is also a factor in conducting style. Haitink’s quietness of demeanor
and retiring personality are reflected in his conducting style, which is smooth, gentle,
urging, and coaxing.76 Von Karajan’s conducting resembled his speaking, which was fast
77
and eloquent, in one long line, uninterrupted by full stops. Serge Koussevitsky believed
that most of what a conductor does, in rendering music, is based on the conductor’s
personal experiences, perceptions, and depth.78
It is important for a conductor to take note o f his or her strengths and weaknesses
as a person, because these will most likely spill over into his or her individual conducting
style. This happens simply because what a conductor values and strives for in life is
usually what a conductor values and strives for in music. Wagner believed that the source
o f all great music making is a great person, who is great outside of musical subjects as
well. He believed that great music can only be understood and rendered properly by great
74 Gunther Schuller, The Compleat Conductor (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 10,
75 Fuchs, 18.
77 Ibid, 219.
78 Bamberger, 144.
32
individuals.79 Furtwangler, referencing Goethe, observed that a conductor’s true power
“depends on the power and plenitude of one’s own nature,” for “Was man nicht ist, kann
man nicht machen” [One cannot do what one is not].
That being said, however, conducting talent cannot be accurately assessed by how
a conductor interacts with and is perceived by others in everyday situations. The
manifestation or the degree to which a conductor’s personality is revealed can be
drastically different between the podium and everyday life. Munch believes that people
who are reserved, withdrawn, and timid in everyday situations are often attracted to the
o 1
role of conductor because it offers them the chance to realize their dreams in sound. For
some reason their true colors shine most vividly in artistic, rather than ordinary situations.
This dual existence is something that many musicians experience, as they are always the
same person underneath, but the outward manifestation of who they are is often much
more concealed in everyday situations than in performances and rehearsals. It has been
observed that even Karajan, Abaddo, Kleiber (Carlos), Eschenbach, Sawallisch, and
Haitink are and were shy and awkward in regular social situations, which is very much
the opposite o f how they are and were perceived on the podium.82
79 Wagner, 103.
80 Furtwangler, 65.
81 Munch, 13.
82 Matheopoulos, 73, 194, 214, 442. and see also
Unsworth interview.
CHAPTER 4
GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND INTERACTION
Adjusting to the Group
Conductors must not only find a style that suits their own individuality, but also
the unique personality and needs of each group they encounter. Learning to express
oneself is only half of the process. Fuchs believes that the next step, beyond expression,
is learning how the musicians will receive and interpret conducting messages, and finding
the type of messages that are most appropriate for each particular group.83 Essentially, the
conductor’s technique must adapt, not only to different types of music, but also to
different types of musicians.
There are some general principles of communication that can be universally
applied, but much of the conductor’s craft is not transferable from group to group. A
number of important conductors have commented on this principle. Colin Davis asserts
that a conductor must adapt to the particular pulse of each group.84 Rattle believes that
the great European orchestras require a completely different conducting technique than
the great American orchestras. He has observed that many guest conductors who come
from America to work with the Berlin Philharmonic are completely unaware of how to
adapt to the orchestra. This is because the Berlin Philharmonic relies on the conductor’s
stick technique much less than the American orchestras do. In Berlin they stay together
by listening to each other more than by watching the conductor, which is often not the
83 Fuchs, 65.
34
case with American orchestras.85 Failure to adapt to a group creates a useless, self-
serving conducting style that is neither relevant nor helpful to the musicians. The
conductor must understand the needs of the ensemble and adjust accordingly.
According to Fuchs, a number of factors need to be considered when adjusting to
a group of musicians: group size, acoustics in the hall, various instrumental issues,
spoken language of the group, personality of the group, the musicians’ familiarity with
the music, the technical level of the group, and the style of conductor-to-orchestra
interaction that the group is used to.86
The size of the group can affect the response time, and therefore the type of
gestures that a conductor will give. A large group often feels less agile than a small one
because of the number of players involved and the distance that some players sit and
stand from the podium and each other. With a large group, a conductor might need to
anticipate things a little sooner than with a small one because there are more people
involved, and coordinating collective efforts can take a little longer.
Acoustics must also be taken into consideration. More reverberant halls require
an explicit conducting technique that will elicit clean, precise sounds, while dryer halls
might need the opposite in order to warm things up.
The conductor should use gestures that match the technical needs of individual
instrumentalists. Fuchs believes that the primary consideration in achieving conducting
technique is to “give every instrumentalist a type of movement that suggests in some way
86 Fuchs, 66.
35
his own physical approach to his instrument.87 He also asserts that a conductor should
understand the tendencies and challenges that accompany each type o f instrument. For
example, delicate, hard-to-play instruments, like the oboe and French horn, may require
greater sensitivity from the conductor88 Naturally loud instruments, such as the brass and
percussion may require a technique that encourages restraint. Whatever the instrument, it
is the conductor’s duty to use gestures that are helpful to that particular instrument’s
technique, challenges, and tendencies.
The spoken language of a group will affect the way a conductor addresses them.
If the musicians are young, and unfamiliar with older forms of slang and terminology, the
conductor should be sensitive and adjust accordingly.89 For example, an older conductor
who becomes frustrated with his younger players might say, “Gee whiz guys, can’t you
play it better?” To a younger generation, the expression “Gee whiz” will seem outdated
and comical. Of course, it goes without saying that a group who’s native language does
not match that of the conductor’s will need special consideration.
The personality of the group as a whole also needs to be accounted for. Some
groups are more disciplined than others. Some come to work, others for recreation. A
community orchestra has a different personality from a professional orchestra and must
be treated accordingly. Some groups are prideful and resistant while others are not. Some
are vocal while others are not. Each group has a unique collective personality that the
conductor must perceive as quickly as possible in order to connect with them.
87 Ibid, 65.
88 Fuchs, 43-44.
89 Fuchs, 36.
36
The ensembles’ familiarity with the music will also be an important factor in
determining the style of conducting to use. They might be sight-reading, playing it for the
third time, or playing it for the hundredth time. The music might be too hard, too easy, or
somewhere in between. The level of personal preparation might be high, low, or
somewhere in the middle. An ensemble that is still struggling to play all of the notes
correctly will have little need for gestures of nuance and style. Also, the less prepared the
musicians are to play their own parts, the less likely they are to be watching the
conductor. All of these factors influence the type of gestures to use.
Another important thing to account for is the level of the group and the degree to
which they have been conditioned to watch the conductor. A more advanced group does
not need a conductor to indicate essentials, such as beat and cues, as much as a less
mature group will. With an advanced group, the conductor’s primary responsibility is to
guide and shape the overall flow of the music and to provide artistic energy and
inspiration. An advanced group lives a higher law—mastering the fundamentals on its
own, it requires less help with rudimentary elements. To illustrate this, musicians have
labeled Carlos Kleiber as a “conductor for advanced people” because he often stops
conducting and allows the orchestra to play on their own.90
Ozawa compares conducting advanced orchestras to driving a car. It takes
alertness and subtle nudging to keep it on track, even when it is just going straight. He
says that a conductor should not get in the way, but should be ready to help when
needed.91 Robert Schumann said, “A good orchestra needs to be conducted only to start
91 Ibid, 394-95.
37
and change tempos. For the rest, the conductor can quietly stand on the podium waiting
until his direction is again required.” He also said, “The more an orchestra has to be led
the lower the level of its attainment. Over-conducting makes the orchestra look like
amateurs.”92 Franz Liszt said that the real task of a conductor is to make himself quasi-
useless by understanding that he is a pilot, and not a mechanic.93 Von Karajan compares
his orchestras to finely-trained horses that glide over hurdles on their own. He says:
The beat, the technique, bah, I don’t give a damn about those things! The
important thing to know is that you don’t carry the orchestra. And what brought
this home to me was a parallel experience I had many years ago, when I took up
horse-riding in Aachen. One day they said that today, we were going to jump over
a fence for the first time. I was well, not afraid, but astonished and asked how on
earth was one supposed to carry that enormous thing over a fence? They laughed
and answered: “You won’t carry the horse, the horse will carry you! You will put
it in the right position so that it can do it naturally and it will go by itself, you
won’t even feel it!” It’s much the same with orchestras. Let them go! Orchestras,
like aeroplanes, do it by themselves. And until you learn this, there is always
something in you which prompts you always to do something, which in itself is
nonsense! The real art in conducting is to realize that music comes implicitly, by
itself. But it takes a long time to know and accept this and you become quite old
before you do. As a young man you are trying too hard, you always want to be in
[control] and don’t allow yourself the luxury of interfering only when you are
needed, in places where there is resistance.94
The advice given by those who lead professional orchestras may not always apply
to student and amateur ensembles. For example, one might question whether these
advanced-orchestra conductors could successfully lead a junior high orchestra. Not all
orchestras resemble finely-trained horses. The “horse” might actually be an old mule, a
stubborn and wayward horse, a fat and lazy cow disguised as a horse, or a thoroughbred
in the making. The “horse” might need to be pushed, pulled, and prodded overjumps
92 Bamberger, 62-64.
93 Ibid, 68.
94 Matheopoulos, 223,
38
because of its own limitations. The “horse” might be missing part of its body or be
severely impaired in some way. The “horse” might be ready and willing, but not able— or
able but not ready and willing. The “horse” might be conditioned for only one type of
work, and be untrained for a variety of tasks. The “horse” might have been abused or
indulged by its former master.
And even with orchestras that do resemble prize horses, not all have been trained
and conditioned in the same way. When a conductor uses someone else’s “horse,” he or
she will need to assess the tendencies of the “animal” as quickly as possible. Ricardo
Muti commented on this “get to know you” stage by saying:
At that crucial moment when a conductor first comes into contact with an
orchestra, it is not only the orchestra who judges the conductor: he, too, instantly
forms an opinion of its capacities and potential, and understands what kind of
sound it has—whether the balance between instrumental groups is right—whether
the orchestra has good intonation. And this is partly the reason why this first
moment in which the two forces judge each other is so full of suspense: each
studies the other and tries to guess what kettle of fish he will shortly be dealing
with. And a great number o f things are decided at that first contact. Sometimes, it
determines whether a concert will be good or not.95
It was my experience to work with two well-trained but very different orchestras
within the same month, each of which required a completely different approach. The first
orchestra, the Bakersfield Symphony, had been trained to be self-sufficient and not to
rely on the conductor too much. Generating passion in the players could be done with a
very light touch and almost no physical exertion on the part of the conductor. The attitude
o f the group was that they carried the conductor and did not need to be commanded in all
things or be pushed from one bar to the next. The second orchestra, the Conductor’s
Institute of South Carolina, was completely different. This group was intent on doing
95 Ibid, 363.
39
exactly what the conductor showed—no more, no less. The level of this group was on par
with the Bakersfield Symphony, but there was no effort by the players to do more than
they were compelled to do. The attitude of the group was that the conductor carries them
from bar to bar, causing everything to happen. Although both groups were well-trained,
the conducting style appropriate for each group was completely different because of the
attitude and conditioning that had been established. Rattle commented on this principle
by saying that American orchestras tend to wait for instructions more than European
orchestras do. He observed that the players in the Berlin Philharmonic do much more on
their own than the players in the Philadelphia Orchestra, simply because of the
conditioning that each group has had.96 According to Grosbayne, knowing how much
control and command to take is the sign of maturity in a conductor.97 And this depends
largely on the group he or she is working with.
Developing Self-Reliance
No matter what the level of the group, the conductor should always strive to
develop it into a finely trained, self-sufficient organization. If the players are not allowed
and required to do as much on their own as possible, their musical growth will be stunted
as individuals and as an ensemble. Von Karajan remarked:
If you try to help an orchestra in a rehearsal, it will rely that you help them in a
concert and it should not...That if you, so to say, ‘carried the thing’ and you
encouraged them, then they will be lazy. In a rehearsal you don’t have to make a
97 Benjamin Grosbayne, Techniques o f M odem Orchestral Conducting, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1973), 173.
40
sign for a forte, the forte is written and if they don’t play you say, ‘Gentlemen, it’s
not right.’ Then the orchestra will carry you. 8
Rudolf taught that the conductor should never work for anything that the orchestra is
willing to provide by its own initiative"
Fortunately, conditioning a group to become more self-sufficient is something
that can be done in a relatively short period of time. An example of this is Daniel
Barenboim’s work with the Chicago Civic Orchestra. As a former member of the Civic
Orchestra, I observed that Barenboim began the first rehearsal by explaining to the
musicians that it is not his job but rather their job to make the music. He then conducted
the orchestra with a style that did not cater to basic needs, such as beat and cues. After no
more than two rehearsals the orchestra learned that they could not rely on him for basic
beat patterns, and that they must listen to each other instead. His approach had the
wonderful effect of creating a self-sufficient orchestra in a very short period of time.100
The principle to be learned is that a group will not rise to higher levels of self-reliance
unless they are required and allowed to do so.
Universal Laws of Human Communication
While some means of communication must be changed to fit the situation, others
can be applied under any circumstance. These are basic people skills and principles of
influence that can be carried from one group to another without any modification.
98 Robert Chesterman, Conductors in Conversation (London: Robson Books, 1990), 20.

