Substation

Equipment and
Distribution
Lines

Unit 5

Substation
Learning Objectives Equipment and
Distribution Lines
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

describe the main equipment required for the

construction of a 66-33/11kV substation;

classify the distribution line equipment;

describe the main equipment for overhead

lines;

discuss the important features of underground

power cables in the distribution system network;

enunciate the general operation and

maintenance practices for substation
equipment, distribution lines and capacitors;

explain hotline maintenance techniques and

tools; and

explain the effect of HT/LT ratio on line losses

and voltage.

49
Operation and
Maintenance 5.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 4, you have studied about the power distribution system and its
components. You have also learnt about distribution system planning and
the general O & M objectives and practices. You will agree that the smooth
operation of the power distribution system depends on how well it is
maintained. This includes the operation and maintenance of all its
components.

We begin this unit with a discussion of the substation equipment and

distribution lines so that you know the standards prescribed for the equipment.
Adhering to these standards would ensure the smooth operation of the
equipment. We next discuss the operation and maintenance of equipment
used in the 66-33/11 kV substations, 11/0.4 kV substations, overhead lines,
underground cables and capacitors. Finally, we take up hot line maintenance
tools and techniques and the impact of LT/HT ratio on losses. In the next unit,
we deal with the O & M of distribution transformers separately.

5.2 66 - 33/11 kV SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT

Equipment in a substation can broadly be categorized as follows:

• structures;
• power transformers;
• bus-bars;
• circuit breakers (33 kV and 11 kV);
• isolators or isolating switches (33 kV and 11 kV);
• earthing switches;
• insulators;
• power and control cables;
• control panel;
• lightning protection − surge arrestors;
• instrument transformers (current and power transformers, i.e., CTs and
PTs);
• earthing arrangements;
• reactive compensation;
• DC supply arrangement;
• auxiliary supply transformer; and
• fire-fighting system.

The design of the substation equipment must comply with the requirement of
50 relevant Indian Standards.
 Substation
We now briefly describe each one of these. Equipment and
Distribution
• Structures
Lines
Structures are required to provide entry from the overhead line to the
substation and to extend out required number of feeders. The numbers of
structures should be kept to a minimum as large number of structures
would not only be uneconomical but give an ugly look to the substation and
may prove to be obstructions in extending bus-bar, lines, etc. The main
structures required for 33/11 kV substations are:
− incoming and outgoing gantries;
− support structures for breaker, isolators, fuses, insulators, CTs
and PTs; and
− bus-bars.

Switchyard structures can be made of fabricated steel, RCC or PSCC,

Rail or RS Joist.

• Power Transformers
You have learnt about the underlying principle and design of a power
transformer in Unit 4. The general operation and maintenance practices of
power transformers are similar to those of distribution transformers, which
are discussed in detail in Unit 6.
• Bus-bars
A bus-bar in electrical power distribution refers to thick strips of copper or
aluminum that conduct electricity within the substation (Fig. 5.1). The size
of the bus-bar is important in determining the maximum amount of current
that can be safely carried. The bus-bar should be able to carry the
expected maximum load current without exceeding the temperature limit.
The capacity of bus should also be checked for maximum temperature
under short circuit conditions.
Different types of bus-bars, namely, single bus-bar, single bus-bar with
bus sectionalizer, main and transfer bus, double bus-bar, double bus-bar
with double breaker scheme and mesh scheme are used in a substation
in accordance with the safety and reliability considerations.
Fig. 5.1: Bus-bars
• Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker is a switching device built ruggedly to enable it to
interrupt/ make not only the load current but also the much larger
fault current, which may occur on a circuit.
A circuit breaker contains both fixed contacts and moving contacts. The
purpose of circuit breakers is to eliminate a short-circuit that occurs on a
line. Circuit breakers are found at the arrivals and departures of all lines
incident on a substation. When the circuit breaker is closed these
contacts are held together. The mode of action of all circuit breakers
consists in the breaking of the fault current by the separation of the moving
contacts away from the fixed ones. An arc is immediately established on 51
Operation and
Maintenance
separation of the contacts. Interruption of the current occurs after the arc
at these contacts is extinguished and current becomes zero.

Elements of a Circuit Breaker

Circuit breakers contain the following elements, irrespective of the

medium for arc quenching and insulation:

− main contact at system voltage;

− insulation, such as porcelain, oil or gas, between the main

contacts and ground potential;

− operating and supervisory accessories, of which tripping

facilities are most important.

A wide variety of closing and tripping arrangements (using relays with

variable time delay) and a number of operating mechanisms (based on
solenoids, charged springs or pneumatic arrangements) are available
now-a-days.

The types of breakers used in a distribution system are:

− air break type;
− oil break type;
− vacuum type; and
− SF6 gas breaker.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.2: Circuit Breakers: a) Oil Break Type Breaker; and b) SF6 Gas Breaker

The rated voltage of circuit breakers for 33 kV level is 36 kV, and for 11 kV,
it is 12 kV. The short circuit current rating is 25 kA. The 11 kV switchgear
52 is generally metal enclosed indoor type.
 Substation
• Isolators Equipment and
Distribution
Isolators are mechanical switching devices capable of opening or closing
Lines
a circuit
− when a negligible current is broken or made, or
− only a small charging current is to be interrupted, or
− when no significant voltage difference exists across the
terminals of each pole.

