Durability

• Permeability of concrete
• Transport of water, chemicals, and ions into
concrete
• Chemical attack
– Leaching and efflorescence
– Sulfate attacks
– Attack by acids and bases
– Corrosion of sewer pipes
– Alkali-aggregate reaction
– Corrosion of steel reinforcement
• Physical attack
– Freezing and thawing
 Durability
• Durability depends on
– concrete quality
– service environment
– design service life
• Premature failure
– ignorance in design
– poor specification
– poor workmanship
• Quality of concrete related to
– permeability, diffusivity, absorption
– strength
– type of cementitious material: OPC, SRC, blended cements
– aggregate: reactivity
 Permeability of Concrete
• Play an important role in durability
• Essential for water - retaining structures and construction
below grade – water tightness
• Flow of water through cement paste obeys D’Arcy’s law

v = rate of flow of water

h = head of water (hydraulic pressure)
x = thickness of specimen
kp = permeability coefficient, depend on capillary porosity
which is affected by w/c and degree of cement hydration
 Permeability of Concrete
• Depends on
– porosity
– pore size distribution – dominated by large capillary pores
– continuity of pores
• W/C (w/cm) has the most significant influence on
permeability and durability
– w/c , porosity , permeability 
• Lower w/c reduces capillary porosity, reduce penetration of water
and harmful substances
• Lower w/c increases strength, improve concrete resistance to
cracking from internal stresses
• Permeability is also reduced by
– use of mineral admixtures
– increase in curing
 Effect of ITZ in
concrete on
permeability

(Hansen 1986)
(Powers et al 1954) (Concrete Manual 1975)

Composition of sealed & fully

hydrated Portland cement paste

Volume of capillary pores 

markedly for w/c > 0.42
(Mindess et al 2003)
 Chemical Transport
• Most concrete contains capillary water
– Chemical transport will be affected by interaction between
pore solution and chemicals

• Moisture content largely determine the nature and speed of

penetration of chemicals into concrete
– Movement of dissolved ions with water under pressure head
– For dry or semi-dry concrete exposed to water, capillary
suction pressure has the same effect on flow as a pressure
head of 2.4 MPa in saturated concrete
– In near-saturated concrete, diffusion under a concentration
gradient provides the principal method of transport
 Diffusion
• Diffusion can be described by Fick’s second law

C=concentration, t=time, Kd =diffusion coefficient, x=depth

• Solution to this equation for a semi-infinite slab

C(x,t) = concentration of ions at depth x and time t

Co = concentration of ions at the surface
erf = error function
 Diffusion
• Penetration of Cl follows
Fick’s Law very closely

• Factors affecting diffusion

– Pore structure
– Relative humidity of
concrete
• Ion diffusion (chlorides,
sulphates) is most effective
when the pores in the
cement paste are saturated
(Berke & Hick 1996)
– Age
 Wick Action
• For relatively thin structural elements, if concrete surface away
from water, sulphate, or chloride solution source is exposed to air
(RH < 100%), water or solution will be drawn through the
concrete toward the surface and evaporate, leaving precipitated
salt behind.
– Inside of tunnel liners
– Slab-on-grade where subgrade is wet

Face in Dry face

contact with to air
water or RH<100%
solutions

• Rate of salt ingress by wick action > that by diffusion alone

– Especially a concern when w/cm > 0.40 where likelihood of a
continued capillary pore system is high
 Water Permeability Test
• Typical tests involve movement of water through concrete
specimens under high water pressures
– Permeability coefficient
• calculated according to D’Arcy’s Law
• calculated based on water penetration depth
Specimen

Where KP = coefficient of water permeability (m/s);

Water under pressure
d = water penetration depth (m);
v = porosity of concrete [m = gain in mass (g); A = cross-sectional area of
specimen (mm2) ,  = density of water]
h = water hydraulic head (m); t = time under pressure (s).

• Results exhibit significant variability

• Difficulty
– permeability coefficient  as the pressure 
 Sorptivity (absorption) Test

 Tested according to ASTM C 1585

‒ mass increase resulted from absorption of water
as a function of time
‒ 3 discs ø100×50 mm

0.6

Sorptivity S (kg/m2 h0.5):

Mass increase, kg/m2
0.5

0.4
slope of regression curve of
0.3
water absorbed by a unit 0.2
surface area vs SQRT of 0.1
time from 1 to 24 hrs 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
√time, h0.5
 Rapid Cl Penetrability Test
• According to ASTM C 1202
• 6 h charges passed (C)
• RCPT ratings

Charge passed, Chloride ion

Coulombs penetrability
> 4,000 High

2,000-4,000 Moderate
- Effect of w/c on current
1,000-2,000 Low
-Low w/c – no significant
100-1,000 Very Low
change in current passing
< 100 Negligible through specimen in 6-hr
period
• Used as construction -High w/c, current increases
acceptance test with time
 Rapid Migration Test

 According to NT Build 492

 3 discs ø100×50 mm
 External potential: 30 V
 Duration: 24 hours

 Specimen split into two halves

 Open interior surface sprayed with
0.1N AgNO3 to determine chloride
penetration depth