99 Fuchs, 63.
100 Daniel O'Bryant, Civic Orchestra o f Chicago rehearsal observations, February 1999, Orchestra Hall,
Chicago, notes in possession o f author.
41
One such skill is listening. Conducting an orchestra is a two-way street that
consists of sending out and taking in information. Musical listening is done with the ears
and the eyes, and, according to Schuller, can be divided into seven categories. These are
(1) harmony; (2) pitch and intonation; (3) dynamics; (4) timbre; (5) rhythm and
articulation; (6) balance and orchestrational aspects; and (7) line and continuity.101 One
might also add form, pacing, melody, or any other musical aspect to this list.
Another type of listening is an awareness of the atmosphere, mental state, and
mood of the group. Haynes asserts that a conductor must always empathize with how his
or her players are feeling and adjust the communication accordingly.102 When they seem
tired, the conductor might say, “Thank you all for working so very hard today. We’ve
accomplished a lot. Let’s take a short break before resuming.” Being sensitive to the
players’ needs is a type o f listening that can be applied in all situations.
Giving feedback in a courteous, sincere, direct, positive, and immediate way
is another universal principle of communication. Donald Hunsberger taught, “Never
hesitate to display sincere caring for performers. Be positive and project a feeling of
i rn
sensitivity to the individual performer and his current playing ability.” Farberman
advises to control negative emotions and reactions, because orchestra musicians are
already under enough stress, and will play better when stress levels are reduced.104
Becoming angry with the group will rarely have a positive effect. Sir John Babirolli
advises conductors to make corrections immediately and courteously, and to use
101 Schuller, 17-18.