Fig. 5.3: Isolators

Isolators are capable of carrying current under normal conditions and

short circuit currents for a specified time. In open position, the isolator
should provide an isolating distance between the terminals. The standard
value of rated duration of short time current capacity withstand for isolator
and earthing switch is normally 1 second. A value of 3 seconds is also
sometimes specified. For 33 kV, horizontal type isolating switches are
used. The rated normal current is 630 A at 36 kV. For 11 kV, both
horizontal and vertical mounting isolating switches of 400 Amps at 12 kV
are used.
• Earthing Switches
Earthing switches are provided at various locations to facilitate
maintenance. Main blades and earth blades are interlocked with both
electrical and mechanical means. The earthing switch has to be capable
of withstanding short circuit current for short duration as applicable to the
isolator.
• Insulators
An electrical insulator resists the flow of electricity. Application of
voltage difference across a good insulator results in negligible electrical
current. Adequate insulation is of prime importance for obvious reasons of
reliability of supply, safety of personnel and equipment, etc.
The insulators in use at substations are post insulators of pedestal
type. The station design should be such that the number of insulators is
kept at a minimum at the same time ensuring security of supply. In the
areas where the problem of insulator pollution is expected (such as near
the sea or thermal station, railway station, industrial area, etc.) special
insulators with higher leakage resistance should be used. 53
Operation and
• Power and Control Cables
Maintenance
Power and control cables of adequate current carrying capacity and
voltage rating are provided at the substation. Power cables are used for
33kV,11 kV or LT system to carry load current. The control cables are
required for operating and protection system connections. The cables are
segregated by running in separate trenches or on separate racks.

• Control Panels

Control panels installed within the control building of a switchyard

provide mounting for mimic bus, relays, meters, indicating
instruments, indicating lights, control switches, test switches and
other control devices. The panel contains compartments for incoming
lines, outgoing lines, bus-bars with provision for sectionalizing, relays,
measuring instruments, etc.

The panel is provided with:

− suitable over-current and earth fault relays to protect the
equipment against short circuit and earth faults; and
− measuring instruments such as ammeter, voltmeter and energy
meter for 33kV and 11 kV systems.
• Lightning Protection−
−Surge Arrestors
Large over voltages that develop suddenly on electric transmission and
distribution system are referred to as “surges” or “transients”. These are
caused by lightning strikes or by circuit switching operations. Surge
arrestor is a protective device for limiting surge voltages on equipment by
discharging or bypassing surge current.

The surge arrestor which responds to over-voltages without any time

delay is installed for protection of 33 kV switchgear, transformers,
associated equipment and 11 kV and 33 kV lines.

The rated voltage of arrestors for 33 kV should be 30 kV for use on 33 kV

Fig. 5.4: Surge Arrestors
systems and with nominal discharge current rating of 10 kA. The rated
voltage of lightning arrestors should be 9 kV (r.m.s.) for effectively earthed
11 kV system (coefficient of earth not exceeding 80 % as per IS: 4004)
with all the transformer neutrals directly earthed. The nominal discharge
current rating should be 5 kA.

• Instrument Transformers (Current and Voltage Transformers)

The substations have current and voltage transformers designed to

isolate electrically the high voltage primary circuit from the low
voltage secondary circuit and, thus, provide a safe means of supply
for indicating instruments, meters and relays.

Ø Current Transformer (CT)

Current transformers are used in power installations for

supplying the current circuits of indicating instruments
54
 Substation
(ammeter, wattmeter, etc.), meters (energy meter, etc.) and Equipment and
protective relays. These transformers are designed to provide a Distribution
standard secondary current output of 1 or 5 A, when rated current Lines
flows through the primary. A fundamental characteristic of CT is its
transformation ratio, expressed as the ratio of the rated primary to
NOTE
rated secondary current. Current transformers have two inherent
errors: the current ratio and phase displacement. These two A current
errors serve as a basis on which current transformers are classified transformer is an
for accuracy. instrument
transformer in which
the current ratio is
within the specified
limit. The primary
winding is connected
in series with the load
and carries the load
current to be
measured. The
secondary winding is
connected to the
measuring instrument
or relay, which
together with the
winding impedance of
the transformer and
lead resistance
constitute the burden
(a) (b)
(b) of the transformer.

Fig. 5.5: a) Current Transformers; and b) Voltage Transformer

Ø Voltage Transformer or Potential Transformer (PT)

These instrument transformers are used for supplying the voltage NOTE
circuit of indicating instruments, integrating meters, other measuring
apparatus and protective relays or trip coils. These may be of single Voltage transformer
phase or three phase design and of the dry or oil immersed types. A is an instrument
voltage transformer or PT is rated in terms of the maximum burden transformer in which
(VA output) it will deliver without exceeding specified limits of error. On the secondary
voltage is
the other hand, a power transformer is rated by the secondary output it
substantially
will deliver without exceeding specified temperature rise. All voltage proportional to the
transformers are designed for a standard secondary voltage of 110 V primary voltage and
or 110 / 3 V. phase angle near to
zero for an
• Earthing Arrangements appropriate direction
Earthing has to be provided for of connection.