AgNO3 + Cl-  AgCl  (white) + NO3-

 Chemical Attack
• Leaching and efflorescence
– Efflorescence
• Occur frequently on the surface of concrete when water can
percolate through the concrete
• Major constituent is calcium carbonate
Ca(OH)2+ CO2 = white crusts of CaCO3 on the surface
• Among hydration
products, Ca(OH)2 is
most susceptible to
leaching due to its
relatively high solubility
(1230 mg/liter)
 Leaching and Efflorescence
• Efflorescence
– An aesthetic problem in itself
– Extensive leaching of Ca(OH)2 exposes other cementitious
constituents to chemical decomposition, results in
•  in porosity and permeability
•  strength
• Rate of leaching
– Depends on the amount of dissolved salts in percolating water
• Soft waters (rain water) – most aggressive
• Hard water (containing large amounts of Ca++) – less
dangerous
– Temperature: Ca(OH)2 is more soluble in cold water than in
warm water
 Degradation Caused by Sulfate Attack
• Most widespread & common form of chemical attack
• Sulfates
– Natural origins: ground water, sea water
– Industrial sources: mine tailings

D. Hooton
 Sulfate Attack
• Mechanism of sulfate attack
– Dissolved sulphate penetrate into concrete
– Gypsum corrosion

• Accompanied by an expansion in volume by~120%

– Sulfoaluminate corrosion

• Accompanied by 55% increase in solid volume

• Volume expansion may be  due to water absorption
when ettringite is in microcrystalline form
 Underground pile subjected
Sulfate Attack to sulfate attack

• Consequence
– expansion
– cracking
– loss of strength due to the loss
of cohesion in the cement
paste and its bond with
aggregate
– damage usually starts at
edges and corners followed by
progressive cracking and
spalling which reduce the
concrete to a friable or even
soft state
• Field observation shows
– Sulfate attack is not always
accompanied by expansion

(Scrivener 2012)
 Sulfate Attack
• Effect of different sulfates
– Type of sulfate commonly encountered: Na, K, Ca, Mg
– Mg sulfates can be more aggressive because of possible
additional reactions which decompose C-S-H and calcium
sulfoaluminates

• SHx may react with MH to form crystalline magnesium silicate,

no cementing property

• MH often forms in pores, reduce porosity of concrete, and

hinders penetration of sulfates
• The reactions  pH of pore solution
 Sea Water
• Action of sea water
(Mindess et al 2003)

MgSO4+ CaOH  MgOH + CaSO4

– Formation of MgOH in pores is one of the reasons why

seawater is less corrosive than might be expected

– Gypsum and ettringite are more soluble in solutions containing

Cl ion; this reduces deleterious expansions
Control of Sulfate Attacks
• Make dense concrete
– Reduce w/c
– Use mineral admixtures
(GGBFS, Class F FA, etc) or
blended cements
• Reduce Ca(OH)2
– Use mineral admixtures (SF,
GGBFS, Class F FA) or
blended cements
• Minimise C3A content
– Use sulphate resistant
cements

(Verbeck 1969)
Recommended limiting values for composition and properties of concrete (SS
EN 206-1: 2009)
Sulfate Attack - Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)
• Occur in concrete cured at high temperatures (>70 oC) in many precast
plants
• A special case of sulphate attack where the source of sulphate
ions happens to be internal (within concrete)
– Sulfate in cement
– Gypsum-contaminated aggregates
• At high T, redistribution of aluminate and sulphate in other phases, e.g.
C-S-H, AFm phase.
• After cooling and during service life, sulphate and aluminate are
desorbed to form ettringite,  in volume
• The expansion results in formation of microcrystalline ettringite adjacent
to aggregate particles
• Cracking
(D. Hooton)
 Delayed Ettringite Formation
in massive concrete structures (Malaysia)
• Severe cracking was found in in-situ concrete substructures of
a three-year-old highway viaduct in Malaysia, with many cracks
exceeding 3mm width. The cause of the severe cracking was
diagnosed as delayed ettringite formation.

Reading: article in
Library E-reserve
 D. Hooton

Reading:
Conclusions of the International RILEM TC 186-ISA Workshop on Internal Sulfate
Attack and Delayed Ettringite Formation (Sept 2002, Villars, Switzerland)
 Thaumasite Form of Sulfate Attack
• Thaumasite formation
– Primary risk factors
• presence of sulphate and/or sulphide
• presence of carbonate ions, from concrete aggregate, or in
cement as filler, or due to carbonation of concrete
• low temperatures (generally below 15 oC)
• presence of water, or very wet
C-S-H + H2O/CO3-2/SO4-2 
– Thaumasite
• soft white powder, mush, no binding power
– Sulphate resisting cement will not be immune to this type of attack
although the formation of thaumasite is decreased with decreasing
C3A content
– Concrete with 70-90% OPC replaced by slag performed well under
conditions in which concrete with OPC alone performed poorly
 Crystallization of Salts
• Salts can also cause damage to concrete through the
development of crystal growth pressure that arise through
physical causes
– Penetration of water containing considerable quantities of
dissolved salts into concrete
– Salt crystallization in pores when water evaporates
– Repeated or continued evaporation cause salts built up
– Cracking
• Where?
– Fluctuating water levels
– Concrete is in contact with ground water rich in salts
• Control
– Use low w/c, low permeability concrete
– For existing concrete, seal concrete to prevent the ingress of
moisture and evaporation
 (R. Flatt 2002)

• Changes in temperature and

RH can cause alternate cycles
of dissolution and crystallization
of Na2SO4 salts, resulting in
phase changes between
Na2SO4 (thenardite) and
Na2SO4 · 10H2O (mirabilite).
(D. Hooton)