102 Haynes, 32.
103 Donald Hunsberger and Roy E. Ernst, The Art o f Conducting (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983), 1,
319.
104 Farberman, 176.
42
suggestions instead of outright criticism.105 Bruno Walter taught that dealing with people
in a violent manner leads to either resistance or intimidation, while empathy and
persuasion lead to a more productive artistic climate. He observed that, “musical
achievement will be higher if the conductor is ‘his brother’s keeper’ in relation to the
orchestra, rather than its task-master."106
Another principal of communication that must always be remembered is that
many people make decisions based on how they feel more than how they think. This is
especially true for musicians, because feeling and emotion are often the very purpose and
meaning behind the music. Because of this, it is important to appeal to the players'
emotions when communicating both verbally and non-verbally. Munch advised that the
conductor should communicate to the musicians’ feelings, not their heads, because, as he
believed, “musicians are generally not intellectuals.”107 Bernstein believed that making a
connection with the feelings of the players allows the conductor to communicate with
them at the deepest levels.108 Spence asserts that nothing influences courtroom jurors
more powerfully than appealing to their emotions, because, as he believes, people make
most decisions in life based on how they feel and not what they think.109 Hector Berlioz
taught this principle with poetic metaphor by saying:
The players must feel that he feels, understands, and is moved; then his emotion
communicates itself to those whom he conducts. His inner fire warms them, his
enthusiasm carries them away. He radiates musical energy. But if he is indifferent
and cold, he paralyzes everything around him, like the icebergs floating in the
105 Fuchs, 135.

106 Bamberger, 183, 185, 187.
107 Munch, 64.
108 Bamberger, 274.
109 Spence, 56.
43
polar sea, whose approach is announced by the sudden cooling of the

atmosphere.110
Musicians are much more likely to follow when they have been made to feel something,
because they will trust that the music-making is guided by true devotion and fervor, the
most important prerequisites of all artistic expression.
110 Bamberger, 25.
CHAPTER 5
DEVELOPING A TECHNIQUE
The first step in developing a technique is to have something to say. Technique
comes more quickly to those who have strong ideas about how the music should sound.
Schuller remarked:
All the physical, choreographic skills in the world will amount to nothing if they
represent and insufficient (intellectual) knowledge of the score and an inadequate
(emotional) feeling for the music. A beautiful baton technique can achieve little if
the mind that activates the baton doesn’t know what there is to know.111
Divisive Issues Regarding Technical Development
The world of conducting is divided on many issues regarding technical
development. According to Fuchs, these are: (1) the debate over whether conducting can
and should be taught in a systemized, academic way; (2) the debate over whether
conductors should practice gestures on their own, away from the orchestra; (3) the debate
over whether conductors should use a baton or not; and (4) the debate over whether or not
conductors should memorize the score.112 The fact that these issues have advocates on
both sides suggests that there may be some truth to both sides of the arguments.
Academic Training and Individual Practice
Many teachers, including Malko, Hermann Scherchen, Grosbayne, Rudolf, and
Green, believe that conducting techniques can and should be developed, taught, and
practiced before standing in front of an orchestra.113 The goal of this teaching is to
111 Schuller, 50.

112 Fuchs, 22-28.
113 Malko, 12.
45
accelerate the learning curve and growth o f the student. Most of these teachers believe
that the conductor should develop basic hand, arm, and baton control through the practice
of etudes and musical excerpts. Once the conductor has developed a rudimentary beat
pattern he or she is expected to add more expressive gestures. These teachers believe that
there is a collection of gestures that are universal in application, a standard grammatical
vocabulary that can be used by any conductor with any orchestra to achieve specific
results.
Those who have taught against this philosophy, such as Rattle, Boulez,
Furtwangler, Walter, and Casals, argue that academically-trained techniques will be
ineffective, unnatural, and inauthentic. Walter believed that a conductor “should never be
aware of or focus on what his hands are doing, but should always follow his musical
impulses, even if the hands are clumsy.”114 Rattle compares practicing technique to
practicing kissing—both are impossibilities when done alone. He argues that if there is no
group to interact with, then there is no technique, and that all technique should be
developed on a live body of musicians in order to have real connection and relevance to
what they are doing.115 He believes that when an orchestra is not available, one should
practice on a body of singers. Scherchen advises young conductors to practice in front of
a teacher (who will pretend to be an orchestra) when an ensemble is not readily
available.116
Many Philadelphia Orchestra musicians, who play under Rattle, consider his
technique to be somewhat sloppy and in need of polishing. However, they also believe
114 Bamberger, 164.

116 Hermann Scherchen, Handbook o f Conducting (London: Oxford University Press, 1946), 189.
46
that his gestures are much more relevant and connected to what they are doing than are
those of more polished conductors. They have observed that although his technique is
very unique and nonacademic, it is still wonderfully effective at drawing out the right
sounds.117It is my opinion that physical control is an important skill that can and should
be practiced away from an ensemble. But it can be dangerous to develop gestures specific
to a particular piece without having an ensemble to try them on first. The response o f the
ensemble is the only sure way to validate the efficacy of a conducting gesture.
Textbooks and teachers can recommend certain gestures, but the worth of those
gestures can only be determined by the effect they produce, and not by the strength or
logic of the theories they are founded upon. As Furtwangler believed, it is not the
working hypothesis that one should believe, but is rather the laboratory experiment, the
effect and outcome of practical application, that will teach the most.118 Teachers and
textbooks will argue that their theories are based on real-life experiences, but it must be
remembered, as Fuchs observed, that conductors will be more effective using their own
individual style, developed in their own individual way.119 Some things can be taught in
books, others cannot, or at least should not.
Another reason to be cautious about developing gestures away from the ensemble
is that the ensemble might need gestures other than those that the conductor has prepared.
Rattle says that gestures practiced in front of a mirror have nothing to do with conducting
because, as he believes, “it is only conducting when it is actually getting the result out of
117 Deviney interview and see also

Unsworth interview
118 Bamberger, 214.
119 Fuchs, 58.
47
someone else."120 A conductor who practices specific gestures should be resigned to the
fact that much of what was practiced will not be used while standing on the podium.
Conductors will benefit greatly from learning to control their limbs, but planned
choreography will rarely be relevant to the actual needs of the ensemble. There must
always be a degree o f spontaneity and flexibility in what a conductor does, because the
needs of the group are always changing. In my opinion, the best approach to practicing
alone is to develop self-control and the ability to express various musical ideas, while at
the same time avoiding pre-planned gestures that are specific to a piece. There are some
situations where pre-planning the gestures is helpful, such as tricky cutoffs, fermatas,
abrupt tempo changes, mixed meter, and recitative passages. And pre-planned gestures
can give the conductor a “bag of tricks” from which to draw when necessary. But the
conductor’s attitude, even when using pre-planned gestures, should be flexible enough to
allow the needs of the moment to take precedence over what he or she has planned.
Baton
There has been much debate over whether or not one should use a baton.121 Those
who oppose the baton say that it is less expressive than the open hand, and that there is no
difference in the level of precision achieved with a baton. They believe that one should
do away with all such unnecessary appendages. Boulez, a baton-less conductor, said,
“Using a baton freezes my hands. And you can be just as precise without a baton. You