− safety of personnel,
− prevention of and minimizing damage to equipment as a result
of flow of heavy fault currents, and
− improved reliability of power supply.
The basic grounding system is in the form of an earth mat with risers. 55
Operation and
Maintenance
Risers of MS flat are generally provided. Earth mat is provided within the
substation area. The earth rods are connected to the station earth mat.
The earthing must be designed so as to keep the earth resistance as low
as possible. Earthing practices have been discussed in Unit 6 of the
course BEE-002.
• Reactive Compensation
Reactive compensation (as indicated by system studies of the network)
has to be provided. It is always a good idea to ensure a power factor
correction for transformers, since even when they are operating on low
load (e.g., during the night) they absorb reactive power, which must be
compensated to avoid unnecessary loadings and losses. You can recall
this aspect from Appendix 1 to Unit 4. Shunt capacitors (Fig. 5.6) are
connected on the secondary side (11 kV side) of the 33/11 kV power
transformers. The capacitors are generally of automatic switched type.
The automatic system of the capacitor bank has the task of switching in
the necessary capacitance according to the load requirements at each
given moment.
• Station Battery/DC Supply Arrangement
Fig. 5.6: Shunt Capacitors Station batteries supply energy to operate protection equipment such as
breakers and other control, alarm and indicating equipment (Fig. 5.7). The
station batteries are a source for operating DC control system equipment
during system disturbances and outages. During normal conditions the
rectifier provides the required DC supply. However, to take care of rectifier
failure, a storage battery of adequate capacity is provided to meet the DC
requirements.
Normally, in a 33/11 kV substation, the DC system is of 30 cells consisting
of 15 lead acid storage batteries or Nickel-Cadmium batteries. The battery
is connected in parallel with a constant voltage charger and critical load
circuits. The charger maintains the required voltage at battery terminal and
supplies the normally connected loads. This sustains the battery in fully
charged condition. The correct size battery charger has to be selected for
the intended application.
• Auxiliary Supply Transformer
Fig. 5.7: Battery Bank
An Auxiliary Supply Transformer of adequate capacity is required to be
provided for internal use for lighting loads, battery charging, oil filtration
plant, etc. The supply should be reliable. In a substation it is normally
provided from a station transformer connected on 33 or 11 kV bus bar.
• Fire Fighting System
In view of the presence of oil filled equipment in a substation, it is
important that proper attention is given to isolation, limitation and
extinguishing of fire so as to avoid damage to costly equipment and
reduce chances of serious dislocation of power supply as well as ensure
safety of personnel. The layout of the substation itself should be such that
the fire should not spread to other equipment as far as possible. Fire
56
 Substation
extinguishers of the following type must be provided: Equipment and
− Carbon dioxide extinguisher, and Distribution
Lines
− Dry chemical powder extinguisher.

Carbon dioxide (CO2 type) extinguisher and Dry chemical powder type
extinguisher should conform to IS: 2878 and IS:2171, respectively. For oil
fire, foam type extinguishers are used (see Unit 7, BEE-002 also). The fire
fighting equipment should be maintained and kept in top condition for
instant use as per IS: 1948-1961 “Fire Fighting Equipment and its
Maintenance including Construction and Installation of Fire Proof Doors-
Fire Safety of Buildings (General)”.

So far we have described the equipment in a 66-33kV/11kV substation.

You may like to review the information before studying further.

SAQ 1: Equipment at 66-33/11kV substation

List the equipment being used in your utility for the construction of
33/11 kV substation along with their typical ratings.

………………………………………………………………………………………

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5.3 11/0.4 kV SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT

The main equipment at an 11/0.4 kV distribution substation comprises:

• distribution transformers;
• transformer mounting structure;
• protection system;
• earthing system;
• lightning arrestors;
• LT distribution box; and
• reactive compensation.
We shall be discussing the distribution transformers in detail in the next unit.
Here, we briefly describe the remaining components.

• Transformer Mounting Structure

Transformers can be mounted outdoors (Figs. 5.8 and 5.9) in one of the
57
Operation and
Maintenance following ways: Plinth mounting, H-pole mounting and direct
mounting. We describe these mountings, in brief.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.8: Transformer Mountings: a) Plinth Mounting; and b) H-Pole Mounting

Ø Plinth mounting: The transformer is mounted on a plinth made of

concrete. The plinth has to be higher than the surroundings. The
method can be used for all sizes of transformers. Where the
distribution substations are plinth mounted, they are efficiently
protected by fencing so as to prevent access to the apparatus by
unauthorized persons.

Ø H-pole mounting: The transformer can be mounted on cross-

arms, fixed between two poles, which are rigidly fastened to the
poles. The transformer has two base channels, which rest on the
transformer mounting structure.

Ø Direct mounting: The transformer is clamped directly to the pole by

suitable clamps and bolts. This method is used for transformers up
to 25 kVA only.

• Protection System

The HT side of all transformers is normally protected by drop out

expulsion type fuse. Three 11 kV drop out fuse units comprising a
set are installed on mounting cross-arm. The fuse element is
soldered on both ends between woven wires, which are sufficiently
strong to withstand tension when fixed to the terminals on both ends.
The element is housed in an insulated tube of paper or insulating
material. Horn gap fuses are also used on distribution transformers on
HT side. The fuse wire is fixed between arcing horns. The advantage is
Fig.5.9: Direct Mounting that ordinary fuse wire of rated capacity can be used for replacement
while for drop out fuses, fuse elements are required to be stocked for
58 replacement.
 Substation
• Earthing Equipment and
Distribution
Pipe earthing or rod earthing is provided for the distribution substation. Lines
Three electrodes forming an equilateral triangle are provided so that
adequate earth buffer is available.

• Lightning Arrestors

11 kV lightning arrestors 9 (kV) of outdoor type are used for diverting the
lightning surges to earth resistance of earth. The lightning arrestor should
be installed on the HT side and its lead should be kept at a minimum.

• LT Distribution Box

For transformers of 100 kVA and above, sheet metal LT distribution box
consisting of LT breaker and fuse cut-outs is provided from where
distribution feeders are to be taken out. The size of the box has to be
suitable for accommodating MCCB, fuse cut-outs, cable connectors,
bus-bars, etc.

• Reactive Compensation

The load incident on the distribution system is mostly inductive, requiring

large reactive power. The best method is to compensate the reactive
power at the load end itself but it is difficult to implement in practice.
Hence, providing compensation on the distribution system is essential. So
wherever the power factor is low, reactive compensation may be provided
on the distribution transformers.

The shunt capacitor supplies constant reactive power at its location,

independent of the load. Fixed or automatic switched type capacitors of
adequate rating are to be provided on the LT bus of the distribution
transformers. In the switched capacitor system, the capacitors are
switched on and off along with the load to avoid over-voltage during low
load operation.

