Running head: VARIABLES FOR LEADERSHIP 1

Situational and personal variables aiding in leadership development

Elizabeth A. Sweigart

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

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Situational and personal variables aiding in leadership development

More and more, research is showing that leadership skills and abilities can be fostered,

grown, and developed rather than simply being a matter of innate possession (Day, Harrison, &

Halpin, 2009). However, "deliberate practice is needed to develop expertise" (Day et al., 2009, p.

126). Unlike pedagogy—which is focused on instructor-led teaching and applied primarily to

childhood education—andragogy deals with the methodology and practice of adult learning and

development (Day et al., 2009). Foundationally, andragogy seeks to center the learner rather than

the instructor in the teaching process, draw on the intrinsic motivation of the learner, and make

the learner accountable and responsible for their own growth and development rather than a set

education program (Day et al., 2009). Given that "leadership expertise is conceptualized in terms

of how leaders access and use information as well as the content of their underlying knowledge

of important leadership tasks" (Day et al., 2009, p. 126), work experiences provide opportunities

for individuals to further their abilities to function as leaders.

The literature is consistent in its support for experiential learning that centers the learner

as the best method for engendering high performance in adults (Day et al., 2009). In particular,

leader development must be purpose-driven and intentional in addition to being ongoing and

intensive" (Day et al., 2009, p. 125). Generally, most experiential learning takes place first-hand;

however, lived experience is not a prerequisite for experiential learning (Day et al., 2009). Other

forms of learning based on experience that are also impactful to adult learners include vicarious

learning—where individuals learn from observing the experiences of others—and narrative

learning—where individuals learn from absorbing true or fictitious stories about the experiences

of others (Day et al., 2009).

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Increasingly, internships are seen as a necessary step to securing full-time employment

after college or university graduation (Yeo, 2019). Although "the highest levels of human

performance across different domains can only be obtained after approximately 10 years of

extended, daily amounts of deliberate practice activities" (Day et al., 2009, p. 124), the

foundations of leadership expertise are observed and gathered at every stage of an individual's

career. As Day et al. (2009) state, "Leadership expertise is conceptualized in terms of how

leaders access and use information as well as the content of their underlying knowledge of

important leadership tasks" (p. 126). As such, key situational and personal variables that arise

during an internship work experience are likely to affect one's future ability to function as a

leader. Beyond general administrative skills and basic managerial functional knowledge,

"impression management, emotional regulation, and the ability to discern other's emotions have

been suggested as important leadership skills" (Day et al., 2009, p. 122).

Leaders are in a continuous state of learning and, in order to maintain this mindset, must

first recognize what they need to learn, which may not be readily apparent—particularly to

novice, as compared to expert, leaders (Day et al., 2009). A situational variable that can

contribute to a positive outcome in this instance is the learning orientation of the organization.

Organizations that are focused on continuous learning and development—in particular, those that

perceive learning not in terms of outcomes, but rather as a process—provide the optimal

environment for leadership skill development (Day et al., 2009). Personally, leaders whose egos

and need for impression management render them incapable of examining their developmental

gaps with rigorous honesty will likely be unsuccessful (Day et al., 2009). This variable can be

described as a type of emotional intelligence, where the developing leader perceives their own
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emotions accurately and is able to understand and interpret them "in a way that enhances their

own personal growth and social relations" (Day et al., 2009, p. 122).

Similarly, failure may be just as important to a leader's development as success—possibly

even more so (Day et al., 2009). The opportunity to fail in an environment in which the

development leader can experience the real-time downstream consequences of their actions

while at the same time fostering a situation where that failure is not fatal to the leader is critical

(Day et al., 2009). Extending the example of the internship, this type of work experience can

provide an emerging leader with the opportunity to take on a slightly larger responsibility than

they may be ready to at the time. The personal variables of courage and a desire to gain

knowledge by consciously interacting with one's environment support the situational variables in

this case providing an opportunity to learn from both failure and success—even a combination of

the two. As Day et al. (2009) write, "It seems that everyone wants to learn, but nobody wants to

be wrong" (p. 151).

Ultimately, internships may provide the ideal training ground in terms of work experience

for developing future leaders. Due to their short durations, internships are focused on

contributing to a process or performing as part of a team engagement rather than on a single

objective or outcome (Yeo, 2019), which Day et al. (2009) note as one of the six overarching

propositions of the theory of experimental learning. In addition to the situational variables that an

internship environment may offer for developing leadership skills, novice and growing expert

leaders must still possess personal traits, characteristics, and variables that support their learning

objectives as well (Day et al., 2009). Self-awareness, emotional and social intelligence, and the

ability to link technical abilities with the functioning of a system increase the likelihood that a

work experience—particularly an internship—will further one's ability to function as a leader.

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References

Day, D. V., Harrison, M. M., & Halpin, S. M. (2009). An integrative approach to leader

development: Connecting adult development, identity, and expertise. New York:

Psychology Press.

Yeo, S. (July 29, 2019). Commentary: Having trouble finding that first job? Try an internship

after graduation. Channel News Asia. Retrieved from

https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/commentary/trouble-finding-first-job-post-

graduation-internship-employment-11720400/.