121 Ibid, 21-29.
48
indicate the beat in many ways and don’t always need to point at people.”122 Leopold
Stowkowski, another baton-less conductor, stated: “Whether or not a conductor uses a
baton is of little importance. Personally I find the baton unnecessary—I am convinced
that unessentials should be eliminated."123
Those who favor the baton believe that it is more precise, efficient, and easier to
follow than the open palm. Green taught:
The baton, in its present form, is the end result of hundreds of years of
conductorial experimentation...The baton has emerged from this long heredity as
the most efficient means of conveying a precise message to the large instrumental
ensemble.124
Grosbayne taught that the baton is more precise than the hands and better suited to
orchestral music.125 Less extreme opinions believe that one should only discard the baton
after first developing a fine baton technique, so that a fair judgment can be made on its
usefulness and value. This seems to be the best stance, considering that one should not
regard the baton as a useless instrument based on his or her inability to use it. The old
adage, “Don’t judge a piece by your sight-reading” could be adapted here as, “Don’t
judge an instrument by your lack of technique.”
In my opinion, there are two issues regarding the baton that have not been
addressed, but should be. These are: (1) the baton is a necessary extension of the arm; and
(2) baton precision is a necessary part of the conductor’s art. The statement, often found
in textbooks, that the baton is an extension of the arm is tied to the assumption that one
should want to extend the arm in the first place. This assumption invites a whole host of

123 Bamberger, 200.
124 Green, 7.
125 Grosbayne, 13.
49
philosophical questions, presented as follows: What need is there for extending the arm in
the first place, especially if a conductor’s arms are already long? Why turn an already
awkward physique into something even more awkward by extending it? Long arms
holding a baton can lead to enormous beat patterns that cause dragging and lack of
precision. O f course, the conductor can learn to use the wrist and fingers only, thus
deactivating the unneeded length of arm, but why all the trouble just for the sake o f
holding a stick? Why extend the arm in the first place only to spend countless years later
struggling to become small again by not using the arm? And if it is an extension of the
arm, shouldn’t it feel like it? The baton has no real weight in comparison to the arm,
which means that it supplies little or no real resistance the way an actual arm extension
would. Having little or no resistance makes it harder to control in some respects, because
it does not really feel like a connected part of the arm. If it is an extension of the arm, it
should feel like it, but it doesn’t.
There is one important advantage to using the baton as an extension o f the arm,
which is that it saves the arm from having to make all of the motion itself. An opera
conductor doing a four-hour production will benefit greatly from using a baton, because,
if controlled with the wrist and hand, it will spare his shoulders and arms a great deal of
exertion.
The argument that the baton is more precise than the open palm is hard to dispute.
However, this draws an important philosophical question regarding precision, which is:
How much precision does the conductor need and want? This is really an issue of how
much control the conductor needs and wants. Precision gives control over minute
50
technical details, which, in the case of the baton, are mostly beats and articulations. But
many prominent conducting teachers argue that control of beats should be given to the
ensemble, and that a controlling technique is disabling and detrimental to the group’s
development. They argue that a group should listen to, and play with, each other more
than with the stick, not only for better ensemble but also for a better sound. Furtwangler
was often accused of not having an intelligible beat, but this was a deliberate choice on
his part. Henry Holst, former concertmaster of the Berlin Philharmonic, defended
Furtwangler’s technique by saying:
His beat lacked that “flick of decisiveness” that will enforce precision over an
ensemble. That kind of precision he did not like at all: he wanted the precision
that grew out of the orchestra, from the players’ own initiative, as in chamber
music.126
Rattle believes that when a conductor tries to control everything by aligning the ensemble
precisely with the baton, the sound will harden. He also observed that the less a
conductor does and the more the sound comes out of the players, the better the sound will
be.127 If the overall goal is to help the group become self-reliant, play together, and
produce a sweeter sound, then the ability to control minute details through baton
precision is not really necessary on the part of the conductor.
Another consideration is that most of the time musicians are not really focusing
their eyes on the tip of the stick. Deviney commented on this principle by comparing the
conductor to a road map that one holds while driving a car. The map is looked at
occasionally with quick glances, but most of the time the driver’s attention is focused on
126 Nicholas Cook, Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 61.
51
the road, which, in the musician’s ease, is his or her own part.128 Musicians arc usually
just looking at the baton through their peripheral vision, and when they do look at the
conductor they make contact with the eyes and face more than the tip of the stick. It is
very presumptuous for the conductor to think that the members of the group are always
focusing their eyes on the end of his or her baton. For the most part, musicians simply
follow the motion, momentum, shape, and size of the beat pattern, not the flick of the
stick. The conductor must decide how much baton precision and control is really
necessary and or desirable. Perhaps the best approach to using the baton is to develop a
precise baton technique along with the maturity to know when it is really needed and
when it is not. If a conductor finds that a baton is not very helpful, then he or she should
not, for a variety of reasons, feel obligated to use it.
Conducting from Memory
Memorizing the score has been another topic debated by conductors.129 Some
conductors, including Casals, argued that it is a useless accomplishment that does not
necessarily improve the performance.130 Other conductors, including Benjamin
Grosbayne, argue that it does improve the performance, and that looking at the score is
uncommunicative. Grosbayne states: “Looking at a score is non-communicative to the
orchestra. You are only conducting to a score, gazing inward instead of outward.”131
Weingartner’s approach seems to be the most reasonable. He believes that a score should
m Deviney interview.
129 Fuchs, 25-31.
130 Corrector, 84
131 Grosbayne, 15.
52
not be used if a conductor finds it to be more distracting than helpful. When it is used, it
should not be read line by line as a book, but only glanced at on occasion to remember
where the important points are.132
It is my experience that communication of music is more direct when it comes
straight from the heart, without looking down to read it first. Reading the score requires
that the printed music be processed through the conductor’s mind before it is
communicated to the players, which can feel like a distraction in many situations.
Conducting from memory eliminates this distraction, and allows the conductor to express
him or herself directly to the players without addressing the printed page first.
However, not all conductors find the printed page to be a distraction. It is purely a
matter of preference that depends largely on the processing style of each individual. If
one can conduct just as effectively with a score as without, then one should, for this will
save considerable time and energy during the score preparation process. It is my opinion
that many conductors who conduct from memory would rather use a score if they thought
they could be just as effective either way, but for some reason they cannot.
Weingartner believed that, when using a score, it should only be referenced on
occasion.133 This can be accomplished by memorizing smaller sections of the music, and
then looking down only when a new section begins. For example, a conductor could
memorize the exposition and not look down until the beginning of the development.
Professional public speakers use a similar technique by having their notes written down
in bullet points instead of reading their speech word for word. They understand that
132 Bamberger, 114.

133 Ibid, 114.
53
communication suffers when it is done in a reporting style instead of directly from the
heart. But they also realize that occasionally looking down to get the main ideas does not
distract too much from their overall effectiveness. Conductors could apply this strategy
by looking down at the score only to get the main ideas, then continuing on as if there is
no script at all.
Agreed Upon Issues Regarding Technical Development
One thing that many conductors do agree upon with regard to technical
development is that small gestures are better than large. Weingartner taught, “Short quick
motions ensure greater precision than very extensive ones. Since in the time taken up by
the latter the strictness of the rhythm may easily be deranged.”134 Strauss also taught this
principle by saying, “It is decisive for the technique of conducting that the shorter the
movements of the arm, and the more confined to the wrist, then the more precise the
execution.”135 Small gestures are more readable than large ones because the rebounds are
smaller, which reduces the linear space in which the inner beats and phrases need to fit.
Less space equals fewer options for beat placement, which results in less guessing about
where to put the notes.
Smaller gestures also have the advantage of bringing the eyes of the musicians to
the conductor. When the gestures are large, the musicians are less inclined to look up
because it is easy enough to see motion in their peripheral view. But when the gestures
are small it becomes more difficult to see them peripherally, and consequently promotes
134 Ibid, 115.