SAQ 2: Equipment at distribution substation

List the equipment and their typical ratings, being used in the distribution
substations of your utility. Are all the protection equipment listed above
being used?

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

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59
Operation and
Maintenance 5.4 DISTRIBUTION LINE EQUIPMENT

The distribution lines can be either overhead or underground. These are

usually overhead, though for higher load densities in cities or metropolitan
areas, these are underground. The choice between overhead and
underground depends upon a number of widely differing factors such as the
importance of service continuity, improvement in appearance of the area,
feasibility in congested areas, comparative annual maintenance cost, capital
cost and useful life of the system.

5.4.1 Overhead Lines

An overhead power line is intended for transmission of electric power by a

bare or covered overhead conductor supported by insulators, generally
mounted on cross-arms near the top of poles. The overhead line may be
66, 33, 11 kV or LT line. The basic equipment used for the line remains the
same. The main equipment required for an overhead line is as follows:

• supports,

• cross-arms,

• insulators,
(a)
• earthing knob,

• earthing coil,

• strain hardware set,

• conductors,

• line accessories,
(b)
Fig. 5.10: a) Overhead
• guard wires, and
Lines Mounted
• LT line spacers.
on Cross-arm
Poles;
We describe each one of these, in brief.
b) Close-up
• Supports

A support is a column of wood, concrete, steel or some other material

supporting overhead conductors by means of arms or brackets. The
supports used for overhead line construction vary in design and the
purpose they have to perform. The different types of supports for overhead
lines are: wood poles, concrete poles, steel poles and lattice type
towers.

Ø Wood poles: Chemically treated wood poles are used for distribution
lines. The advantage of using wood poles is that they are low in cost.
However, they are susceptible to decay. The specifications for wood
poles are covered by IS:876 and IS:5978. According to this standard,
60 the timber suitable for poles has been classified into three groups
 Substation
depending upon its strength. For example, IS 6056 for jointed wood Equipment and
poles for overhead lines specifies that sal, deodar, chir, kail, wood be Distribution
used. Jointed wood poles with wire bound lap joint are considerably Lines
less expensive and found to be very suitable for LT and HT lines in
rural areas.

Ø Concrete poles: Concrete poles are more expensive than wood poles
but cheaper than steel tubular poles. Concrete poles are of three types:

− Pre-cast cement concrete poles (PCC) made of cement

concrete;

− Reinforced cement concrete poles (RCC);

− Pre-stressed cement concrete poles (PSCC).

The low maintenance, competitive price and aesthetic appearance of

PCC poles makes them superior to steel or wood for use in electric
lines. Ease and speed of installation means faster project completion
and lower installation cost. RCC poles have an extremely long life and
need little maintenance but they are bulky in size and comparatively
heavy. They have shattering tendency when hit by a vehicle. PSCC
poles take care of these shortcomings to some extent. However, the
handling, transportation and erection of these poles is more difficult
because of their heavy weight.

Ø Steel poles: The steel poles are of the following types:

− Steel tubular poles whose specifications are covered by

IS:2713-1967. Due to their light weight, high strength to weight
ratio and long life, they possess distinct advantages over other
types of poles. The use of a pole cap at the top, concrete muff
in the ground and regular coating of paint prolongs their life.

− Old and second hand rails and Rolled Steel (RS) joists are
frequently used as supports for overhead lines. The portion
embedded in the ground should be protected by concrete muff
and the remaining portion by regular paint unless galvanised
steel is used.

Ø Lattice type supports: These are fabricated from narrow base steel
structures. They are light in weight and economical and can be
assembled at site if bolted construction is used. Normally both welded
and bolted types are used.

• Cross-arms

The shape and length of the cross-arms depend upon the desired
configuration of conductors. The following types of cross-arms and
brackets are used:

− V cross-arms for tangent locations with clamps; 61

Operation and
Maintenance − double channel cross-arms for tension or cut point locations where
double poles are used; and

− top clamps.

Cross-arms of hand wood (sisso, sal), or creosoted soft wood (chir) or

fibre glass are mostly used. Steel cross-arms are stronger and last much
longer. MS angle iron and channel iron sections are generally used for this
purpose. Smaller sections are used for communication circuits.

• Insulators

You have learnt that an electrical insulator resists the flow of electricity.
Application of a voltage difference across a good insulator results in
negligible electrical current. Insulators made of glazed porcelain, tough
glass and polymers are used for supporting the conductors. Porcelain
insulators prevent the electrical current from energizing the power pole.

The principal types of insulator are described below:

− Pin insulators are manufactured for voltages up to 33 kV and are

Fig. 5.11: Pin Type Insulator
cheaper than the other types. IS:1445 and 731 cover detailed
specifications for these. The pins for the insulators are fixed in the
holes provided in the cross-arms and pole top brackets. The
insulators are mounted over the pins and tightened. The cost of pin
insulators increases very rapidly as the working voltage is increased.
For high voltages these insulators are uneconomical. Moreover,
replacements are expensive.

− Disc insulators are made of glazed porcelain or tough glass. They

are used as insulators on high voltage lines for suspension and dead
ending.The line conductor is suspended below the point of support by
means of the insulator or a string of insulators. A disc insulator
consists of a single disc-shaped piece of porcelain, grooved on the
under-surface to increase the surface leakage path between the metal
cap at the top and the metal pin underneath. The cap is recessed so
Fig. 5.12: Disc Type as to take the pin of another unit, and in this way a string of any
Insulator 11 kV required number of units can be built up. The cap is secured to the
insulator by means of cement. Disc insulators are “ball and socket” or
“tongue and clevis” type. A suspension clamp is used to support the
conductor, if suspension configuration of the line is chosen.

− Shackle insulators are used for distribution lines dead ending

and supporting conductors laid in vertical formation. IS:1445-1977
covers shackle insulators for voltages below 1000 V. The two
standard sizes listed in this specification are 90 mm dia x 75 mm
height and 115 mm dia x 100 mm height. A shackle insulator is
supported by either two straps and two MS bolts or one U clamp or
D strap and two MS bolts as per IS:7935.

− Stay insulator/Guy strain insulators of egg type porcelain

62 are used for insulating stay wire, guard wires, etc. wherever it is not
 Substation
proposed to earth them. As per IS: 5300, two strength sizes (ultimate Equipment and
tensile strength) are used: 44 kN and 88 kN, respectively, for LT and Distribution
HT lines. Lines

− Stays/Guys and staying arrangement: Guys of stranded steel wire

are used on all terminal, angle and other such poles where the
conductors have a tendency to pull the pole away from its true vertical
position. The guys are fastened to the poles near the load centre point
with the help of pole clamps. The other end of the guy/stay is secured
to a stay rod embedded in the ground. The stay rod should be located
as far away as possible.
• Earthing Knob

The earthing knob is used for supporting the neutral-cum-earth wire used
for earthing of metal parts of supporting structures of low-tension lines,
i.e., 400/230 V lines. The knob is generally made of cast iron 52x42 mm
and its electrical resistance is not to exceed 200 mega ohms. Moreover,
the breaking strength at the neck of the knob is not to be less than
11,500 kg when force is applied.

• Earthing Coil
Two types of earthing arrangements are used. One is with GI pipe and the
other is with GI wire. In case of GI pipe earthing, 40 mm dia and 2500 mm
long pipe is used for earthing of supports and fittings. GI wire is used for
earthing of lines. Generally 8 SWG wire with 115 turns, 50 mm dia and
1500 mm length is used.

• Strain Hardware Set

The conductor is strung between sections through a strain hardware set. It
is fixed with the last disc of the string of disc insulator. It is made from
malleable iron or aluminium alloy. Alloy hardware is preferable as the
losses are less.
• Conductors

Conductor represents 30 − 50% of the installed cost of the line. All

aluminium conductors (AAC), all aluminium alloy conductors (AAAC) and
aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) are generally used.
Technical specifications of conductors are covered in IS: 398. These
conductors are of standard construction and the ultimate tensile strength
of the whole conductor is based on the total strand strength.

• Line Accessories
This is the associated equipment required for fastening the conductors to
supports and taking off the power or supply points such as joints material,
clamps and compounds. For lines up to 33 kV, the following fittings are
used:

♦ Conductor dead-end fittings

− LT conductor dead-end grips, 63

Operation and
Maintenance
− guy grips dead-end,
− service grips,
− full tension splices,
− distribution ties,
− side ties,
− spool ties,
− tee connectors,
− lashing rods, and
− line guards.
Preformed fittings made of aluminium alloy are used as it saves cost,
labour and time. It also eliminates chances of error of judgment. No
tools are required. These fittings are fast and simple to apply and
assure uniformity of application every time.
♦ Joints should conform to IE Rule 75. For conductors up to
50mm2, crimped joints are made with simple hand crimping tools
and for higher sizes, compression type or hydraulic type crimping
tools are used. Joints are of the following types:
− uni-joints/ compression joints,
− twisting joints,
− two part compression joints, and
− dead-end joints.
♦ Insulator ties secure the conductor to the insulator. In general, the
tie wire should be the same kind of wire as the line wire, i.e., for
tying aluminium conductors on insulators, aluminium wire should
be used. The tie should be made of soft annealed wire so that it is
not brittle and does not injure the line conductor.
♦ Taps and jumpers are made by various accessories, which are
not subjected to mechanical tension. Tapping should be taken off
only at a point of line support.
• Guard Wires
Guard wires are to be used at all points where a line crosses a street,
road or railway line, other power lines, telecommunication lines,
canals, rivers, along the road and public places. As per IE Rule 88,
guard wires of galvanized steel of minimum 4 mm dia having breaking
strength not less than 635 kg should be used.
• LT Line Spacers
Very often clashing of LT conductors in the mid span takes place due
to sag, wind and longer spans. This results in faults and interruptions.
Spacers are provided to overcome this problem.
You may like to revise the information given in this section before
64
studying further.
 Substation
Equipment and
SAQ 3: Overhead lines Distribution
Lines

List the equipment being used for construction of overhead distribution

lines in your utility. Describe the types of supports and insulators being
used for construction of lines.

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

5.4.2 Underground Power Cables

Due to the fast growth in load densities in major towns and cities, 33 kV, 11 kV
and LT underground cables are being used to meet the ever growing demand
of electric power. The underground cable system has attained
considerable importance in distribution networks. This is because in
towns and cities, almost all roads are already occupied by LT, HT overhead
lines, telephone lines, street lights, advertising boards, etc., on either side of
the roads. Further, high-rise buildings make it difficult to go for overhead
systems for sub-transmission or distribution. Moreover, the overhead system
with bare conductors is prone to frequent breakdowns causing interruption in
power supply. Uninterrupted power supply can be maintained by employing
underground cable ring system. The underground cabling system is
particularly important for metropolitan cities, city centres, airports and defence
services.

Underground distribution costs are between 2 to 10 times that of the overhead

system. Yet, it is preferred due to elimination of outages caused by abnormal
weather conditions such as snow, rain, storms, lightning, fires, stress,
accidents, etc. Moreover, this system is environment-friendly and has a long
life. In addition, improved cable technology has reduced the maintenance cost
of the underground system compared to the overhead system. We
summarise the main reasons for underground cable systems in Box 5.1.