135 Ibid, 199-120.
54
more conductor-watching in the group. Murry Sidlin, conducting teacher at the Aspen
Music Festival, made the remark, “You get their attention by taking away information.
Bring them to you, don’t reach out to them.”136 What he meant by this statement was not
that a conductor should actually “take away information,” but that the size of the
information should be smaller and pulled in closer to the conductor’s body, rather than
extended outward toward the group.
Small gestures are also less distracting to the musicians, especially if they are
trying to listen to each other. They can look up when they need to but otherwise they
should not feel like there is someone always beating on their necks. Karl Bohm said,
“They should not be smothered, but allowed to participate in the music-making as
partners rather than subordinates.”137
Small gestures help conserve energy by sparing the arms and shoulders from
unnecessary' labor, for as Fuchs said, “the real task is to create the utmost effect with a
minimum of physical energy.”138
Perhaps the most important reason for using small gestures is that it makes the
conducting technique more spiritual than technical, which allows the musicians to draw
the music from their own hearts and minds without feeling pushed and cajoled by the
conductor. Karl Bohm said:
Personally I make very small movements, especially when I am working with the
Berlin or the Vienna Philharmonic with whom I have been linked for over forty
years and who understand my every glance. Because music has to come from the
136 Daniel O'Bryant, American Academy o f Conductors rehearsal observations, July 2000, Aspen Music
Festival, Aspen, CO, notes in possession o f author.
137 Matheopoulos, 108,
138 Fuchs, 62.
55
heart and from the mind, and this is the mystery in conducting: that I have the
possibility, the gift of communicating my view of a score.139
As was mentioned earlier, most of what we understand through human communication is
through spiritual channels not technical. As a conductor learns to communicate more with
the mind and spirit, the hands will back off a bit and find their proper place.140 This is not
to say that conductors should give up imposing their will, but only that they should assert
this will most forcefully through the face, mind, and eyes rather than through the hands.
The hands are tools of expression not coercion. It was observed that Gustav Mahler’s
technique became more spiritual and less physical as he got older, so that eventually his
body remained relatively motionless while his mind and spirit did most of the work.141
The hands are incapable o f forcing the right sounds, and should not try to push the sound,
for it is not really a material substance that can be pushed. Yon Karajan observed that
when a conductor is not getting the desired result, the typical, yet inappropriate, response
is to exert more physical energy and tension through the arms and hands with an attitude
o f forcefulness that distorts the musical expression he or she might otherwise show.142
The conductor mistakenly believes that, like weightlifting, more physical force equals
more desired results.
This tendency most often occurs in situations where the conductor wants more
volume, which is typically shown by extra large and or more intense physical gestures.
Conductors should be aware that too much tension and size has a negative effect on the
players, because they too can become tense. And as the conductor becomes more forceful

14CIbid.
131 Bamberger, 196.
56
with his or her gestures, the musicians will find it more difficult to discern what he or she
is asking for.143 It is inappropriate and ineffective to treat sound with such harshness.
Forceful gestures resemble those of the cattle rancher, who drives the herd by whipping
on all sides. The conductor’s goal should not be to drive the orchestra with physical force
but rather to show the way as a light and example, like a shepherd who walks ahead of
the flock, showing the way for the others to follow, rather than pushing and driving from
behind. Too much physical exertion is a waste of effort and is harder to read. In my
opinion, a conductor should imagine that all communication is done with the mind, as if
by telepathy, which will encourage the hands and arms to back off a bit and find their
proper place as tools of expression, rather than coercion.
143 Ibid.
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
Successful communication is the key to successful conducting. Brock McElheran
said, "Always remember you are signaling people to do something. Communicate!"144
The conductor's craft differs from that of other musicians (instrumentalists) because its
primary function is to influence the minds, emotions, and behaviors of human beings,
rather than the vibrations of inanimate instruments. Because of this, a conductor who
understands the basic essentials of human communication will have much more success
than one who does not.
The first, and most important, principle of communication is to have something
to say. In music, this means having something to say about the surface and the depth o f a
composition. A conductor needs to address the spiritual as well as the sensual aspects o f a
piece in order to create a truly artistic experience for the players and the audience.
The second principle of communication is to possess the ability to express
oneself dearly. This ability is both technical and non-technical in nature. The technical
side deals with the outward skills needed to communicate clearly. The non-technical side
deals with the inner will or the power of intention needed to communicate effectively.
Conductors are most effective when using a style of expression that is suited to their own
individual personality, philosophy, physique, musicianship, and expressive needs.
The third principle of communication is to possess the ability to understand and
deal with other people effectively. Conductors should adjust their methods to match the
needs of each particular group of musicians. Conductors should also be sensitive to the
144 Brock McElheran, Conducting Technique: For Beginners and Professionals, 2nd ed (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1989), 84.
58
various personalities within a single group of musicians. Interacting with others requires
great tact and a refined sense of human psychology. The conductor must learn to listen,
watch, and feel what the musicians need at each given moment, and then react in a
respectful, courteous, yet efficient manner.
The fourth principle of communication is the need for continual development
and practice. There are many schools of thought regarding the practice and development
of conducting technique. This is because there are many different ways to develop an
effective technique, and each conductor must find the way that works best for him or
herself. When all is said and done, it is the effectiveness of the technique that matters
most, not the means of technical development.
The conductor's art is as varied as the individuals who practice it, which is why it
is called and art, and not a science. There is no one, correct way. There is no universal
technique. There is only effectiveness and ineffectiveness. Above all else, a conductor
must leam to perceive what is and what is not effective while on the podium. Over time,
a mindful and observant conductor can and will develop a style that is both individual
and effective. Conductors should be wary of rigid philosophies and dogmatic treatises on
the conductor's art, for these will never allow the freedom and flexibility needed to be
effective in all situations. For every rule written on the conductor's art there is an
exception. It is better to be principle-centered rather than rule-centered, for principles can
be adapted to and applied to every situation, while rules cannot. The conductor who
adopts true principles of communication as the foundation of technical development will
have great and continued success in the pursuit of the conductor's art.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books and Articles
Bamberger, Carl, ed. The Conductor's Art. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1965.
Berlioz, Hector. Le Chef D'Orchestre, Theorie de Son Art (The Conductor: The Theory
of His Art). Michigan: Scholarly Press, Inc., 1976.
Chesterman, Robert Conductors in Conversation. London: Robson Books, 1990.
Corredor, J. MA. Conversations with Casals. London: Hutchinson, ND.
Farberman, Harold. The Art o f Conducting Technique: A New Perspective. Los Angeles:
Warner Bros. Publications, 1997.
Fuchs, Peter Paul. The Psychology o f Conducting. New York: MCA Music, 1969.
Furtwdngler, Wilhelm. Aufzeichnungen 1924-1954 (Notebooks 1924-1954). New York:

Quartet Books, 1989.
Furtwangler, Wilhelm. Gesprdche fiber Musik (Concerning Music). Westport,

Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1977.
Green, Elizabeth A.H. The Modern Conductor. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice
-Hall, Inc., 1961.
Grosbayne, Benjamin. Techniques o f Modern Orchestral Conducting, 2nd ed.

Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1973.
Haynes, Glenn Alan. Non-Technical Communication in Conducting and its Presentation

in Selected Textbooks. D.M. A. dissertation, The Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary, 1994.
Hill, Gary. Connecting Our Intelligences. Paper presented as part of a conducting course
at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, Fall 2003.
Hill, Gary. The Qi o f Conducting. Paper presented as part of a conducting course at

Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, Spring 2004.
Hill Gary. The Teacher-Conductor's Olympics. Paper presented as part of a conducting

course at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, Spring 2004.
Hunsberger, Donald, and Roy E. Ernst. The Art o f Conducting. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 1983.
60
Kinyon, John. The Teacher on the Podium. New York: Alfred Publishing Co., 1975.
Kohut, Daniel L., and Joe W. Grant. Learning to Conduct and Rehearse. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990.
Krueger, Karl. The Way o f the Conductor: His Origins, Purpose, and Procedures. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1958.
Malko, Nicolai. The Conductor and His Baton. Copenhagen: Wilhelm Hansen, 1950.
Matheopoulos, Helena. Maestro: Encounters with Conductors o f Today. New York:

Harper and Row, Publishers, 1982.
McElheran, Brock. Conducting Technique: For Beginners and Professionals, 2nd ed.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Munch, Charles. Iam a Conductor. New York: Oxford University Press, 1955.
Reiner, Fritz. "The Secrets of the Conductor." The Etude Music Magazine, July 1936.
Rudolf, Max. The Grammar o f Conducting: A Practical Study o f Modern Baton

Technique. With a foreword by George Szell. New York: G Schirmer, Inc., 1950.
Scherchen, Hermann. Handbook o f Conducting. London: Oxford University Press, 1946.
Schuller, Gunther. The Compleat Conductor. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Spence, Gerry. How to Argue and Win Every Time. New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1995.
Tubbs, Stewart L. and Sylvia Moss. "The Nonverbal Message," in Human

Communication, 3rd ed. New York: Random House, 1980.
Wagner, Richard. Ueber das Dirigiren (On Conducting). New York: Dover Publications,
1989.
Walter, Bruno. Von der Music und vom Musizieren (Of Music and Music-Making). New
York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1957.
Weingartner, Felix. Weingartner on Music and Conducting: Three Essays by Felix

Weingartner. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1969.
61
Interviews
Boulez, Pierre. Interview by author, 7 February 1999, Orchestra Hall, Chicago. Notes in
possession of author.
Deviney, Christopher. Interview by author, 11 February 2006, Kimmel Center for the
Performing Arts, Philadelphia. Notes in possession of author.
Milanov, Rossen. Interview by author, 16 February 2006, Kimmel Center for the
Rattle, Simon. Interview by author, 13 February 2006, Kimmel Center for the
Unsworth, Adam. Interview by author, 11 February 2006, Kimmel Center for the
APPENDIX
INTERVIEW CONDUCTED FEBRUARY 2006
63
APPENDIX
SIMON RATTLE INTERVIEW

CONDUCTED BY DANIEL O’BRYANT
FEBRUARY 13, 2006
KIMMEL CENTER FOR THE PERFORMING ARTS
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA
Daniel O’Bryant My first question is based on a quote by Karajan in which he states

that in the end technique doesn’t matter that much because it is the orchestra that carries
the conductor, and not the other way around. He felt that young conductors think they
have to cause everything, and they focus a lot of energy on developing technique in order
to have better control over the orchestra. He believed that showing everything for the
players makes them lazy and less self-reliant, and that they should play what’s written in
their parts without the conductor showing it first. He believed that when a conductor
gives less information the players are required to step up to the plate, and consequently
become more independent as an orchestra. When I watch you conduct I notice that you’re
not trying to carry the orchestra in regards to the beat, but you are very proactive in other
ways, in trying to draw the music out of them. You’re not sitting back, objectively
observing before jumping in to fix things. In the conducting world there seems to be
various styles of rehearsing a professional orchestra. Some conductors advocate that, in
rehearsals, you should stand back and listen more, which gives you the ability to be more
objective and controlled while fixing technical issues. But your style seems to be much
more proactive than that, right from the beginning. I’m wondering what your thoughts are
on this subject, regarding the attitude one should have during rehearsals.
Sir Simon Rattle I’ve learned a lot from my experience working in Berlin, with the
orchestra saying: “Mostly it’s not what you say but what you do.” And very often I’m at
my most active state in the rehearsals, physically active, particularly in a piece that they
know very well. Because I would like to show them also how I feel, and where we can go
with this. But o f course the more they give it, the more I can withdraw from that and
allow it to come—if we all know we’re going in the same direction. You know, part of
what’s important, particularly with the big American orchestras is to give them a very
clear direction where to go, because otherwise they will give you a wonderful, at the very
highest level, generalized performance of what it is. With an orchestra like the Berlin
Philharmonic it’s often more a matter o f taming them than encouraging them to come in a
certain direction. There’s much less physical activity that’s necessary to get them to go.
They come in with even more of their own. But also this may be years and years of
Karajan doing that. I had to really beg them to look at me in the eye, because Karajan
conducted with his eyes closed, all the time. And that still carried on through Claudio’s
era. You have to actually persuade them that eye contact is also very important. But
actually, of course, the less I do and the more the sound comes out of the players, the
better it is. But I always like to start also by persuading them that we’re doing this
together, and then allow it to flower. Because actually the more you make it...you can
make the sound, but the sound hardens. But I like to, particularly in repertoire they know
64
very well, to try and throw out as many ideas and pictures that I can in a short time, just
to put a lot into it.
DO It seems like you’re always showing something, that you’re very rarely, at least
on the first rehearsal, standing back to observe. But you’re also able to hear very well.
For some young conductors, like myself, it’s often either performance mode or objective
mode, sending out or taking in, but it’s very hard to do both at the same time.
Rattle But eventually you just have to.
DO I know the musicians appreciate having that extra energy because it helps
motivate them. You were saying that the Berlin Philharmonic comes with more of their
own motivation and energy than the Philadelphia Orchestra?
Rattle Yes, but the Berlin orchestra is a much younger orchestra. It’s a youth orchestra in
comparison to this orchestra [Philadelphia], And so actually sometimes they need....And
they don’t read quite as fast and in the same way. It’s more like rehearsing with a big
string quartet. The people have very strong ideas about the direction the music is going,
but they’re not always the same ideas. And so that’s quite interesting; it’s like you have a
hundred and twenty-eight Dustin Hoffmanns, and you don’t have any supporting actors at
all.
DO And here they kind of wait for direction before going ahead?
Rattle Here they’re much more of an ensemble machine. You know part of my job is to
actually free them up, here. To help them actually make their sound. As I said to the
cellos “Could you not blend please. Could you make your most personally beautiful
sound, and then we’ll sort out the blending.”
DO And what was the effect you were striving for? What I heard was a more soloistic
sound, like it was one big soloist. But it actually blended pretty well anyway.
Rattle Absolutely! And it spoke, which is basically the answer.
DO Karajan did show certain things, and took control over some parts of the music
making. I’m wondering what are the things that the conductor should take control over? I
know that to a large extent that depends on the group, some need more beat, some need
more explicit gestures, but in general, what are the things that they really need from the
conductor. What should the conductor carry for the orchestra?
Rattle I would say phrasing and meaning. Not “what does it say?” but “what does it
mean?” And part of what it means, of course, is in the phrasing. Where it goes, where is
tension and release, where are the big harmonic structures. The things that...even a very
good musician in a professional orchestra won’t necessarily be able to take care of
themselves. And the better they are the higher level you can do that at.
DO Then do you sometimes adjust down or up depending on the group?
Rattle Of course.
DO So then Karajan’s advice to just let them play is not always practical for amateur
groups and school orchestras?
Rattle Well, first of all they have to play, and really play...unless you’re satisfied with a
really generalized playing. But I have to start at the point where it’s really special
playing. The more an orchestra really owns a piece, and they’re not playing in a
generalized way, the more I can relax with it. But still, I always want to be able to tell the
story. I always want to be part of it, and I think what’s important, I mean the point of
65
having a conductor there is that you give them different possibilities of where it can go. I
very much admire conductors like Bernard Haitink who can be more objective, but I’m
not that kind of person. I really admire it, but they’re not the performances I give... even if
I would want to. I think there’s a point where you just have to also be true to yourself.
DO The musicians here have commented that most of the conductors who come
through will treat rehearsals with a very dry, technical approach, but they feel that having
more energy in rehearsals is actually more effective, and allows for more productive
rehearsing. They don’t want to work hard unless the conductor makes them or inspires
them to do it. And more energy seems to be the trick with getting this orchestra to pay
attention.
Rattle They are hungry for that, which is one of the reasons why I’ve always enjoyed
that. And you can deal with metaphor with them and not have them laugh at it. They
really want that. That’s one of the big pleasures, and that’s one of the reasons why I come
back and back. O f course I can do the organizational part of conducting when necessary,
but that’s not really why any of us get into music in the first place.
DO So you don’t separate the passion from the building or preparation stage? But is
your passion, in the rehearsal stage, primarily a musical passion or is it more of an
urgency to get things done, type o f energy?
Rattle No. Of course I’m interested in the finished product but often I’m interested in
searching, and you don’t always find when you search. I try to create a situation where it
can grow from concert to concert as well, where not everything is decided. You know
Eric Leinsdorf was always one of the great masters at organizing everything. And always
the first concert was wonderful, and there was almost never any room for growth. All of
the concerts after the first one were always less good.
DO And why was that?
Rattle Because it was all done, as far as he was concerned. That was it. And he
conducted in a way that made it very easy for everything to be organized. There was no
risk, but it was on the very highest level. But I would always prefer to hear a conductor
like Kubelik where it was not quite predictable in what happened, and there was room for
growth and room on every side for people to improvise and find a new story every night.
DO Is the music more authentic that way?
Rattle Well, not necessarily. It’s a different approach. That’s why there’s different
conductors.
DO I want to ask you about conducting technique in general. You have the advantage
o f having seen the older generation of conductors and also today’s conductors. You’re
right in the middle where you can see and compare both sides. Having read a lot of what
the older generation has said about technique, it seems that many of them didn’t think the
manual aspect of conducting really mattered that much.
Rattle What Goldsmith, one of my great old mentors said—he played in the first
performances of Wozzeck, the first performance of the opera in the twenties in Berlin—
he said, “If any of the conductors of that time came back now they would be completely
stunned by the level of technical expertise, and equally stunned by the level of musical
ignorance.”
66
DO So is there some relationship between technique and music ignorance? Or is it just