Box 5.1: Reasons for Having Underground Cables

Ø The right of way for erecting overhead systems is no longer available;

Ø It is possible to extend the supply from source to load centres on any

route profile;

Ø Fairly uninterrupted and reliable power supply can be maintained;

and

Ø Aesthetic beauty of the town/city as a whole can be ensured.

65
Operation and
Maintenance We now describe, in brief, the selection criteria, sizing, jointing and
terminating of underground cables.
• Selection of Cable
The following factors influence the selection of cable:
− load;
− system voltage;
− type of insulation;
− short circuit rating;
− mode of installation; and
− economy and safety.
For the same conductor size, the maximum continuous current
carrying capacity depends on the depth of laying, ground temperature,
silicon oil resistivity, ambient temperature, proximity of other cables,
type of ducts used. Paper Insulated Lead Covered, PVC and XLPE
cables are being used. Depending upon the voltage at which the
power is transmitted or distributed, the cables are designed as
follows:

1. EHV Cables 66 kV and above

2. Medium and HV Cables 3.3 kV to 33 KV
3. LT Cables up to 1100 V

• Sizing of Cables

The sizing of cables depends on the following factors:

− current carrying capacity,
− short circuit current,
− voltage drop, and
− losses.
• Jointing and Terminations
Cables are laid in lengths supplied over reels. Cable extensions are made
through joints and terminated at the ends to connect them to the system
for use. Since the cable consists of many items right from the conductors
to the outer sheath, all joints are to be made as straight through joints
so that each joint has the same features/characteristics of the original
cable.
Straight jointing is ensured by providing:
− core continuity;
− stress controlling screens;
− insulation;
− continuity of earth potential parts of the cable by clamping and running
66 the earth lead;
 Substation
− mechanical protection by installing the brass or aluminium covers; and Equipment and
− finishing over the mechanical protective cover. Distribution
Lines
Cable ends are terminated by providing:
− stress control screens;
− the earthing clamp lead, etc.;
− insulation;
− lugs; and
− rain sheds.

While making joints and terminations, it is essential to know the size and
type of the cable in order to select appropriate kits for joints and
terminations. The kits contain the accessories required along with
instruction sheets for step-by-step procedure for making joints and
terminations. The cable and end terminations should be prepared as per
the dimensional drawing and procedure given in the instruction sheet.
Types of Joints and Terminations
The joint is considered to be the weakest link in the system but the overall
reliability of a distribution system depends on it. Therefore, jointing
accessories and techniques have an important and critical role
despite their comparative low value in the overall investment.
The following types of joints and terminations are used:
− cast iron moulded,
− epoxy resin type,
− heat shrinkable,
− cold shrinkable, and
− ‘push on’ type.
The heat shrinkable, cold shrinkable and ‘push on’ type joints and
terminations do not need any setting time and can be taken into service
immediately.

SAQ 4: Underground cables

List the reasons for using underground cables. State the selection
criteria, sizing, jointing and terminating of underground cables.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

So far, we have discussed the construction of the substation equipment and

distribution lines. In the next two sections, you will learn about the general
O&M practices for these components of the power distribution system.
67
Operation and
Maintenance 5.5 O&M PRACTICES FOR SUBSTATION
EQUIPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION LINES

Planned maintenance schedules for various components of the power

distribution systems are carefully drawn up by the power distribution utility
even before the installation work is completed. During plant shut-downs for
overall maintenance and before re-energisation, the sub-transmission and
distribution plants are subjected to certain inspection and testing procedures.
This also applies to the cable route that has been de-energised for a long
period of time. Such planned shut down of the plant to be tested and network
reconfiguration ensure continuity of supply to consumers while the testing
takes place.

The power distribution utility must formulate such planned outage schemes at
different times of the year (depending upon the load demands) for different
maintenance periods in such a fashion that consumer supply is least affected.
NOTE
This also involves putting in place a system for handling customer complaints
Source: Special report about power supply breakdowns.
on CEA website
“Guidelines for Project Customer Relationship Management System
Management and
Performance Evaluation A trouble call management facility should be provided to attend to the power
of Sub-transmission and supply interruptions promptly and to improve the reliability of power supply as
Distribution Project”. well as minimise the down time. It should also attend to fuse off calls promptly
as well as the complaints of the customer on quality of supply. A computer
based facility provided in the substation/complaint attending centre would
certainly improve this aspect of O&M.

We now describe some general maintenance practices for the substation

equipment and distribution lines.

5.5.1 General Maintenance Practices

There are two aspects of general maintenance:

v Firstly, replacement of the parts that are worn out during the
normal operation must be carried out from time to time.

v Secondly, preventive maintenance should be carried out for

detecting deterioration and mal-operation of the system
components.

In the daily operation of the substation it is the duty of the attendant to inspect
the equipment externally and remedy any abnormality that does not require
disconnection of the apparatus. During this inspection, a watch is required to
be kept for deposits of dust and dirt on the equipment, heating of contacts,
joint or some part, low oil level and oil leakages, etc. Checks should also be
made to ensure that
• the locks and doors of the switch house are in good condition,
68 • no leaks have developed in the roof,
 Substation
• the ventilating and heating systems are operating normally, Equipment and
• the prescribed safety aids are in place and in good order, Distribution
Lines
• the earthing connections remain unbroken,
• the packing of the cables entering or leaving a cable trench or tunnel
within the premises are intact,
• the ventilating louvers are not damaged, and
• the access roads leading to the oil filled apparatus are unobstructed,
and will allow the approach of the fire engines in the event of an oil fire
during an emergency.

On-line inspection and testing is normally limited to visual, external and

physical examination in order to ensure that the plant is in a safe
condition. Infra-red detectors must be used periodically for inspection of
overhead lines and open terminal, substation bus-bars for hot spots caused by
faulty terminals. In addition, live line washing techniques are also available
for cleaning overhead lines or open terminal substation insulators.
Purified water with a high resistance value is used in a fine spray fitted from
well-earthed nozzle. Functional testing and trip schemes require special
switching arrangements initially to reconfigure the power system network.