that the music world favors technique over musicianship?
Rattle Well, it’s wonderful that technique has really evolved, and so every now and then
you get a Carlos Kleiber who can do all of those things. But I think there has been a
school o f conducting, like all the conducting classes here, which are done with two
pianos, which have provided a generation of conductors who are ideal for conducting Le
Noce but not necessarily anything that sings. And when you start to work with essentially
European orchestras, as opposed to English or American orchestras who tend to go much
more with the beat, then actually there are many good conductors, of that school
[American], who simply have no idea of what to do with a great European orchestra that
demands something else. And I’ve seen people come and “pat! pat! pat!” [the sound of
the baton giving beats] with the Berlin Philharmonic and be completely confused why the
orchestra can’t play with them, why the orchestra actually kind of withdraws and starts to
make its own music. I watched recently a very respected conductor, one whom I’ve heard
often and enjoyed, try to conduct the Beethoven violin concerto with one o f the greatest
young soloists of our time. He could simply just have stood there and smiled, and it
would have been so much better. Or he could have just made a face, but in fact what he
did was to try, absolutely, to direct where every note came. He did it either late or early,
and sometimes both at once, and of course the orchestra had no idea how to do it. They
tried to play with the soloist but were simply being jabbed at by the conductor. It was so
deeply depressing. And you would think that such an intelligent person would manage to
see that they do it another way...they listen. And it’s extraordinary that he actually said:
“Don’t listen, follow me.” And of course if you say that, and I’ve heard a number of
people say that, you have lost a great European orchestra, because it is all to do with
listening. And sometimes actually it’s funny when I come here and they say “Oh God
Simon! Could you please just give us a little more beat?” because here you can get things
together just by beating more clearly. That is normally not true in Vienna or with other
European orchestras. They listen! They do it in another way. They do it internally and
they feel it. They don’t calculate. And of course it’s much easier if you calculate because
everything fits into place and so it happens faster, but I think that if they started to
calculate they would lose some of what makes them special. And you know, I love that in
America the notes all begin together, but I find it very distressing they all end together
with such a terrible chop. And that’s part of what we were working on today, to get a line
and to get notes where you don’t know where they finish.
DO But it seems like the American beat-pattem technique is taught as a universal
method of communicating with orchestras.
Rattle But it doesn’t. If you do it in a Wagner opera you’ll learn very quickly that you
can’t get the sound if you conduct like that. Because the minute you give a clear second
beat it stops, and Wagner would never stop, it is always endless. You have to learn
another way to conduct.
DO So when you come here and conduct in the European way, do the orchestras ever
get confused?
Rattle It was very confusing at a certain point. But now they’re used to it. There was a
certain point where, really they were just confused. They weren’t quite sure what they
67
were supposed to do. Now, it clicks in very fast, and we know each other better, and I
know a bit more o f what they need, and they know what I’m after.
DO The principal percussionist of this orchestra said that the musicians can sense
within the first few minutes of working with a conductor how much to watch and how
much to do on their own. The group has to be versatile enough to adapt.
Rattle Yes, but so does the conductor.
DO Among the older conductors, many said that technique didn’t matter because
communication is largely spiritual and not physical.
Rattle They all had a lot of technique though. They had a way of setting up a pulse that
was very, very powerful, and you know that was as much of a technique as anything else.
DO So what they were referring to was not technique itself but rather a certain type of
technique?
Rattle Yes, academic technique. You have to get over that. I used to have a much more
academic technique than I do now.
DO Did you study academically?
Rattle Oh yes, of course.
DO Really?
Rattle God, it looks that bad does it?
DO No. Actually it has all the grace, beauty, and control o f any virtuosic technique,
but it’s definitely not the book-learned, academic type.
Rattle But you have to do the academic training. But I found that, past a certain point, it
didn’t get what I wanted. It was a matter of saying “how can I get the sound, the
phrasing, and the shape that I want?”
DO You leave the tempo up to them. Keeping time is their responsibility?
Rattle Of course, but they do it anyway.
DO You don’t find that some groups start to drag or rush when handed the reins?
Rattle Yes, but it depends. European orchestras often rush, and if a group rushes there is
really nothing you can do anyway. If they start losing the tempo, as they [Philadelphia]
did often when we were rehearsing Bruckner, because they were used to playing it much
more freely, that’s a different matter. But actually the tempo has to come from them. It
really does. And I have to be guiding it, I can’t be making it, because then you get a
different sound, and that’s not interesting.
DO If it’s not accurate to say that the older generation didn’t have great technique,
then could you describe what type of techniques they had?
Rattle There’s an important rider. When you see anyone who’s worked a lot in opera,
there’s always and extraordinary type of technique. They can just take care of anything
when they need to. Great opera conductors like Jimmy Levine or Charley Mackerras have
a technique that, when it needs to be, is completely immaculate. It is always to do with
listening, catching, and waiting. You know Jimmy Levine is so ill now he hardly moves
at all, but he never misses a trick. If someone needs a bit more time he just waits. That’s
an impressive thing. If you’ve seen a film of Furtwangler conducting opera you realize
that he was incredibly under control when he needed to be.
DO Do you think there are disadvantages as well as advantages to having a
systemized, academic training for conductors?
68
Rattle You need to do it, but then you need to forget it. It has to be what the music’s
about. You have to focus on the music. Focusing on getting it together and making all the
inverted commas right is not what music was ever about. “What does it mean?” not only
“what does it say.” I think you simply have to get beyond that [academic technique] and
use it for a purpose. Otherwise you end up like all these extraordinary violinists with such
wonderful bow technique who have nothing to say.
DO Should technique be practiced away from the orchestra, alone in your room or in
front of a mirror?
Rattle No. As Woody Allen said, “I’m one of the world’s greatest lovers but I spend
most of my time practicing alone.” I think there are certain things which need more than
one person to do. O f course you can think about things. The important work about
conducting is the thinking about it, but the actual physical thing you have to do with other
people. You know you can’t kiss on your own. You can’t really conduct on your own
either.
DO Is it dangerous to develop a technique on your own because it might or might not
apply to what the orchestra needs?
Rattle Look. There is no technique if it does not affect another person. It is like kissing
on your own. It doesn’t exist! You can look all you like in the mirror, but that has nothing
to do with conducting. It is only conducting when it is actually getting the result out of
someone else.
DO So how does one prepare manually before getting in front of the orchestra?
Rattle You have to think about what it is you want, you need all the advice you can get,
but you have to do it on the orchestra. Almost always, in conducting classes, I end up
sending the pianists away and getting everyone to sing, so at least you can affect the way
people sing. And with pianists you can only do the sheer dental flossing technique of how
to get of the chords and how to make it clear, but otherwise there’s nothing else you can
do with pianists. It’s always much better if the conducting class sings, when there is no
orchestra to work with. Most of teaching conducting is just having coffee with people and
chatting with people, and encouraging them, and telling them to be free, and to not forget
what Seiji taught you.
DO A lot of American conducting teachers say that one should not move around on
the podium, hunch over, dance, or use large gestures. They teach that all gestures should
be confined to a small, restricted area in front of the face and torso. But you have implied
that the individuality of the conductor and the needs of the music will often conflict with
such rules.
Rattle Yes. You know I used to move much less than I do now, and maybe I will again.
But there came a point where I said: “I want to hear what I want to hear, no matter how I
get it. And I will do anything that is necessary to get what I have in mind. That’s all,
conventional or unconventional.” It’s been a long process of trying and finding things
that work or don’t work. And I think one of the important things for a conductor is
to...when something isn’t working...to try something else. Don’t blame the orchestra
because at least fifty percent of the time it’s your fault.
DO How much can you tell about a conductor from watching a videotape? And what
is it that you are looking for? What do you see in a tape?
69
Rattle What do you see? You see what people mean. Now, basically anyone with the
normal academic thing you can look at for two minutes and you realize....You see what
they mean in their eyes and whether they can express the idea. It doesn’t take longer than
two minutes to see it. It doesn’t matter if the tape has been taken out of context, you can
still see it. You’re looking for some kind of joy, some kind o f meaning. Obviously the
arms have to have some kind o f organization, they always do. But you’re looking for
someone who means something, who has a feeling about the music, who has an idea. It’s
amazing how rare that is. But you know yourself that it’s staggering how few really
musical conductors there are out there. And you want a musician who also happens to be
a conductor, rather than the other way around. Everybody’s looking for musicians first.

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A PHILOSOPHY OF COMMUNICATION

FOR THE MODERN ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR

A Research Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment

ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

FOR THE MODERN ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR

has been approved

Jean, Division o f Graduate Studies

The purpose of this research is to address principles of communication that a

specific to principles of communication were extracted, analyzed, and judged as to their

communicate—technical and non-technical means; (3) Interaction—group psychology

conducting technique and various principles of communication.

human understanding is more important than mechanical precision; (5) a conductor's

conducting schools are divided on issues of technical development—conductors should

kindness, patience, and constant assistance through the entire process.

Hands, Arms, Baton..........................................................................10

Vocalizing— Speaking and Lecturing............................................. 15

3 COMMUNICATION BY INTENTION AND W IL L .................................25

Mechanical Precision vs. Human Understanding..........................28

4 GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND INTERACTION......................................33

Adjust to the G roup..................................................................... 33

Universal Laws of Human Communication.............................. 40

Divisive Issues Regarding Technical Development................ 44

Academic Training and Individual Practice.............................44

Conducting from M emory..........................................................51

Agreed Upon Issues Regarding Technical Development 53

effective, a conductor must learn to communicate in a variety of roles, including leader,

administrator, recruiter, entertainer, educator, producer, artist, and musician, but it is

communication becomes the most crucial factor in a conductor's success.

conductor communicates both levels of music through a variety of methods, both

technical and non-technical.

instruments and therefore the overall sound or surface of the music.3

the elaboration of rhythmic detail, thus overlooking phrasing.”5

Simon Rattle, conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic, observed that good

guides the overall line and shape 7

when to show beats and when to show phrasing.

non-technical means. Glen Haynes applies the term ‘non-technicaF to methods of

communication that cannot be systematically analyzed and taught in conducting

textbooks because of the subjective and individual nature of such methods.14

microphone of his personality, to the amplifying orchestra, is worthy to be a

of spirit, character, and energy that needs to be communicated.

Richard Wagner commented on this principle by saying:

Therefore, a conductor’s most important responsibility, with regard to musical depth, is

every other aspect of the music

internal. The external, or surface, level of communication is the technical ability to

express something. The internal, or deeper, level of communication is the reason,

intention, and desire to express something.

The importance of technique can be emphasized with the following analogy:

ability to communicate, and such frustrations will become less frequent.

substitute mental and emotional drive for physical technique.”21

and legs form appropriate stances and postures.

mind’s eye, without the potential for visual distractions.

Hands, Arms, Baton

Haynes considers some of these gestures to be non-directive and some to be non-musical,

no such thing as a non-musical or a non-directive gestures since all gestures cause

Directive gestures are non-musical expressions that cause technical and/or

is tweaking and adjusting what he or she hears.

Humans have a pervasive tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize

Emulative gestures can be used effectively on both instrumentalists and singers,

appropriately, emulative gestures can be an effective means of achieving results with

both singers and instrumentalists.

Whatever gesture a conductor uses, whether expressive, directive, affective, or

secondary importance to whether it is effective to the orchestra.32 Rattle remarked that he