Switchgear site tests during operational maintenance stage vary from utility
to utility depending upon the quality of upkeep of the equipment and
environmental conditions of the site. These generally involve the following
checks and tests:
• General checks include inspection and checking of
− the tightness of terminal connection, piping junctions and bolted joints;
− painting and corrosion protection;
− cleanliness;
− cracking and chipping of bushings;
− foundation bolts; and
− lubrication of contacts and moving parts of the circuit breakers.
• Electrical circuit checks include checking of
− insulation check;
− dielectric strength of the insulating oil;
− level of the oil;
− quality of SF6 gas/ insulating medium such as humidity content, filling
pressure or density except for sealed apparatus;
− leakage of oil, etc.
• Mechanical tests include
− inspection of operating circuits (hydraulic, pneumatic, spring charged)
and consumption during operation; 69
Operation and
Maintenance
− verification of correct rated operating sequence (recharging, etc).

• Time checks include checking and adjustment of

− track alignment and interlocking mechanism;
− closing and opening times;
− operation and control of auxiliary circuits;
− recharging time of operating mechanism after specified sequence;
and
− other specific operations.

• Electric tests include

− dielectric tests; and
− testing of the resistance of main circuit.

If the substation is constantly attended, the rounds of switchgear are usually

planned for each shift so that all the equipment will be looked at least once a
day. Equipment is also inspected immediately after a trip out.

Substation switchgear requires regular cleaning in accordance with its design,

type of insulation, the degree of pollution of the atmosphere or ambient air,
etc. The frequency of cleaning depends upon the type of layout of the
apparatus and insulators. However, cleaning must be done during each
preventive maintenance activity.

Even though the vacuum switchgear does not require elaborate maintenance
like the oil insulated switchgear, it is still necessary to make periodic routine
inspection. The absence of ionized gas and carbon during interruption
removes the major source of insulation contamination.

5.5.2 Maintenance of Lines

Pre-monsoon inspection of all 33 kV lines should be completed between
January and March every year after obtaining due approvals for pre-arranged
shut downs for the entire programme.

The staff responsible for the pre-monsoon inspection should carry all the
necessary equipment such as ropes, petroleum jelly, cotton waste and
sufficient O&M materials like insulators, discs, nuts for the pins, binding wire,
etc.

In the routine maintenance practices, all the tree clearances are done
and all the minor defects like damaged insulators, improper pin binding,
loose jumpering and loose stays are rectified during the inspection itself. All
the insulators are cleaned, all AB switches are lubricated and defective blades
replaced. The defects that may take considerable time for rectification are
noted down and attended within the next one week. Examples are insertion of
poles, replacement of damaged conductors, replacement of damaged
supports, etc.

Periodical patrolling of 33 kV lines has to be done on a monthly basis. The

70
 Substation
patrolling is also done and suspected defects rectified, whenever the line trips Equipment and
on fault. One of the major precautions to be kept in mind by the maintenance Distribution
staff is to take the permit to work or line clear to work on distribution lines. Lines

Procedure for Permit to Work (Line Clear)

A line clear or a permit to work (PTW) on any electrical equipment or line is

issued by an authorised person to another authorised person. If there are
more than one gangs working under the same supervisor, each gang takes
sub-line clears from the supervisor who has taken the line clear. In case, the
line clear has to be issued for the supervisor, s/he takes self line clear. In this
case also, all the precautions that are to be followed in issue and return of line
clear are followed.

Line clear books are very important records. Pages in these books are serially
numbered and no paper from this book is used for any other purpose. If any
page is to be destroyed, the custodian specifically mentions the reasons for
doing so. It is attested by his/her dated signature. The line clear books are
reviewed periodically by the Competent Authority.

Line clear can be issued/received over telephone. It is desirable that the

issuer/receiver recognise each other’s voice. The requisition for line clear and
the line clear issue messages are repeated by both the parties to ensure that
line clears are issued/received on the equipment on which it is intended. A
secret code number is followed in such cases. You may like to revisit Units 6
and 7 of the course BEE-002 for the details.

5.5.3 Operation and Maintenance of Capacitors

A routine check of the capacitor performance is made by measuring current
with the help of Ammeter/Tong tester once in two months and the record is
maintained. If any reduction in current /failure of capacitor is noticed, supplier/
manufacturers must be contacted immediately and replacement of capacitor
initiated.

The status of the capacitor is determined by the voltage at the highest voltage
bus available at the substation. It is subject to the maximum permissible
voltage at the bus on which the capacitor bank is connected and the loading
factor. The loading factor is the ratio of the total MVA load on the bus at which
the capacitor is installed to the MVAR rating of the capacitor. Accordingly, the
switching on/off of the capacitor bank is done as per Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Voltage of Highest Level at the Substation

Voltage of Highest Level at the Substation (kV)

System Voltage
Above Between Below
For 220 kV level 230 230 - 220 220- 215 215- 205 205

For 132 kV level 140 140 - 130 132 - 128 128 - 122 122

For 66 kV level 70 70 - 68 68 - 65 65 - 60 60

For 33 kV level 30 35 - 34 34 - 32 32 - 30 30
71
Operation and
The loading factor and the status of capacitor switch are given in Table 5.2.
Maintenance

Table 5.2: Loading Factor and the Status of Capacitor Switch

Loading Factor Status of Capacitor Switch

Above 2 Off Status-Quo On On On

Between 1 to 2 Off Off Status-Quo On On

Below 1 Off Off Off Status-Quo On

LV bus voltage is controlled by changing transformer taps. Notwithstanding

the above, if the voltage at the bus on which capacitor is connected is 1.1 per
unit or higher, the capacitor is switched off.

5.5.4 Hot Line Maintenance

Work performed on transmission and distribution lines while they are
energized and in service is called hot line maintenance. Hot line tools are
all types of tools mounted on insulated poles used to maintain energized high
voltage lines and other safety equipment. Insulated disconnect stick,
wire-holding stick, auxiliary arm, cross-arm mount, pole mount, wire tong,
saddles,flexible line hose and hoist link stick are some of the hot line tools
in use.

When working with energized power lines, linemen must use protection to
eliminate any contact with the energized line. Some distribution-level voltages
can be worked using rubber gloves. The limit of how high a voltage can be
worked using rubber gloves varies from company to company according to
different safety standards and local laws. You may like to refer to Units 6
and 7, Block 2 (BEE-002) for more information.

72 Fig. 5.13: Hot Line Maintenance

 Substation
Voltages higher than those (which can be worked using gloves) are worked Equipment and
with special sticks known as hot-line tools, with which power lines can be Distribution
safely handled from a distance. Linemen must also wear special rubber Lines
insulating gear when working with live wires to protect against any accidental
contact with the wire. The buckets from which linemen sometimes work are
also insulated using rubber.

For high voltage and extra-high voltage transmission lines, specially trained
personnel use so-called “live-line” techniques to allow hands-on contact with
energized equipment. In this case, the worker is electrically connected to the
high voltage line so that he is at the same electrical potential. The lineman
wears special conductive clothing which is connected to the live power line, at
an instant such that the line and the lineman are at the same potential allowing
the lineman to handle the wire safely. Since training for such operations is
lengthy, and still presents a danger to personnel, only very important
transmission lines are the objects of live-line maintenance practices.

SAQ 5: Hot line maintenance

a) At which line voltages do personnel in your company carry out the

maintenance work using
i) rubber gloves, and
ii) hot-line tools?
b) Explain the live-line maintenance technique.
…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………..

5.6 LENGTH OF LT LINES, HT:LT RATIO AND

IMPACT ON LOSSES AND VOLTAGE

The ratio of primary line length to its concerned secondary distribution line
length is one of the important factors that influence the performance of
primary distribution. Over the years, large scale expansion of the urban
system and rural electrification programme in the country has resulted in
considerable expansion of Low Tension (LT) distribution network. The size of
the distribution transformers has been constantly increasing to meet the
increasing demand due to load growth.

As a result, the length of LT lines/circuits is also increasing resulting in high

losses in LT lines, excessive voltage drops, frequent faults on LT network and
higher rate of failure of distribution transformers. This has also resulted in very
large length of LT lines as compared to High Tension (HT) lines resulting in
high LT/ HT ratios. The ratio of LT to HT lines in our country has been of the
order of 3. This results in high losses and low voltages at the consumer end.
73
Operation and
Maintenance
5.6.1 Impact of Increasing HT Lines
Increasing HT lines can help in reducing both line losses and voltage drops.
Reduction in Line Losses
In the low voltage distribution system, supply at low voltages with long LT lines
using smaller conductor sizes causes high line losses. However, the loss in
HV system for the distribution of the same power is less than 1% of the LV
system. Hence, with HV system the total energy losses are considerably
reduced.
Reduction in Voltage Drops
The voltage drop in LV lines is very high as the lines are long and have smaller
conductor sizes. In HV distribution systems, the voltage drop for the
distribution of same quantum of power is less than 1% as against that in low
voltage distribution system. This ensures proper voltage profile at the
consumer end.
All other parameters, like load factor, power factor, etc., remaining the same,
the percentage losses in a system having higher LT/HT ratio will be
higher than in a system having lower LT/HT ratio. A ratio of 1 to 1.2 would
be very beneficial to power distribution. As this measure is a must to improve
efficiency and voltage regulation of distribution, additional capital investment
should not come in the way.

With this discussion on the impact of increasing HT lines on reduction in line

losses and voltage drops, we now end the unit and summarise its contents.

5.7 SUMMARY

• In the overall power development scenario, the Transmission and

Distribution system constitutes the essential link between power
generating sources and the ultimate consumers and substations and lines
have to be erected for providing quality power supply.
• The main equipment used in a substation comprises structures,
transformers, bus-bars, circuit breakers, isolators, earthing switches,
lightning arrestors, substation batteries, fire extinguishing equipment, etc.
Overhead distribution lines and underground cables (in urban areas) carry
power to the end-user.
• There are two aspects of general maintenance: replacement of parts
that are worn out from time to time and preventive maintenance for
detecting deterioration and mal-operation of the system components.
Periodic checks and tests should be carried as per specified procedures,
which may vary from utility to utility depending upon the site conditions.
• Special hot line maintenance techniques and tools are required for
maintaining live lines.
• Due to increasing LT lines in the distribution system, losses, excessive
74 voltage drops and frequent faults have resulted in the LT network leading to
 Substation
a higher rate of failure of distribution transformers. The high LT/HT ratios Equipment and
result in high losses and low voltages at the consumer end. An LT/HT ratio Distribution
of 1 or 1.2 is preferable. Lines

5.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Describe the equipment required for the construction of a 66-33/11 kV

substation.

2. Describe the equipment required for the construction of a 11/0.4 kV

distribution substation.

3. What equipment is required for the construction of an overhead

distribution line?

4. Distinguish between current and voltage transformers.

5. List the different types of underground cables in use today. What criteria
are used for the selection of these cables?

6. State the precautions that need to be taken in jointing and terminating

underground cables.

7. Give reasons why underground cabling is being opted for in urban areas.
What are its advantages?

8. Explain hot line maintenance techniques and tools.

9. Explain the impact of LT/HT ratio on losses and voltage.

75
Operation and
Maintenance

76